Process Control

PROCESS CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION
EL-4612 (4-3-2 )
PRE-REQUISITE EP-4211,EL-4231
CHAPTER ONE
Process control fundamentals
Instructor : Dessie Fentaw(Capt.) 2018
5/29/2019 Dessie Fentaw 1

What is Process Control?
Process control: is the act of controlling a final control element to change the
manipulated variable to maintain the process variable at a desired Set Point.
The Following are definitions of some terms we will be using in out discussion of process
control:
 The manipulated variable (MV) is a measure of resource being fed into the process, for
instance how much thermal energy.
 A final control element (FCE) is the device that changes the value of the manipulated
variable.
 The controller output (CO) is the signal from the controller to the final control element.
 The process variable (PV) is a measure of the process output that changes in response to
changes in the manipulated variable.
 The Set Point (SP) is the value at which we wish to maintain the process variable.

Control Systems
 In process control, the basic objective is to regulate the
value of some quantity
 We have a desired value that is referred to as the reference

or set point
 We also must have some way of measuring the actual

value of that quantity
 We must also have some method of comparing the

measured quantity to the reference value
 We finally need some method of changing the quantity

Let us see simple process control
The process
The process is shown diagrammatically below

 The previous slide shows a system that has liquid
flowing in at some rate Qin, and flowing out at another
rate Qout.
 The liquid has a height or level h. The formula for Qout

is Qout = K*sqrt(h), thus the flow rate out of the tank is
dependent on the height h.
 If h is too low for the Qout be less than Qin then the
height will increase. If the height increases to a point
that Qout is more than Qin than the height will decrease.
 At some value of h Qout will equal Qin – it is at this point

the tank has self-regulated

Looking at the tank in Slide above and given the following
information:
Qin = 2.5 gal/min

Qout = K*sqrt(h) and K = 1.2 (gal/min)
At what height will the tank self-regulate to?
First we must realize that the tank will stabilize at the point that Qin
= Qout, we have the relationship 2.5 gal/min = 1.2*sqrt(h).
h = ((2.5 gal/min)/(1.2))2 = 4.34 ft

Human – Aided control
 In this case a human has been added to the

process.
 The human can adjust the height by opening
and closing the valve to change Qout in such
a way that the height can be adjusted .
 In this case the controlled variable is still
the height, but the height can be
manipulated by a person changing the
manipulated or controlling variable Qout

 In this process a human can regulate the level using a sight
tube ‘S’ to compare the level ‘h’ to the objective ‘H’ and
adjust the value to change the level.
 By a succession of incremental opening and closing of the
valve, the human can bring the level to set point value H.
 And maintain it there by continues monitoring of the sight
tube and adjustment of the valve, the height is regulated.

Automatic control
 For automatic control the

system is modified as shown
below.
 An automatic level-control
system replaces the human
with a controller and uses a
sensor to measure the level.

 In the previous slide the person is replaced by an automatic
control system.
 The height is measured by a sensor (a float or electronic),

and a controller (typically a microcomputer or other
electronic circuitry) will signal an actuator to open/close the
valve controlling Qout
 Again the height is adjusted to a set point H by manipulating

Qout

Servomechanism-Type Control System
 The goal of such systems is to move
the arm of the robot using servo-
motors from point A to point B, or
any of series of movements.
 Often used in repetitive

manufacturing processes
 This course will NOT cover such

systems, although they use similar
technologies.
 This course concentrates on

PROCESS Control.

This block diagram of a control loop defines all the basic
elements and signals involved.
Process control block diagram

Process
 In the previous example the flow of liquid in and out of the tank, the tank it
self, and the liquid all constitute a process to be placed under control with
respect to the fluid level.
 There are single-variable processes, in which only one variable is to be
controlled.
 As well as multivariable processes in which many variable perhaps
interrelated may require regulation.
Measurement
 To effect control of a variable in process we must have information on
variable itself.
 Such information is found by measuring the variable
 A measurement refers to the conversion of the variable in to some other
corresponding analog form, such as electric voltage and current.
The physical diagram of a control loop and its
corresponding block diagram look similar. Note the use of
current- and pressure-transmission signals.
psi = Pounds per square inch

1 psi =6.8948×103 pa
The physical diagram of a control loop and its
corresponding block diagram look similar. Note the use of
current- and pressure-transmission signals.

