Research Methods in Education (8604)

SPRING 2020

ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Define sample and why is it needed in research? Explain different sampling designs.
Sampling definition: Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to
make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling
methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire
population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and hence
forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can be used in a research survey software for
optimum derivation.
For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on the country’s
population, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves everyone. In this case, the
researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and then researches them, giving him/her
indicative feedback on the drug’s behavior.
Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Let’s take a
closer look at these two methods of sampling.
1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection
of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity
to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.
2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research
at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all
elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods that you can implement
in any market research study.
Types of probability sampling with examples:
Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population
using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the
population and forms samples based on a fixed process.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to
be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates bias in the population and gives all members a fair chance
to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:
 Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time
and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information
where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the
same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building
activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500
employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into
sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on
demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive
effective inference from the feedback.
For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the
 Course: Research Methods in Education (8604)
Semester: Spring, 2020

Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida,
Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results
will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.
 Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members
of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size
that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and hence this
sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000.
He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a
part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
 Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides
the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling,
these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual
income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than $20,000,
$21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the
characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups
to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.
Uses of probability sampling
There are multiple uses of probability sampling. They are:
 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived from a
population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly depicts the understanding and the
inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the sample
appropriately represents the population.
 Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For example, if Square would like to
understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample of
people across the US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an accurate
sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.
Types of non-probability sampling with examples
The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a researcher
or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, the output
of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the desired
target population. But, there are situations such as the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for
conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more useful than the other type.
Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better manner:
 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying
customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, because of
the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no
authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not representativeness.
This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback.
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In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling
is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of
upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out
pamphlets randomly.
 Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the discretion of
the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding of the
target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of people interested in
studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in
…?” and those who respond with a “No” are excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects
are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal
immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to interview and
derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling method in situations where the topic is highly
sensitive and not openly discussed—for example, surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many
victims will readily respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or
volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling:  In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens
based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created
sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.
Uses of non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is used for the following:
 Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an assumption
when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the immediate return of data and
builds a base for further research.
 Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting qualitative
research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time constraints,
and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it is easier to pick
respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.
How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?
For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The
effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors. Here are some steps expert researchers follow to decide
the best sampling method.
 Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a combination of cost, precision, or accuracy.
 Identify the effective sampling techniques that might potentially achieve the research goals.
 Test each of these methods and examine whether they help in achieving your goal.
 Select the method that works best for the research.

We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To encapsulate the whole
discussion, though, the significant differences between probability sampling methods and non-probability
sampling methods are as below:
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Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling Non-probability sampling is a sampling
technique in which samples from a larger technique in which the researcher selects
Definition
population are chosen using a method samples based on the researcher’s subjective
based on the theory of probability. judgment rather than random selection.
Alternatively
Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method
Known as
Population
The population is selected randomly. The population is selected arbitrarily.
selection
Nature The research is conclusive. The research is exploratory.
Since there is a method for deciding the Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the
Sample sample, the population demographics are population demographics representation is
conclusively represented. almost always skewed.

Takes longer to conduct since the

This type of sampling method is quick since
research design defines the selection
Time Taken neither the sample or selection criteria of the
parameters before the market research
sample are undefined.
study begins.
This type of sampling is entirely This type of sampling is entirely biased and
Results unbiased and hence the results are hence the results are biased too, rendering
unbiased too and conclusive. the research speculative.

In probability sampling, there is an

In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis
underlying hypothesis before the study
Hypothesis is derived after conducting the research
begins and the objective of this method is
study.
to prove the hypothesis.

Q.2 Develop a research proposal on following topic: “Comparison of 8 th grade students’ achievements in
mathematics at elementary level in Rawalpindi and Islamabad.
Introduction
For many mathematics teachers, the textbook is the primary guide to implementing the curriculum. Textbook
selection is a major philosophical and financial commitment by district Rawalpindis. Textbooks play a central
role in influencing mathematics learning for all students. For students to learn important mathematics, the text
guiding their learning and the teacher’s instruction must contain appropriate depth of content, encourage
effective instructional strategies, identify a clear sense of purpose, and promote student thinking (Kulm, 1999).
Many of the popular commercial textbooks used in U.S middle schools do not meet these basic criteria. Often
the content being taught and the standards being tested on state assessments do not align (Richardson, 2001).
The academic performance of American students suffer as a result. American students’ performance in
mathematics has been the target of evaluation during the past few decades. Concerns about the poor
performance of American students, based on evidence from national and international studies (Baker, 1997;
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Beaton, Mullis, Martin, Bonzales, Kelly & Smith, 1997; Kilpatrick, 1992; Kilpatrick, 1997; National Research
Council, 1989; Schmidt, McKnight, & Raizen, 1996; Stevenson, 1998) have led to mathematics educational
reform efforts including the development of new curriculum materials.
Background/Statement of the Problem
The adoption of a standards based mathematics program in the public schools district Rawalpindi brought about
numerous changes for administrators, teachers, students, and parents of elementary and middle school age
children.
Rationale of the Study
The typical mathematics curriculum of a generation ago emphasized teaching facts, standard procedures, and
skills to groups of passive recipients (Suydam, 1990). Students today must compete in a continually growing
and technologically changing global economy in which science, mathematics, and technology skills are
essential. The mathematics a person needs to know has shifted and a more integrated, child centered curriculum
presented to more active, participating students has emerged in the past decade in response to deteriorating
public confidence in the quality of American education (Brosnan, 1993).
Research Questions
The quantitative analysis of this study focused on the following research questions: 1. Is there a significant
difference in mathematics achievement among students who have had CMP for one, two, or three years as
measured by the TCAP?
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate the subsequent impact on student achievement for various
subgroups of the population.
Significance of the Study
In recent years, the students in our country have begun to show improvement in the area of mathematics. The
1997 average SAT scores were at the highest level since 1972 (Burrill, 1998). Scores on the National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in 1996 for fourth, eighth, and twelfth grade students, in the area
of mathematics, indicated an improvement over mathematics scores in 1990 and computation scores were
higher for fourth and eighth grades than in 1973 (Burrill, 1998). Despite these improvements, there are still
areas of great concern related to American students’ mathematics achievement, particularly in the middle grades
(Beaton, Mullins, Martin, Gonzales, Kelly, & Smith, 1997; Burrill; Stevenson, 1998). In spite of the fact that
American students in fourth grade scored above the average on the TIMSS, American students in eighth and
twelfth grades did “progressively worse” (Burrill, p.585). Mathematics curricula has been one target of blame
for the poor performance of middle school students on mathematics achievement measures. Reports from the
TIMSS study (Beaton, 1997; Schmidt, 1997) indicated that middle school mathematics curricula in our country
lack focus, provide little opportunity for students to be challenged, and cover a wide range of content with little
depth.
Connected Mathematics Project
The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded five innovations of mathematical curriculum reforms at the
middle school level: MathThematics, Connected Mathematics, Mathematics in Context, MathScape, and
Middle-School Mathematics Through Applications. Each curriculum was designed and developed by a team of
educators, teachers and mathematicians.
Background

