CHAPTER 7

ELECTROMAGNETIC Wave
propagation
 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation

How Maxwell Fixed Ampe re’s Law

The differential form of basic laws of electricity and magnetism are as follows :
  
(i)   E  (Gauss’s law) (ii)   B  0 (no name)
0

 B  
(iii)   E   (Faraday’s law) (iv)  B  0 J (Ampere’s law)
t
Let us take the divergence of Eq. (iii), i.e.

  B   
  ( E )         (  B)
 t  t
The left side is zero because divergence of curl is zero; and right side is zero by virtue of Eq. (ii).
Again let us take divergence of Eq. (iv), i.e.
  
  ( B)    (0 J )  0 (  J )

The left side is zero as it is divergence of curl of B . But as we know from continuity equation,
 
 J   0 ; the right hand term is in general not equal to zero. So for related fields, the Eq. (iv)
t
is not correct and it has to be modified.
 
Maxwell corrected this equation by adding something to J . Let it be called J d , then
  
  B  0 ( J  J d )
  
or,   (  B)  0 (  J    J d )
 
or, 0 = 0 (  J    J d )

     E
or,   J d    J   ( 0  E )     0
t t t

 E
 Jd  0
t

Thus, the modified form of Ampere’s law is


  E 
 B  0  J   0 
 t 

  E
  B  0 J  0 0 (v)
t
 
 E
The added term J d   0 is called the displacement current or displacement current density.
t

To check the modified equation, let us take divergence of Eq. (v) i.e.
   
  ( B)  0  J  0 0 (  E )
t
   
or,   ( B)  0  J  0 ( 0  E )
t
  
or,   ( B)  0  J  0
t
    
or,  ( B)  0   J 
 t 

The left side is zero as it is divergence of curl of B . And as we know from continuity equation,
 
 J   0 ; so the right hand term is in general equal to zero.
t
Thus, Eq. (v) is the correct form of Ampere’s law.

Note:
Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction:

  E
 B  0 J  0 0
t

A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.

The statement established by Maxwell: Time varying electric field induces a magnetic field.
Maxwell’s Equations
Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law after Maxwell’s correction shows the connection between
electricity and magnetism. So, there is complete set of four equations; called the Maxwell’s
equations or electromagnetic field equations. In absence of dielectrics or magnetic materials,
Maxwell’s equations are
 
i)   E 
0

ii)   B  0

 B
iii)   E  
t

  E
iv)  B  0 J  0 0 (Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction)
t

Maxwell’s Equations in Matter

When we are working with materials that are subject to electric and magnetic polarization there is
a more convenient way to write Maxwell’s equations.

An electric polarization P produces a bound charge density

b    P

Likewise, a magnetic polarization M results in a bound current
 
J b   M

The time rate of change of electric polarization P is called the polarization current density denoted

by J p and given by

 P
Jp 
t
In matter, the total charge density can be written as

   f  b [where,  f is charge density due to free charges]


    f    P ……………. (1)
And total current density is
   
J  J f  Jb  J p

  P
or, J  J f  ( M )  ……………… (2)
t
Now from Gauss’s law in electrostatics,
 
E 
0

or,  0  E  
 
or,   ( 0 E )   f    P ; using (1)
 
or,   ( 0 E )    P   f
 
or,   [ 0 E  P]   f
   
 D  f  where D   0 E  P 
 

Similarly, Ampere’s law is


  E
  B   0 J   0 0
t

1   E
or, (  B)  J   0
0 t

1      ( 0 E )
or, (  B)  J f  J b  J p 
0 t

1    P  
or, (  B)  J f    M   ( 0 E )
0 t t

B     
or,      M  J f  [ P   0 E ]
0 t
 
 B    D
or,     M   J f 
 0  t
 
  D   B     
  H  J f   H   M and D   0 E  P 
t  0 
Hence Maxwell’s equations in matter become

  B
D  f  E  
t

   D
B  0  H  J f 
t
Energy in electromagnetic field
(Poynting theore m / Poynting’s vector)
The total energy stored in electromagnetic fields is

 1 1 2
U em     0 E 2  B  d ..................... (1)
 2 0 
V


Suppose we have some charge and current configuration which, at time t , produces fields E and