Control system Evaluation
Control system objective is best represented by three requirements
 The control system should be stable
 Provide the best possible steady-state regulation
 Provide the best possible transient regulation
 A control system can actually

cause a system to become
unstable.

One of the measures of control system
performance is how the system
responds to changes of set point or a
transient disturbance in damped
response.

In cyclic or under damped response, the
variable will exhibit oscillations about
the reference value.

The quarter-amplitude criterion
 Two criteria for judging the quality of

control-system response are the
minimum area and quarter amplitude.
 Specifies that the amplitude of each
peak of the cycle response must be a
quarter of the preceding peak
 Thus a2 =a1/4 ,a3 =a2/4 and so on

Analog and Digital processing
 Data were represented by the magnitude of voltages & and currents in analog
from (continuous signal from), procssing of this data (amplifing, filtering,
clipping etc....) is colled analog processing.
 Most modern control systems now employ digital computer to perform
controllers operations.
 In computers data are represented as binary numbers consisting of a specific
number of bits.
 Proecssing this digital signals is referred to as digital processing.

Graph (a) shows how output variable b
changes as an analog of variable c. Graph
(b) shows how a digital output variable, n,
would change with variable c.

An ADC converts analog data, such as voltage, into a digital
representation, in this case 4 bits.

Types of control
ON/OFF control
 In this controller the final control element has only two states, on & off.
 fig. below shows on/off control system.
 The objective is to maintain the temperature in a system at reference value Tref.
 A sensors cinvert temperature values in to a resistance in analog fashin.' i.e ,R
varies smoothly & continuously with T.

This ON/OFF control system can either heat or cool or do neither. No variation of the
degree of heating or cooling is possible.
 Signal conditioning converts the variable R in to analog voltage, V. Thus, V is an
analog of T as well. The differential amplifier multiplies the difference between v
& a reference voltage, vref, by gain k to produce an error voltagV ve.
 Vref is simply as that voltage from the converter which would be produced by Tref.
 This system is digital because the relays will either be open or colosed so that the
heater or the cooler will be either be on or off.
 The diodes direct the current to appropriate relay to produce heating or cooling,
based on polarity.

 This system also exhibits a dead band &hysteresis.
 The dead band is a range of temperature in which no action
will occur.
 Hysteresis means that the behavior of the system is different
at the same value of temperature is increasing or decreasing.
 of course our home &auto heaters and air conditioners are
some of the control system which work according to the same
ON/OFF mode.

Analog control
 Fig. below shows a process in which a heater is used to control the temperature
in an oven.
 In this case heater output Q is an analog of the excitaion voltage Va and the heat
can be varied continuously.
 Notice that every signal is anloge; vT analog of T, the error E analog of
difference b/n the reference, Vref & the temperaure voltage, VT .
 Vref voltage result from referenc temperatuer Tref

An analog control system such as this allows continuous variation of some parameter,
such as heat input, as a function of error.

Digital control
Involve the use of computer in modren applications, although in the past digital
logic circuits are used.
There are two approaches in digital control.
1. Supervisory conrol (SC)
2. Direct direct digital control(DDC)

Supervisory control(SC)
 Computers were first didn't have good relibility; they suffered frequent failures
and breakdown.
 In SC a single computer could monitor many control loops &use appropriarte
software to optimize the set point for overall plant operation.
 If the computer failed, the analog loops kept the process running by using the last
setpoints until th computer came back on line. fig.below shows such from of
digital control system.

 In supervisory control, the computer monitors measurements and updates setpoints,
but the loops are still analog in nature

Direct digital control(DDC)
 In recent days computer becomes more reliable & miniaturized, they have taken over
the controller function.
 Thus the analog processing loop is discaded.
 The ADC & DAC provide the interface with the process measurement &control action.
 The computer inputs the digital equivalent of the temperature, NT, as an ADC O/P of
the I/P voltage VT.