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This newly consolidated public school district Rawalpindi in southeastern Tennessee is one of the largest school
systems in the state of Tennessee serving grades K-12 consisting of 80 schools with a total of 41,453 students.
For many years there had been two separate public school systems in this southeastern Tennessee county. Those
two systems were the City Public Schools, which was often referred to as the City system and was composed
mostly of inner city schools populated with mostly African American students; and County Department of
Education also known as the County system and was mostly suburban and rural schools where the population
was predominately Caucasian. However, County Department of Education and City Public Schools
consolidated in 1997, when the City decided to discontinue its operation of public schools (Chattanooga Times-
Free Press, 1997). Tennessee state law mandates that the County provide a free public education. Consequently,
the county, by law, had to provide education for its citizens. One of the enormous tasks for the new school
system was to provide the students of the County with the best possible education in this technological
competitive era. Many methods were discussed as to the best strategy to pursue in achieving this task. The
County decided that the best approach for the new consolidated system would to standardize the curriculum.
The first move towards standardizing the curriculum was the adoption of new mathematics programs at the
elementary and middle school levels. Influenced by research involving the NCTM generated standards, the
needed curriculum changes were considered by a committee of teachers and a curriculum specialist. The
mathematics curriculum specialist in this district Rawalpindi selected these teachers based on knowledge of
their mathematics teaching ability and willingness to participate on the mathematics textbook adoption
committee. The textbook selection committee consisted of seven middle school mathematics teachers. These
teachers varied in classroom teaching experience and represented urban, rural, and suburban schools. The
committee reviewed ten textbook series from the state of Tennessee approved textbook list. The committee
determined from current results on the mathematics section of state standardized test that middle school
students were most deficient in problem solving than any other skill. Therefore, one of the primary
considerations for the committee was to select a textbook series with a solid problem solving content (Roddy,
2003). The committee whole heartily recommended the Connected Mathematic Project as the textbook series
that should be adopted to help standardize the mathematics curriculum in middle school during this period of
reform. Curriculum reform begins with the recognition of a need for educators to change what and how they are
teaching to meet the needs of all students to achieve today’s educational goals. Teachers, parents, educators, and
all community members want to provide the best education for all students because educating citizens leads to
economic and social prosperity of our communities and our country (Brahier, 2000). The need for change in
education has been marked historically by three periods: the Post-Sputnik era, the 1960’s civil rights movement,
and the publishing of A Nation At Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform in 1983 by the National
Commission on Excellence in Education (Christensen, McDonnell, and Price, 1988).
Development of School Mathematics
Education in the United States early on was not designed for all nor was it free. However, by the end of the
nineteenth century most cities and states had established publicly supported elementary schools and the majority
of children falling within this age range attended school. Nevertheless, few cities and states had publicly
supported high schools and graduating from a high school was rare (Senk and Thompson, 2003, p. 5). In the
nineteenth century, the mathematics taught in elementary schools consisted of arithmetic with whole numbers,
fractions, decimals, and percents, broadened by work with measures of length, area, and volume (Senk and
Thompson, 2003). Secondary schools were rare during the first half of the nineteenth century and those in
existence were primarily used as college preparatory academics for males from privileged families. As the
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nineteenth century drew to a close dissatisfaction with the progression of elementary and secondary
mathematics was evident in the academic world.
Research Design
Quantitative
The basic design of this part of the study employs quantitative methodology. Therefore, using quantitative
methodology an examination of the mathematical achievement during the academic years 1999-2002 of middle
school students in a public schools system was conducted. Mathematics achievement of the 1999-2000 sixth
grade students, 2000-2001 seventh grade students, and 2001-2002 eighth grade students who completed the
indicated academic school year with mathematics using the CMP curriculum was the focus for this study. Using
existing data gleaned from the district Rawalpindi office the mathematics scores for sixth grade students were
compared to their scores as seventh and eighth graders while seventh grade students’ scores were compared to
their eighth grade mathematics scores..
Limitations
The following conditions will limit the extent of the study: 1. The population under investigation will be limited
to one public school district Rawalpindi in southeastern Tennessee. 2. Existing student records provide limited
demographic information and test scores for this study for the 1999-2000, 2000-2001, and 2001-2002 academic
school years.
Delimitations
The following conditions are researcher-imposed limitations: 1. The sample of middle school students used in
this study will be confined to those who had Connected Mathematics as sixth, seventh and eighth graders.
Selection of Population
There are eighty-one schools serving grades K-12 with a total of 41, 453 students in this public schools system.
Twenty-one of those schools and just over 3,000 middle school- aged students’ test scores were used in this
study. Fifteen of the schools are middle schools, grades six, seven, and eight, two are schools housing grades K-
12, one is an elementary/middle school combined and the remaining three are middle/high school combinations.
Data Gathering Procedures
To obtain permission to conduct the study in the public schools district Rawalpindi, an e-mail was sent to the
assistant superintendent’s office, outlining the purpose of the research study. A letter granting permission to
conduct the research in this district Rawalpindi using existing student data was obtained. These data included
student demographic information, i.e., gender, ethnicity, participation in the free or reduced lunch meal program
and TCAP mathematics test scores. The data then was entered into the SPSS statistical program with careful
checking for accuracy. Students were identified by student identification numbers.
Data Analysis
The district Rawalpindi’s eighth grade students from the twenty-one sites were separated into two groups: CMP
students and non-CMP students. CMP students are students who have been in a CMP classroom (based on their
continuous enrollment in a school within this district Rawalpindi housing middle level age students) for their
sixth, seventh, and eighth grade mathematics instruction. Non-CMP students are identified as students whose
enrollment was not continuous in a Hamilton County middle school classroom for grades sixth, seventh, and
eighth for reasons such as transfer into the school system or enrollment in Algebra I during their eighth grade
year of mathematics instruction. This school district Rawalpindi allows the high achieving students to take
Algebra I during the eighth grade year for high school credit.
Conclusion
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Mathematics scores for this district Rawalpindi on the TCAP had been stagnant for the past several years. The
area of problem solving was especially troublesome. Problem Solving test scores continued to decline despite
specific attempts to improve them by the curriculum specialist. Mathematics test scores for this district
Rawalpindi started to climb after the adoption of CMP. After comparing the total battery mathematics test
scores a significant difference was found in mathematics achievement of students completing three years of
CMP when compared to students completing one and two years. Curriculum alone was not a significant
predictor of the mathematics achievement of middle school students by ethnic group. However, CMP was a
positive factor for African American students even though it was not significant. The analysis of the
performance of African American and Non African American students yielded disappointing yet promising
results in terms of reducing the mathematics achievement gap. There was still a significant difference between
the achievement of African American students and Non African American students but the gap size was slightly
smaller after three years of CMP.
References
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (2000, July 22, 1999). Middle grades mathematics
textbooks: A benchmarks-based evaluation. [http://www.project 2061.org/matheval/index.htm] Project 2061
[2001, January 26].
Anick, C., Carpenter, T., Smith, C. (1981). Minorities and mathematics: Results from the National Assessment
of Educational Progress. Mathematics Teacher p. 560-566.
Christensen, McDonnell, and Price. (1988). Personalizing staff development: the career lattice model.
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Lappan, G. (1999). Mathematics and the workplace. NCTM News Bulletin, February, p. 3.
Vaccaro, D. (2000). A Comparative Study of Middle School and K-8 School Value-Added Gains in the Areas
of Reading, Language, Math, Science, and Social Studies.
Q.3 Develop a research proposal on “Analysis of Reforms in Curriculum for Secondary Level in
Pakistan”. Mention all necessary steps properly.
1. Curriculum Reforms in Pakistan • Review of Curriculum Reforms in Pakistan in line with the National
Education policies.
2. What is curriculum?  According to Johnson; (1967)  Curriculum is a structured series of intended learning
outcomes.  According to J.F Kerr; (1968)  All the activities which are planned and guided by the schools
whether carried on in groups or individually, inside and outside the school.  Curriculum may be defined as: 
The document that provides the detailed objectives and contents for each paper in a particular course is termed
as the curriculum.
3. Education system in Pakistan  In Pakistan we have Education system divided into the following levels. 
Primary: 1st to 5th class  Middle: 6th to 8th class  Secondary: 9th to 10th  Higher Secondary: 11th to 12th 
Tertiary (University): 13 Onward.  Various Policies have been drafted to improve curriculum at different
levels.  Here is a Review Of The Curriculum Reforms recommended by different National Educational
Policies.
4. Sharif Commission Report: 1959  As the curricula at secondary and post secondary level was theoretical
and it was not adequately catered for all the talents of the pupils, so this commission recommended some basic
reforms which are as follows.  It was urged that scientific knowledge must be included up to 10 to 12 years of