B. In the next interval, dt , the charges move around a bit.
According to the Lorentz force law,
the work done, dw , by the electromagnetic forces acting on a charge dq is
     
dw  F  dl  dq ( E  v  B)  dl
     
 dq ( E  v  B)  v dt  E  v dq dt

The rate of total work done on all the charges in a volume V is

dW    
  E  J d  dq   d and  v  J 
 
dt V

…………………… (2)
From Ampere-Maxwell law

  E
  B   0 J   0 0
t

 1  E
J 
0
 
  B  0
t


     E
Now, E  J  E  (  B)   0 E 
t

1      E      
  B  (  E )    ( E  B)    0 E     ( E  B)  B  (  E )  E  (  B) 
0   t  
  
1    B      E   B 
 B       ( E  B)    0 E     E   ; Faraday's law 
0   t   t  t 
1  1 B  1 2   1 E 2
      ( E  B)   0
0  2 t  0 2 t
  1  1 2 1  
 EJ   
 0 E 2
 B     ( E  B) ............... (3)
2 t  0  0
Putting this into Eq. (2), we get

dW   1   1 2 1   
   0E  B    ( E  B ) d
2

dt   2 t  0  0 
V

1 d  1 2 1  
= 0E  B  d     ( E  B )d
2

2 dt   0 0 V

V

1 d  1 2 1   
  0E 
2
B  d   ( E  B)  da using the divergence theorem
2 dt   0  0 S
V

dW dU em     1   

dt

dt 

S
S  da  Poynting vector , S 
 0
( E  B) 


……………. (4)
where S is the surface bounding V .
This is Poynting’s theorem; it is “the work-ene rgy theorem” of electrodynamics.
Poynting’s theorem says that “the work done on the charges by the electromagnetic field is equal
to the decrease in energy stored in the field, less the energy which is flowed out through the
surface”.
Poynting’s theore m:

dW dU em  
dt

dt S  da
 S

d d   umech  mechanical energy density 

dt V dt V S  da
or , u d   u d   S u 
 em  energy density of the fields 
mech em

d  
or ,   umech  uem  d    S  da
S
dt V

d

or ,   umech  uem  d      S d
dt V V


 
  umech  uem     S
t

This is the differential version of Poynting’s theorem.

Poynting’s vector:
The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the fields is called the Poynting’s vector

denoted by S .
 1  
S ( E  B) The SI unit of Poynting's vector is Js 1m2or Wm2 . 
0
 Electromagnetic Waves in vacuum
 
The Wave Equations for E and B

In regions of space where there is no free charge and current i.e. 𝜌 = 0 and J  0 ; the Maxwell’s
equations read

 E  0 (1)

 B  0 (2)

 B
 E   (3)
t

 E
  B  0 0 (4)
t
Taking curl of Eq. (3), we get

 B
 ( E )  
t

  ( B)
or, (  E )   E  
2

t

  E
2
  2 E  0 0 2 (5)
t
Again taking curl of Eq. (4), we get

 E
 ( B)  0 0
t

  ( E )
or, (  B)   B  0 0
2

t

  B
2
  2 B  0 0 2 (6)
t
 
In vacuum, then, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies the three-dimensional wave
equation,

1 2 f
 f  2 2
2
(7)
v t
where v is velocity of wave.
So Maxwell’s equations imply that empty space supports the propagation of electromagnetic
waves, travelling at a speed
1
v  3 108 m  s-1
0 0
This is velocity of electromagnetic waves.
 Example

A capacitor made from parallel circular plates, of radius a and separation s , is inserted into
a long straight wire carrying curre nt I. As the capacitor charges up, find the induced
magnetic field midway between the plates, at a distance r ( r  a ) from the center.

Solution:

As the capacitor charges up, the electric field between the capacitor plates (which are very close
together) is
1 1 Q 1 Q
E    where Q is the charge on the plate and A   a 2 is its area.
0 0 A 0  a 2

The displacement current density is

E  1  I  E 1 dQ 1 
Jd  0  0  I  2  between the plates,   I
t   0 a  a t  0 a dt  0 a 2
2 2
 

Consider an Amperian circular loop centered to the wire, parallel to the plate and of radius r.

Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction, in integral form is


   E    
 B  dl  0 I enc  0 0   t   da   0I enc  0  J d  da
 B(2 r )  0  0 J d  r 2  loop doesn't enclose conduction current,so I enc  0
1  I  2
B 0  r
2 r   a 
2

0 I
 B r
2 a 2