 Error detection &controller action are detrmined by softwere.
 The computer then prvides an output directly to th heater via digital representation
NQ Which is converted to the exciton voltage VQ by the DAC.
 This direct digital control system lets the computer perform the error detection
and controller functions.
Programmable logic cintroller (PLC)
 In past electrical realys wired accoreding to complex digram into what was called a
relay logic controller.
 In recent years this controller is replaced by PLC. Originally it deigend to discrete -
state(ON/OFF) systems but these days used to implement DDC. Fig below show how
thermal limit switch is used instead of sensr or to indicate when the temprature has
risen above or fallen below the limit temperatue.
 These are simply switches designed to open (or colse) when the temperature reaches
creset certain preset value.

 A programmable logic controller
(PLC) is an outgrowth of ON/OFF-
type control environments.
 In this case the heater and cooler are
either ON or OFF.

Analog data Representation
Electric current and pneumatic pressures are the most common
means of information transmission in the industrial environment.

One of the advantages of current as a transmission signal is that it is
nearly independent of line resistance.

A transfer function shows how a system-block output variable varies
in response to an input variable, as a function of both static input
value and time.

Uncertainties in block transfer functions build up as more blocks are
involved in the transformation.

Hysteresis is a predictable error resulting from differences in the
transfer function as the input variable increases or decreases.

Comparison of an actual curve and its best-fit straight line, where the
maximum deviation is 5% FS.

THE INTRODUCTION OF
AUTOMATIC PROCESS CONTROL

GOAL:
Maintaining process variables (temperatures, pressures,

flows, compositions, levels) at a desired operating value.
Processes are dynamic in nature, and changes are always

occurring. The important variables those related to safety,
product quality, and production rates will not achieve design
conditions.

POINTS:
1.1 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS
1.3 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
1.4 CONTROL STRATEGIES
1.5 SUMMARY

• Manual process control
• Automatic process control

Steam
Process
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
T
Condensate
return
Figure 1-1 Heat exchanger
The purpose of this unit: To heat the process fluid

from some inlet temperature, Ti(t), up to a desired
outlet temperature, T(t).
Steam
Process
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
T
Condensate
return
Figure 1-1 Heat exchanger
In this process many variables can change,

causing the outlet temperature to deviate from
its desired value. If this happens, some action
must be taken to correct for this deviation.

• Manual process control
(1) Measure the temperature T(t);
(2) Compare it to its desired value

(3) Based on this comparison, decide what to
do to correct for any deviation. The steam valve
can be manipulated to correct for the deviation.
Steam
Process
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
T
5/29/2019
Condensate
Dessie Fentaw 51
return
How it works?
Steam
Process
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
T
Condensate
return
If the outlet temperature T(t) is above its desired

value, the steam valve can be throttled back to
cut the steam flow(energy) to the heat exchanger;
If the outlet temperature T(t) is below its desired
value, the steam valve could be opened more to
increase the steam flow to the heat exchanger.
Disadvantages of manual process control
(1) The operator should look at the temperature
frequently to take corrective action whenever it
deviates its desired value.
(2) Different operators would make different

decisions as to how to move the steam valve,
resulting in inconsistent operation.
(3) This corrective procedure would require a

large number of operators.
So, We would like to accomplish this control

automatically. Without requiring intervention from
the operator.
• Automatic process control:
SP
(1) Measure the outlet
temperature of the TC
Controller
process stream by a
sensor(thermocouple, Final control
element
resistance temperature Steam
device, thermisters, etc.)
(2) Transmitter transmits Transmitter
the signal to the Process TT
controller fluid
(3) Controller compare Ti(t) T(t)

Sensor
the signal to the desired T
value, and decides what Condensate
return
to do to maintain the
temperature at its desired
value. Fig. 1-2 Heat exchanger control loop
(4) The controller sends a signal to the final control element to
manipulate
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Three components of all control systems:
SP
(1)Sensor/transmitter.
The primary and Controller
TC
secondary elements. Final control

element
Steam
(2) Controller. The
brain of the control Transmitter
system. Process TT
fluid
(3) Final control Ti(t) T(t)
Sensor
element. A control T
valve, but not always. Condensate
return
(variable-speed
pumps, conveyors Fig. 1-2 Heat exchanger control loop
and electric motors)
Three basic operations:
SP
(1) Measurement(M).
Measuring the variable to Controller
TC
be controlled Final control

element
Steam
(2) Decision(D). Based on
the measurement, the Transmitter
controller decides what to Process TT
fluid
do to maintain the
Ti(t) T(t)
variable at its desired Sensor
T
value. Condensate
return
Fig. 1-2 Heat exchanger control loop
(3) Action(A). As a controller’s decision, the system
must take an action. This is usually accomplished by
the final control element.
1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS
• Controlled variable (process variable, measurement).
The variable that must be controlled at some desired
value. SP
•Controlled object or Controller