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education.  General Education also needs to be included up to age of 17.  It was also urged that those who
terminate their education earlier must be in position to take up a career.
5. Recommendations of 1959 Policy:  The Education Commission 1959 recommended the following Reforms;
◦ First the Compulsory subjects must provide adequate information ◦ Secondly the additional subjects will be
included in such a way that it could prepare the students for a definite career. ◦ The curriculum should be
flexible so that it could be changed according to the social needs and interest. ◦ The curriculum should be
designed according to the mental abilities and interest of the students. ◦ Religious subjects should be made
compulsory throughout the primary stage. ◦ Due emphasis should be placed on teaching of the national
language. ◦ Ministry of Education set up a text book board.  Text Book Board  A small autonomous body
comprising of the representatives from the provinces, working with text book committees operating within the
sphere of each education authority.  Responsibilities:  To frame the syllabus according to the
recommendation made in this report.  To lay down policy for the preparation, printing, and publication of text
books.
6. Reforms of the National Education Policy: (1978)  Enough content on Islam and Islamic Ideology will be
included to ensure it is protected and maintained so that to promote national cohesion and integration.  At the
primary level more importance will be given to practical and creative activities so that children could gain
desired attitudes and skills.  The text book board will be reorganized to improve their efficiency. Effective
liaison (link)will be established between the national book foundation and the text book boards.  The process
of curriculum development will be improved by proper emphasis on research. Field testing will be given more
importance.  Supplementary reading materials; guides/manuals for children and for teachers will be prepared
for enrichment the experience of students and teachers.
7. Reforms:….. (1978)  The revised curricula will be implemented in phased manner.  National/ Provincial
curriculum development agencies will work in close collaboration with adequate number of students and
teachers.  To make teaching and learning more effective, laboratory equipment and instructional aids/kits will
be provided  A standing committee for the National Education Counsel on curriculum and textbooks will be
considered to review the existing curricula and textbooks for improving and identifying textbooks which can be
prescribed throughout the country.
8. Reforms of National Education Policy: (1992)  A new cycle of curriculum development will be initiated and
major effort will be directed towards improving the imparting of the education  The curricula shall encourage
enquiry, creativity, and progressive thinking through project oriented education.  The linkages among
curriculum, textbook writing, teacher training, and examination will be reinforced.  Science curricula will be
revised and made compatible with demands of new knowledge.  The weightage of mathematics and science
shall be increased. Specially mathematics will be progressively included as a compulsory subject up to F.Sc
level.
9. Reforms:…..(1992)  Crash programs will be announced with the help of different universities for the
training of science and mathematics teachers.  A special mathematics course shall be introduced for the social
science students.  The teaching of languages will be improved in order to enhance communication skills. 
The teaching of social sciences will be improved in content quality.
10. Reforms of National Education Policy (1998-2010)  Uniform curricula for all the public and private
sectors shall be adopted gradually  All curricula (1-12) shall be re-vamped , making it a systematic whole and