TC
Process. The object Final control

that need to be element
Steam
controlled.
Transmitter
Process TT
fluid
• Set point. The desired Ti(t) T(t)

Sensor
T
value of the controlled Condensate
variable. return
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1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS
• Manipulated variable. The variable used to maintain the
controlled variable at its desired value.
• Disturbance(upset). Any
variable that causes the SP
controlled variable to
deviate away from the set Controller
TC
point. Final control

element
• In the heat exchanger, Steam
possible disturbances.
Transmitter
Inlet process temperature Process TT
Ti(t), the process flow f(t), fluid
The energy content of the T (t)

i T(t)
Sensor
steam, ambient condition, T
Condensate
process fluid composition return
and fouling.
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Dessie Fentaw 58
1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS
• NOTE. Disturbances are always occurring in processes,
transient conditions are very common. It is because of
these disturbances that automatic process control is
needed. If there were no disturbances, design operating
conditions would prevail, and there would be no
necessity of continuously “monitoring” the process.
With these preceding terms defined, we can say:

The objective of an automatic process control system is
to adjust the manipulated variable to maintain the
controlled variable at its set point in spite of disturbances.

• Why control is important?
(1) Safety: Prevent injury to plant personnel, protect the
environment by preventing emission and minimizing
waste and prevent damage to the process equipment.
(2) Maintain product quality (composition, purity, color,

etc.) on a continuous basis and with minimum cost.
(3) Maintain plant production rate at minimum cost.
So, we can say that the reasons for automation of

process plants are to provide safety and at same time
maintain desired product quality, high plant throughput,
and reduce demand on human labor.

1.3 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Two types of control system:

(1) Regulatory control In some processes the controlled
variable deviated from the set point because of
disturbances, regulatory control refers to systems
designed to compensate for these disturbances.
(2) Servo control In some processes, the most important
disturbance is the set point itself. That is, the set point
may be changed as a function of time. Servo control
refers to control systems designed for this purpose.
In the process industries, regulatory control is far more

common that servo control.
Points：
(1) Feedback control (closed-loop control)
(2) Feedforward control (open-loop control)
(3) Choose a proper control system

Points:
• How it works?
• The block diagrams of feedback control
• The characteristics of feedback control

•How it works? SP
If the inlet process TC

Controller
temperature decreases,
Final control
thus creating a disturbance, element
Steam
its effect must propagate
through the heat exchanger
Transmitter
before the outlet Process TT
temperature decreases. fluid

T(t)
Once the outlet temperature T (t) i
Sensor
T
changes, the signal from Condensate
the transmitter to the return
controller also changes.

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Dessie Fentaw 64
•How it works? SP
It is then that the controller TC

Controller
becomes aware that a
Final control
deviation from set point has element
Steam
occurred and it must
compensate for the
Transmitter
disturbance by Process TT
manipulating the steam fluid

T (t) T(t)
valve. The controller then i
Sensor
T
signals the valve to Condensate
increase its opening and return
thus increase the steam

flow.
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Dessie Fentaw 65
The response of feedback control (closed-loop control)
At first the outlet temperature decreases because
TEMPERATURE
of the decrease in inlet temperature, but then it
INLET
increases, even above the set point and
TIME
continuous to oscillate until it finally stabilizes.
TEMPERATURE
OUTLET
This oscillatory response is typical of feedback
control and shows that it is essentially a trial and TIME
error operation. That is, when the controller
CONTROLLER
OUTPUT
notices that the outlet temperature has decreased
below the SET POINT, it signals the valve to
TIME
open. But the opening is more Fig.1-3 Response of
feedback control
TEMPERATURE
Than required. Therefore, the
outlet temperature increases
INLET
above the SET POINT. Noticing
TIME
this, the controller signals the
TEMPERATURE
valve to close again somewhat to
bring the temperature back down.
OUTLET
This trial and error continued until
TIME
the temperature reached and
stayed at SET POINT.
CONTROLLER
OUTPUT TIME
Fig.1-3
5/29/2019 Dessie Fentaw Response of 67
• The block diagrams of feedback control system
Disturbance 1 Disturbance 2
Output
SP
Final control Process Or
Controller
element or plant Controlled
Summing
- variable
junction
Sensor/
Transmitter
Fig 1-4 Block diagrams of closed-loop control systems

 The advantage of feedback control
Compensate for all disturbances
The result of any disturbance entering the process is to
make the controlled variable deviate from the SET POINT.
Once the controlled variable deviates from the set point,
the controller changes its output to return the controlled
variable to SET POINT(its desired value).
The feedback control loop does not know, nor does it
care, which disturbance enters the process. It only tries
to maintain the controlled variable at set point, and in
this way compensates for all disturbances. The feedback
controller works with minimum knowledge of the
process. Actually, the only information it needs is in
which direction to move, and how much to move is
usually adjusted by trial and error.
 The disadvantage of feedback control

SP
Can compensate for a
disturbance only AFTER Controller
TC
the controlled variable Final control

has deviated from the set element
Steam
point because of the
disturbance. Transmitter
Process TT
Can not give the fluid
controlled variable a Ti(t) T(t)

Sensor
timely control (laggard) T
Condensate
return
Points:
• How it works?
• The block diagram of feedforward control
• The characteristics of feedforward control

• How it works?
The feedforward control is a very common control

strategy in the process industries. It is the simplicity
that accounts for its popularity.
The objective of feedforward control is to measure
the disturbances and compensate for them before
the controlled variable deviates from the set point.
If applied correctly, the controlled variable
deviation would be minimum.

Suppose that “major” SP
disturbance is the inlet Feedforward
temperature Ti(t). To controller
implement feedforward
Steam
control, this disturbance
TT
must first be measured
and then a decision made Ti(t) T(t)
as to manipulate the T
Condensation
retun
steam valve to
compensate for them.
Fig 1-5 Feedforward
control
Fig 1-5 shows this control SP
strategy. Feedforward
controller
 measure the inlet
temperature Steam
TT
 Feedforward controller
makes the decision about Ti(t) T(t)
T
how to manipulate the Condensation
retun
steam valve to maintain
the controlled variable at Fig 1-5 Feedforward
set point. control
• The Block diagrams of Feedforward control
Sensor/
Tranmitter Process flow
Disturbances
Output
SP
Final control Process Or
Controller
element or plant Controlled
variable
Fig 1-6 Block diagrams of feedforward control

 The disadvantage of feedforward control
Feedforward control cannot compensate

for all disturbances that enter the process

 The disadvantage of feedforward control
SP
Feedforward
 In this example, The feedforward controller
control system can compensate

only one of disturbances. If any Steam
TT
of the other disturbances enter
the process, this strategy will not f(t) Ti(t) T(t)
compensate for it, and the result T

Condensation
retun
will be a permanent deviation
from set point of the controlled
Fig 1-5 Feedforward
variable. control
 The advantage of feedforward control

SP
It has the characteristic Feedforward

controller
of forward control
Steam
So, if we use this strategy
TT
correctly, the controlled
variable will not deviate Ti(t) T(t)
set point. T
Condensation
retun
Fig 1-5 Feedforward

control
Some examples:
Washing machine
Feedforward
Oven control system
Microwave oven
Feedback
Air conditioner control system

(3) Choose a proper control system
Review:
• Feedback control system
• Feedforward control system
?:
How to choose a proper control system?

• Proper Control System
• Can get the output that a process need
• Low cost

• Contrast
Feedforward Feedback Control

Control System System
Can not compensate Can compensate all

all disturbances disturbances
Simple structure Complex structure

Low cost High cost

• Choice
An open-loop
system
• Simplicity and low cost

Trade-off:
• Complexity and higher cost
Premise: Ensure the A closed-loop

requirement of system
industrial production

• Feedforward control with feedback control
In this example, TC
SP
Feedforward control
+
now compensate for Feedforward
controller
the “major” +
disturbance;
Steam
feedback control
compensate for all TT
TT
other disturbances. T(t)

f(t) Ti(t)
T
Condensation
retun
Fig 1-6 Feedforward control with

feedback control
• feedforward control with feedback control
Notice: the three basic TC