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linking it to teacher training and textbook reforms.  Emerging key issues such as computer literacy, population
and environmental education, health education, AIDS, education and value education etc, shall be introduced
and integrated in curricula.  Kachi class shall be institutionalized in the primary cycle gradually and
progressively.  The span of primary/lower elementary education including kachi class shall be of six years.
11. Reforms :……(1998-2010)  Curriculum at secondary stage will be based on two principals 1. Compulsory
subjects  The knowledge that is useful for a developing society 2. Additional subjects  To prepare the
students for a definite career  Revision of intended learning outcomes e.g.  Developing insight (Problem
solving ability)  Independent thinking  Introducing innovative design in textbooks  Integration of technical
Education into General Education  Developing the quality of instructions (Teacher Education)
12. Curriculum Reforms 2000-2009 – Milestones Achieved & Planned  2000 - review of Basic Science
Subjects under Education Sector Reforms Action Plan 2001-06 and production of textbooks  2002 - review of
Social Science Subjects under ESR and production of textbooks  2005 - comprehensive review of all subjects
 2006/7- completion of review National Curriculum 2006/7 and its publication  2007 - National Textbook
and Learning Materials Policy and Plan of Action – 2007-  2010 Implementation of National Curriculum
2006/7  2007-9 - Development of textbooks in phases. Phase I = Grades I, VI, IX & XI  2010- (April) New
Textbooks Planned to be in Schools
13. Curriculum Authorities:  The Federal Government has nominated two authorities for curriculum
development ; (Notification: 1976) ◦ Curriculum Wing Grades Early Childhood Education to XII ◦ Higher
Education Commission Grades XII - Onwards  In each province the following institutions are in direct link
with the Ministry of Education for inputs to curriculum reforms: 1. Bureau of Curriculum 2. Textbook Boards 3.
Teacher Training Institutions (in-service and pre-service) 4. Boards of Intermediate & Secondary Education
( BISE) X & XII 5. National Education Assessment System (IV & VIII) and provincial education assessment
centers (PEAC) 6. Punjab Examination Commission (PEC) (V & VIII) restricted to the province of Punjab. 
The first five institutions are present in each province of Pakistan. Punjab is the only province which has
launched its own examination commission for grades V and VIII.
14. Higher Education Commission  Higher Education Commission has been appointed as the Competent
Authority for Curriculum Revision Work beyond Class XII.  HEC has also been entrusted to maintain the
standards of education in keeping with the nation’s changing social and economic needs which are compatible
with the basic national ideology.  The Curriculum Section guides all Degree colleges, Universities and other
Institutions of higher learning in designing curricula that provides appropriate content regarding Basic Sciences,
Social Sciences, Humanities along with Engineering and Technology.  According to the decision of the 44th
Vice-Chancellors’ Committee in 2001. ◦ Curriculum of a subject must be reviewed after every 3 years.. 
Educational programs are thus designed not only to meet the needs of the employment market but to promote
the study of Basic and Applied Sciences in every field of national and international importance.
15. General Recommendations for Curriculum development process:  Curriculum should be based on the
native research not on the basis of opinions and experts.  Some of the enthusiast working teachers should be
involved in curriculum development.  The objectives must be spelt out in specific behavioral terms.  While
setting the objectives equal weight age must be given to all the domains such as cognitive, effective and
psychomotor.  Curriculum should be future oriented to meet the needs of 21st century which is expected to be
scientific and technological.  There should be a vertical and horizontal articulation among different concepts.
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 Curriculum should be activity based.  Curriculum must provide a higher level of understanding, inductive
reasoning and application of knowledge in life situation.
16. General Recommendations:  Instead of product based instruction, there should be emphasis on processes
of learning.  Curriculum should be according to the social, cultural and economic conditions of the country. 
Teachers should be highly trained to provide quality instructions.  Curriculum planners must suggest a proper
criteria for evaluation.  The test items must posses a high content validity.  The test items must help in the
achievement of desired goals.  The test items should be objective valid and reliable.  curriculum must be
career oriented and must be economical.  Curriculum should provide materials for career counseling, so as to
enable the students to advance in a particular field of their interest.
Q.4 Discuss Observation as a research tool covering the following concepts; its construction, different
forms and process to conduct an observation.
The term observational research is used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in
which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. The goal of observational research is to describe a
variable or set of variables. More generally, the goal is to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an
individual, group, or setting. As described previously, observational research is non-experimental because
nothing is manipulated or controlled, and as such we cannot arrive at causal conclusions using this approach.
The data that are collected in observational research studies are often qualitative in nature but they may also be
quantitative or both (mixed-methods). There are several different types of observational research designs that
will be described below.
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Naturalistic observation is an observational method that involves observing people’s behavior in the
environment in which it typically occurs. Thus naturalistic observation is a type of field research (as opposed to
a type of laboratory research). Jane Goodall’s famous research on chimpanzees is a classic example of
naturalistic observation. Dr. Goodall spent three decades observing chimpanzees in their natural environment in
East Africa. She examined such things as chimpanzee’s social structure, mating patterns, gender roles, family
structure, and care of offspring by observing them in the wild. However, naturalistic observation could more
simply involve observing shoppers in a grocery store, children on a school playground, or psychiatric inpatients
in their wards. Researchers engaged in naturalistic observation usually make their observations as unobtrusively
as possible so that participants are not aware that they are being studied. Such an approach is called disguised
naturalistic observation. Ethically, this method is considered to be acceptable if the participants remain
anonymous and the behavior occurs in a public setting where people would not normally have an expectation of
privacy. Grocery shoppers putting items into their shopping carts, for example, are engaged in public behavior
that is easily observable by store employees and other shoppers. For this reason, most researchers would
consider it ethically acceptable to observe them for a study. On the other hand, one of the arguments against the
ethicality of the naturalistic observation of “bathroom behavior” discussed earlier in the book is that people
have a reasonable expectation of privacy even in a public restroom and that this expectation was violated. 
In cases where it is not ethical or practical to conduct disguised naturalistic observation, researchers can
conduct undisguised naturalistic observation where the participants are made aware of the researcher
presence and monitoring of their behavior. However, one concern with undisguised naturalistic observation
is reactivity. Reactivity refers to when a measure changes participants’ behavior. In the case of undisguised
naturalistic observation, the concern with reactivity is that when people know they are being observed and