SP
operations, M,D,A are
+
still present in this Feedforward
controller
more “advanced” +
control strategy.
Steam
The sensors and TT
TT
transmitters perform
the measurement. f(t) Ti(t) T(t)
T
Condensation
Both feedforward and retun
feedback controller
make the decision. Fig 1-6 Feedforward control with
feedback control
The steam valve takes
action.
1.5 SUMMARY
• The need for automatic process control

• The principles of a control system, we can
use three letters to describe, M, D and A
• Present the basic components of a process
control system: sensor/transmitter, controller,
and final control element

1.5 SUMMARY
• Present two types of control strategies:

Feedforward control or feedback control, we
also discussed their advantages and
disadvantages,
• Give the principles of choosing the proper
control system

CHAPTER 2
Analog and Digital signal conditioning

application to process control
Instructor : Dessie Fentaw(Capt.)

2016
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Analog to digital convertors (ADC)
Presentation Outline
• Introduction: Analog vs. Digital?
• Examples of ADC Applications
• Types of A/D Converters
• A/D Subsystem used in the microcontroller
chip
• Examples of Analog to Digital Signal
Conversion
• Successive Approximation ADC

Analog Signals
Analog signals – directly measurable quantities
in terms of some other quantity
Examples:
• Thermometer – mercury height rises as
temperature rises
• Car Speedometer – Needle moves farther
right as you accelerate
• Stereo – Volume increases as you turn the
knob.
Digital Signals
Digital Signals – have only two states. For digital
computers, we refer to binary states, 0 and 1.
“1” can be on, “0” can be off.
Examples:
• Light switch can be either on or off
• Door to a room is either open or closed

Examples of A/D Applications
• Microphones - take your voice varying pressure waves in the air
and convert them into varying electrical signals
• Strain Gages - determines the amount of strain (change in

dimensions) when a stress is applied
• Thermocouple – temperature measuring device converts

thermal energy to electric energy
• Voltmeters
• Digital Multimeters

Just what does an
A/D converter DO?
• Converts analog signals into binary words

Analog  Digital Conversion
2-Step Process:
• Quantizing - breaking down analog value is a

set of finite states
• Encoding - assigning a digital word or number
to each state and matching it to the input
signal

Step 1: Quantizing
Output Discrete Voltage
Example: States Ranges (V)
You have 0-10V signals. 0 0.00-1.25
Separate them into a set 1 1.25-2.50
of discrete states with
2 2.50-3.75
1.25V increments. (How
did we get 1.25V? See 3 3.75-5.00
next slide…) 4 5.00-6.25
5 6.25-7.50
6 7.50-8.75
7 8.75-10.0
Quantizing
The number of possible states that the converter can
output is:
N=2n
where n is the number of bits in the AD converter
Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, N=23=8.
Analog quantization size:

Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N = (10V – 0V)/8 = 1.25V

Encoding
Output Output Binary Equivalent
• Here we assign the States
digital value (binary 0 000
number) to each state
1 001
for the computer to
read. 2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

Accuracy of A/D Conversion
There are two ways to best improve accuracy of A/D
conversion:
• increasing the resolution which improves the

accuracy in measuring the amplitude of the analog
signal.
• increasing the sampling rate which increases the

maximum frequency that can be measured.

Resolution
• Resolution (number of discrete values the converter can

produce) = Analog Quantization size (Q)
(Q) = V range / 2^n, where V range is the range of analog
voltages which can be represented
• limited by signal-to-noise ratio (should be around 6dB)
• In our previous example: Q = 1.25V, this is a high resolution.

A lower resolution would be if we used a 2-bit converter, then
the resolution would be 10/2^2 = 2.50V.

Sampling Rate
Frequency at which ADC evaluates analog signal. As we

see in the second picture, evaluating the signal more often
more accurately depicts the ADC signal.

Aliasing
• Occurs when the input signal is changing much faster
than the sample rate.
For example, a 2 kHz sine wave being sampled at 1.5

kHz would be reconstructed as a 500 Hz (the aliased
signal) sine wave.
Nyquist Rule:
• Use a sampling frequency at least twice as high as
the maximum frequency in the signal to avoid
aliasing.
Overall Better Accuracy
• Increasing both the sampling rate and the resolution you

can obtain better accuracy in your AD signals.