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studied, they may act differently than they normally would. For instance, you may act much differently in a bar
if you know that someone is observing you and recording your behaviors and this would invalidate the study.
So disguised observation is less reactive and therefore can have higher validity because people are not aware
that their behaviors are being observed and recorded. However, we now know that people often become used to
being observed and with time they begin to behave naturally in the researcher’s presence. In other words, over
time people habituate to being observed. Think about reality shows like Big Brother or Survivor where people
are constantly being observed and recorded. While they may be on their best behavior at first, in a fairly short
amount of time they are, flirting, having sex, wearing next to nothing, screaming at each other, and at times
acting like complete fools in front of the entire nation.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Another approach to data collection in observational research is participant observation.
In participant observation, researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying.
Participant observation is very similar to naturalistic observation in that it involves observing people’s behavior
in the environment in which it typically occurs. As with naturalistic observation, the data that is collected can
include interviews (usually unstructured), notes based on their observations and interactions, documents,
photographs, and other artifacts. The only difference between naturalistic observation and participant
observation is that researchers engaged in participant observation become active members of the group or
situations they are studying. The basic rationale for participant observation is that there may be important
information that is only accessible to, or can be interpreted only by, someone who is an active participant in the
group or situation. Like naturalistic observation, participant observation can be either disguised or undisguised.
In disguised participant observation, the researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are
observing and conceal their true identity as researchers. In contrast with undisguised participant
observation, the researchers become a part of the group they are studying and they disclose their true identity
as researchers to the group under investigation. Once again there are important ethical issues to consider with
disguised participant observation. First no informed consent can be obtained and second passive deception is
being used. The researcher is passively deceiving the participants by intentionally withholding information
about their motivations for being a part of the social group they are studying. But sometimes disguised
participation is the only way to access a protective group (like a cult). Further, disguised participant observation
is less prone to reactivity than undisguised participant observation. 
Rosenhan’s study (1973)[1] of the experience of people in a psychiatric ward would be considered disguised
participant observation because Rosenhan and his pseudopatients were admitted into psychiatric hospitals on
the pretense of being patients so that they could observe the way that psychiatric patients are treated by staff.
The staff and other patients were unaware of their true identities as researchers.
Another example of participant observation comes from a study by sociologist Amy Wilkins (published
in Social Psychology Quarterly) on a university-based religious organization that emphasized how happy its
members were (Wilkins, 2008)[2]. Wilkins spent 12 months attending and participating in the group’s meetings
and social events, and she interviewed several group members. In her study, Wilkins identified several ways in
which the group “enforced” happiness—for example, by continually talking about happiness, discouraging the
expression of negative emotions, and using happiness as a way to distinguish themselves from other groups.
One of the primary benefits of participant observation is that the researcher is in a much better position to
understand the viewpoint and experiences of the people they are studying when they are apart of the social
group. The primary limitation with this approach is that the mere presence of the observer could affect the
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behavior of the people being observed. While this is also a concern with naturalistic observation when
researchers because active members of the social group they are studying, additional concerns arise that they
may change the social dynamics and/or influence the behavior of the people they are studying. Similarly, if the
researcher acts as a participant observer there can be concerns with biases resulting from developing
relationships with the participants. Concretely, the researcher may become less objective resulting in more
experimenter bias.
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Another observational method is structured observation. Here the investigator makes careful observations of
one or more specific behaviors in a particular setting that is more structured than the settings used in naturalistic
and participant observation. Often the setting in which the observations are made is not the natural setting,
rather the researcher may observe people in the laboratory environment. Alternatively, the researcher may
observe people in a natural setting (like a classroom setting) that they have structured some way, for instance by
introducing some specific task participants are to engage in or by introducing a specific social situation or
manipulation. Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in
that in all cases researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured
observation is on gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data. Researchers using this approach are
interested in a limited set of behaviors. This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. In other
words, structured observation is less global than naturalistic and participant observation because the researcher
engaged in structured observations is interested in a small number of specific behaviors. Therefore, rather than
recording everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest.
Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in that in all cases
researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured observation is on
gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data. Researchers using this approach are interested in a limited set
of behaviors. This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. In other words, structured
observation is less global than naturalistic and participant observation because the researcher engaged in
structured observations is interested in a small number of specific behaviors. Therefore, rather than recording
everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest.
Researchers Robert Levine and Ara Norenzayan used structured observation to study differences in the “pace of
life” across countries (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999)[3]. One of their measures involved observing pedestrians in
a large city to see how long it took them to walk 60 feet. They found that people in some countries walked
reliably faster than people in other countries. For example, people in Canada and Sweden covered 60 feet in just
under 13 seconds on average, while people in Brazil and Romania took close to 17 seconds. When structured
observation takes place in the complex and even chaotic “real world,” the questions of when, where, and under
what conditions the observations will be made, and who exactly will be observed are important to consider.
Levine and Norenzayan described their sampling process as follows:
“Male and female walking speed over a distance of 60 feet was measured in at least two locations in main
downtown areas in each city. Measurements were taken during main business hours on clear summer days. All
locations were flat, unobstructed, had broad sidewalks, and were sufficiently uncrowded to allow pedestrians to
move at potentially maximum speeds. To control for the effects of socializing, only pedestrians walking alone
were used. Children, individuals with obvious physical handicaps, and window-shoppers were not timed.
Thirty-five men and 35 women were timed in most cities.” (p. 186). Precise specification of the sampling
process in this way makes data collection manageable for the observers, and it also provides some control over
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important extraneous variables. For example, by making their observations on clear summer days in all
countries, Levine and Norenzayan controlled for effects of the weather on people’s walking speeds. In Levine
and Norenzayan’s study, measurement was relatively straightforward. They simply measured out a 60-foot
distance along a city sidewalk and then used a stopwatch to time participants as they walked over that distance.
As another example, researchers Robert Kraut and Robert Johnston wanted to study bowlers’ reactions to their
shots, both when they were facing the pins and then when they turned toward their companions (Kraut &
Johnston, 1979)[4]. But what “reactions” should they observe? Based on previous research and their own pilot
testing, Kraut and Johnston created a list of reactions that included “closed smile,” “open smile,” “laugh,”
“neutral face,” “look down,” “look away,” and “face cover” (covering one’s face with one’s hands). The
observers committed this list to memory and then practiced by coding the reactions of bowlers who had been
videotaped. During the actual study, the observers spoke into an audio recorder, describing the reactions they
observed. Among the most interesting results of this study was that bowlers rarely smiled while they still faced
the pins. They were much more likely to smile after they turned toward their companions, suggesting that
smiling is not purely an expression of happiness but also a form of social communication.
When the observations require a judgment on the part of the observers—as in Kraut and Johnston’s study—this
process is often described as coding. Coding generally requires clearly defining a set of target behaviors. The
observers then categorize participants individually in terms of which behavior they have engaged in and the
number of times they engaged in each behavior. The observers might even record the duration of each behavior.
The target behaviors must be defined in such a way that different observers code them in the same way. This
difficulty with coding is the issue of interrater reliability, as mentioned in Chapter 4. Researchers are expected
to demonstrate the interrater reliability of their coding procedure by having multiple raters code the same
behaviors independently and then showing that the different observers are in close agreement. Kraut and
Johnston, for example, video recorded a subset of their participants’ reactions and had two observers
independently code them. The two observers showed that they agreed on the reactions that were exhibited 97%
of the time, indicating good interrater reliability.
One of the primary benefits of structured observation is that it is far more efficient than naturalistic and
participant observation. Since the researchers are focused on specific behaviors this reduces time and expense.
Also, often times the environment is structured to encourage the behaviors of interested which again means that
researchers do not have to invest as much time in waiting for the behaviors of interest to naturally occur.
Finally, researchers using this approach can clearly exert greater control over the environment. However, when
researchers exert more control over the environment it may make the environment less natural which decreases
external validity. It is less clear for instance whether structured observations made in a laboratory environment
will generalize to a real world environment. Furthermore, since researchers engaged in structured observation
are often not disguised there may be more concerns with reactivity.
CASE STUDIES
A case study is an in-depth examination of an individual. Sometimes case studies are also completed on social
units (e.g., a cult) and events (e.g., a natural disaster). Most commonly in psychology, however, case studies
provide a detailed description and analysis of an individual. Often the individual has a rare or unusual condition
or disorder or has damage to a specific region of the brain.
Like many observational research methods, case studies tend to be more qualitative in nature. Case study
methods involve an in-depth, and often a longitudinal examination of an individual. Depending on the focus of
the case study, individuals may or may not be observed in their natural setting. If the natural setting is not what
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is of interest, then the individual may be brought into a therapist’s office or a researcher’s lab for study. Also,
the bulk of the case study report will focus on in-depth descriptions of the person rather than on statistical
analyses. With that said some quantitative data may also be included in the write-up of a case study. For
instance, an individuals’ depression score may be compared to normative scores or their score before and after
treatment may be compared. As with other qualitative methods, a variety of different methods and tools can be
used to collect information on the case. For instance, interviews, naturalistic observation, structured
observation, psychological testing (e.g., IQ test), and/or physiological measurements (e.g., brain scans) may be
used to collect information on the individual.
HM is one of the most notorious case studies in psychology. HM suffered from intractable and very severe
epilepsy. A surgeon localized HM’s epilepsy to his medial temporal lobe and in 1953 he removed large sections
of his hippocampus in an attempt to stop the seizures. The treatment was a success, in that it resolved his
epilepsy and his IQ and personality were unaffected. However, the doctors soon realized that HM exhibited a
strange form of amnesia, called anterograde amnesia. HM was able to carry out a conversation and he could
remember short strings of letters, digits, and words. Basically, his short term memory was preserved. However,
HM could not commit new events to memory. He lost the ability to transfer information from his short-term
memory to his long term memory, something memory researchers call consolidation. So while he could carry
on a conversation with someone, he would completely forget the conversation after it ended. This was an
extremely important case study for memory researchers because it suggested that there’s a dissociation between
short-term memory and long-term memory, it suggested that these were two different abilities sub-served by
different areas of the brain. It also suggested that the temporal lobes are particularly important for consolidating
new information (i.e., for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory).
Observations are an important research method for managers, businesses, and researchers alike to determine
how people interact and behave in different environments. Observations can help researchers better determine
what people do given different scenarios and environmental factors.
1. Identify Objective
Determine what you want to observe and why. Are looking to see how students respond to a new environment?
How customers interact with employees? How bosses interact with subordinates? When conducting
observations, you are trying to learn habits, patterns, behaviors, reactions, and general information about people
in a particular environment to better understand what they do and, hopefully eventually, why they do it (though
observations alone often won’t tell you the “why”).
2. Establish Recording Method
To make observations most effective, it’s important that you minimize or eliminate any disruptive or unfamiliar
devices into the environment you wish to observe. For example, it is often least effective to videorecord
observations in situations where the people being observed know they are being filmed (but it’s usually
unethical to film without telling them. Note-taking is the most common method, though in some public spaces
you can take photographs, audio recordings, and other methods.
3. Develop Questions and Techniques
Determine whether you are conducting an informal or a formal observation (see explanations to the far right.)
Knowing your objective, determine if there are specific questions you have or if you are going in completely
open-minded. What you hope to learn will help you know what specifically to look for. Be prepared when
entering an observation space by having a sound understanding of the type of information you are trying learn.

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4. Observe and Take Notes

Visit the space you are hoping to get information from. Be as unobtrusive as possible, taking notes,
photographs, audio, and film, only where it is allowed, you have permission, and it makes sense for the research
without disrupting the environment. If you are doing formal observations, will you need to code certain
behaviors, actions, words, visuals, and other observed data.

5. Analyze Behaviors and Inferences

Separate the difference between what you observed (which are factual behaviors) and why what you observed
happened. Typically, to make some sense of your observed data, you will need to interview people in the
environment you are observing, either during the observation itself, or afterwards. Make connections between
interactions, responses, behaviors, and other phenomena.

Q.5 What type of research tools are used in qualitative research? Mention the characteristics of any
three tools for qualitative research.
“Conversations with people” isn’t very specific, so let’s go a little deeper. By definition, qualitative research is
an inquiry into the way people interpret a certain social condition around them. It usually involves interviews or
conversations, which produce non-numerical data. An example of qualitative research is identifying how
effective a government welfare program is by talking to the people directly affected by it.
Qualitative research is often time intensive, primarily because it requires collecting data by interacting with
people over long periods of time. Then, after collecting data, analyzing conversations and bringing out insights
is also time consuming.
Qualitative research is useful in two situations:
 When research questions need to be sharpened: In the beginning of any study, researchers may only
have a rough idea what they want to collect data on and how they can collect that data. Using qualitative
research can help researchers understand their problem, zero in on their hypothesis, and create a design for
further research (either qualitative or quantitative) as the study unfolds.
 When you need detailed description of an issue: For complex issues, simple statistics may show what
is happening, but not why it’s happening. In these scenario, qualitative research is helpful for exploring
social conditions and explaining them in detail. For example, quantitative data may show how many girls
drop out of school, but qualitative data can help researchers understanding the barriers that stop parents
from sending girls to school.
There are several different qualitative research methods. Which method you should use depends on what you’re
trying to achieve. However, the three most commonly used qualitative research methods are in-depth
interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and observation.
Method 1: In-depth interviews
What is an in-depth interview?
One-to-one interviews are the most commonly used qualitative research method. They are semi-structured,
which means that the questions to be asked and issues to be addressed are fluid and take shape as the interview
unfolds.
How long do in-depth interviews take?
An in-depth interview may last 60–90 minutes and is conducted face to face.

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Do participants need to give their permission?

Yes. Participation must be voluntary, and each person must give informed consent before they participate in an
interview.
When are in-depth interviews useful?
In-depth interviews are ideal in situations where:
 The research topic is complex. (For example, what factors affect whether men of a certain strata use
contraceptives?)
 The research topic is sensitive. (For example, understanding the prevalence of alcoholism among a
group of people.)
 The study requires detailed information.
In-depth interviews can be used at any stage of research. For example, they can be conducted in the beginning
of a program to explore hypotheses and set the research plan, in the middle to benchmark the program’s
progress, or at the end to understand the effectiveness of a program’s implementation.
Who should interview participants?
Highly skilled interviewers are important for effective in-depth interviews. It is critical that interviewers are
sensitive, empathic, and able to establish a comfortable environment for interviewees.
Interviewers should also have a deep understanding of both the topic under study and the research objectives, so
they can ask questions that provide relevant and actionable insights. Poor interviewing skills, poor phrasing of
questions, or inadequate knowledge of the subject’s culture or frame of reference may result in data that isn’t
accurate or useful.
While selecting interviewers, researchers may also need to weigh personal characteristics that will make
interviewees more comfortable with interviewers. For example, age, sex and profession may be important
characteristics.
How should researchers prepare for in-depth interviews?
In-depth interviews typically start with open-ended questions, then interviewers use further questions to probe
into different topics. The interviewer should have a guide prepared with a list of issues that are to be explored
along with some suitable questions or probes for each issue.
How should researchers collect data during in-depth interviews?
The interview should be recorded. Preferably, it should also be transcribed immediately so that invisible
information such as body language and expressions are not lost in the annals of time.
Advantages of in-depth interviews
 Yield rich data and new insights
 Allow face-to-face interaction
 Allow in-depth conversation about the topic being studied
 Can capture both affective and cognitive aspects
 Give the interviewer the opportunity to clarify or explain the question/topic for better responses
Limitations of in-depth interviews
 Costly and time-consuming
 Require highly trained interviewers
 May obtain a massive amount of information, which makes transcription and data analysis difficult
 Create exploratory, not conclusive, results. This means that their findings usually cannot be generalized
for the entire population.
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Method 2: Focus group discussions (FGDs)

What is a FGD?
Focus group discussions are another common qualitative research method. In a focus group discussion, an
interviewer talks to a group of people about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards an idea,
concept, service, product, etc. The participants are usually a group of people who are similar in some way, such
as their income, education, or occupation. This helps the participants feel more comfortable with one another.
How many people are involved in an FGD?
A typical focus group has anywhere between 6 to 12 participants, and it’s usually best to carry out at least 3
FGDs. Talking with multiple groups leads to more in-depth or diverse information.
How long do FGDs take?
An FGD should be 60–90 minutes. If the FGD is shorter than 60 minutes, it is often difficult to fully explore the
discussion topic. If the FGD is longer than 90 minutes, the discussion can become unproductive (as participants
get weary) and the discussion can start to impose on participants’ time.
Do participants need to give their permission?
Yes. Researchers must get informed consent for all participants. Participation should be voluntary, though it can
be incentivized.
When are FGDs useful?
Focus groups are most useful for:
 Identifying and defining problems
 Pre-testing topics or ideas to sharpen the research questions
 Identifying program strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations
 Interpreting quantitative findings
 Learning people’s thoughts on project outcomes and impacts
 Generating new ideas
In a FGD, the researcher is not trying to make the group reach a consensus. Rather, their goal is to explore
different people’s opinions on the topic. Hence, the results of an FGD are exploratory, not conclusive.
Who should conduct an FGD?
A successful FGD requires a skilled moderator. As a moderator, it is important to ensure that all participants are
comfortable and engaged with the discussion, and that their opinions are being heard. The following techniques
are helpful:
 Remain neutral to ensure that everyone feels comfortable expressing their opinion. No nodding or
shaking your head, raising eyebrows, agreeing or disagreeing with comments, or praising or denigrating
participants.
 Elicit further information from shy participants with comments like “Can you tell me more about that?”,
“Help me understand what you mean”, or “Can you give an example?”
 Deal with dominant participants by acknowledging their opinion and soliciting other opinions.
Sentences like “Thank you. What do other people think?” can be helpful.
 Paraphrase or summarize long, unclear comments by participants. This shows participants that the
moderator is actively listening, and it helps the moderator to ensure he or she has understood the
participant’s statement.

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 Act spontaneously if needed. If the conversation goes in an unexpected, but productive direction, go
with it and ask questions that were not on the initial questionnaire. Probe deeper into new topics and ideas,
as long as the information being gained is valuable.
How should researchers collect data during in-depth interviews?
Like with in-depth interviews, digital recorders (either audio or video) are a great way to record data during
FGDs. The record should be transcribed immediately so its nuances aren’t lost over time.
Advantages of FGDs
 Focus groups can often get at perceptions, attitudes, and experiences better than a quantitative survey.
 They allows in-depth conversation about the topic
 Unlike a paper survey, FGDs gives researchers the opportunity to clarify or explain the question or topic
for better responses.
 When participants discuss a topic with one another, they can become more active and engaged, which
leads to more data. However, the moderator plays a key role in probing and ensuring participation.
Limitations of FGDs
It is important to realize that there are two key limitations to FGDs:
 Since FGD data is qualitative, it cannot necessarily be generalized to the population. This is because
qualitative data is often context-specific.
 Moderators must ensure that they don’t show any bias. This will veer the trajectory of the conversation.
Moderators must also be be active in ensuring that active participants do not overpower subdued
participants during the discussion.
Method 3: Observations
What is observation?
Observation is a qualitative research method where researchers gather data by observing people’s behavior or
events in their natural setting.
There are 2 main types of observation:
 Covert: No one knows they are being observed and the observer is concealed. For example, a researcher
trying to understand the rituals and ceremonies of Hindu weddings may conceal himself as a guest to
observe what’s happening.
 Overt: Everyone knows they are being observed. For example, a researcher on Hindu weddings may
explain his study to the wedding party and use a video camera to record the wedding.
Usually, overt observations are preferable, because observing people without their knowledge or permission can
raise ethical problems.
Covert vs. overt aren’t the only types of observation. There’s also direct vs. indirect, simple vs. behavioral, and
participant vs. non-participant. Learn more about each type here.
Do participants need to give their permission?
For overt observation, informed consent must be obtained from participants before any observational data is
gathered.
When is observation useful?
Observations are most useful when:
 You are trying to understand an ongoing process or situation.
 You are gathering data on individual behaviors or interactions between people.

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 Collecting data from people is not realistic. If respondents are unwilling or unable to provide data
through questionnaires or interviews, observation is a method that requires little from participants.
How should researchers prepare for observation?
The research questions or processes being observed must be well structured — that is, the parameters to be
observed must be clearly defined. For example, a researcher observing students in class should have precise
things to observe, like the number of students asleep within the first five minutes or students’ level of
engagement throughout the class. Selecting specific focus areas or questions helps make the collected data more
accurate and relevant to the research question.
In addition, it is critical that to schedule observations so they overlap with whatever is being observed. For
example, if you’re trying to observe noon music classes at a school, observations shouldn’t be scheduled for 2
pm. This requires advance planning.
Who should conduct observation?
Observers must be well-trained on the data collection process, and must be focused on producing effective,
useful and unbiased insights. Observers can be the researchers themselves, or researchers can train other people
(such as students, interns, research assistants or stakeholders) to act as observers.
How should researchers collect data during observation?
The right data collection technique depends on what information is being collected. Here are a few ways to
collect data through observation.
 Recording sheets and checklists: a list of both pre-set questions and responses. They are the most
standardized way of collecting observation data.
 Observation guides: lists of the interactions, processes, or behaviors to be observed, with space to record
open-ended narrative data.
 Field notes: open-ended narrative data that can be written (on paper or digitally) or dictated (on a tape
recorder). This is the least standardized way of collecting observation data, since it doesn’t include preset
questions or responses.
Using digital tools (such as a data collection app, tape recorder, laptop, camera, or video camera) can make it
much easier and quicker to collect observational data.
Advantages of observation
 It allows researchers to collect first-hand data from where the activity is happening.
 Researchers can get answers from groups that don’t have the time or willingness to answer questions.
Limitations of observation
 The insights are susceptible to researcher bias.
 Observation can be expensive and time consuming.
 Overt observation may lead to the Hawthorne effect, where people tend to behave better when they
know they’re being observed. In covert observation, this may not be the case.
Planning to do observations? Learn more about when and how to collect observational data.

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