A/D Converter Types By Danny Carpenter
• Converters
– Flash ADC
– Delta-Sigma ADC
– Dual Slope (integrating) ADC
– Successive Approximation ADC

Flash ADC
• Consists of a series of comparators, each one
comparing the input signal to a unique
reference voltage.
• The comparator outputs connect to the inputs

of a priority encoder circuit, which produces a
binary output

Flash ADC Circuit

How Flash Works
• As the analog input voltage exceeds the
reference voltage at each comparator, the
comparator outputs will sequentially saturate
to a high state.
• The priority encoder generates a binary
number based on the highest-order active
input, ignoring all other active inputs.

ADC Output

Flash
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simplest in terms of
operational theory • Lower resolution
• Expensive
• Most efficient in terms of • For each additional
speed, very fast output bit, the number of
• limited only in terms of comparators is doubled
comparator and gate
• i.e. for 8 bits, 256
propagation delays
comparators needed

Sigma Delta ADC
• Over sampled input signal
goes to the integrator
• Output of integration is
compared to GND
• Iterates to produce a
serial bit stream
• Output is serial bit stream
with # of 1’s proportional
to Vin

Outputs of Delta Sigma

Sigma-Delta
• High resolution • Slow due to oversampling
• No precision external
components needed

Dual Slope Converter
Vin
tFIX tmeas
t
• The sampled signal charges a capacitor for a fixed

amount of time
• By integrating over time, noise integrates out of the
conversion
• Then the ADC discharges the capacitor at a fixed rate
with the counter counts the ADC’s output bits. A longer
discharge time results in a higher count
Dual Slope Converter
• Input signal is averaged • Slow
• Greater noise immunity • High precision external
than other ADC types components required to
• High accuracy achieve accuracy

Successive Approximation ADC
• A Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is added to the

circuit
• Instead of counting up in binary sequence, this register counts
by trying all values of bits starting with the MSB and finishing
at the LSB.
• The register monitors the comparators output to see if the
binary count is greater or less than the analog signal input and
adjusts the bits accordingly

Successive Approximation ADC Circuit

Output

Successive Approximation
• Capable of high speed and • Higher resolution successive

reliable approximation ADC’s will be
• Medium accuracy compared slower
to other ADC types • Speed limited to ~5Msps
• Good tradeoff between speed
and cost
• Capable of outputting the

binary number in serial (one
bit at a time) format.

ADC Types Comparison
ADC Resolution Comparison

Dual Slope
Flash
Successive Approx
Sigma-Delta
0 5 10 15 20 25
Resolution (Bits)
Type Speed (relative) Cost (relative)

Dual Slope Slow Med
Flash Very Fast High
Successive Appox Medium – Fast Low
Sigma-Delta Slow Low
Successive Approximation Example
• 10 bit resolution or
0.0009765625V of Vref
• Vin= .6 volts
• Vref=1volts
• Find the digital value of
Vin

• MSB (bit 9)
– Divided Vref by 2
– Compare Vref /2 with Vin
– If Vin is greater than Vref /2 , turn MSB on (1)
– If Vin is less than Vref /2 , turn MSB off (0)
– Vin =0.6V and V=0.5
– Since Vin>V, MSB = 1 (on)

• Next Calculate MSB-1 (bit 8)
– Compare Vin=0.6 V to V=Vref/2 + Vref/4= 0.5+0.25 =0.75V
– Since 0.6<0.75, MSB is turned off
• Calculate MSB-2 (bit 7)
– Go back to the last voltage that caused it to be turned on (Bit 9)
and add it to Vref/8, and compare with Vin
– Compare Vin with (0.5+Vref/8)=0.625
– Since 0.6<0.625, MSB is turned off

• Calculate the state of MSB-3 (bit 6)
– Go to the last bit that caused it to be turned on (In
this case MSB-1) and add it to Vref/16, and
compare it to Vin
– Compare Vin to V= 0.5 + Vref/16= 0.5625
– Since 0.6>0.5625, MSB-3=1 (turned on)

• This process continues for all the remaining
bits.

Final Control/Final Control
Elements

Final Control
• The function of final control element is to
translate low-energy control signal into a level
of action

Final Control Operation
Control signal
Signal Conversions Actuator
Final
Control
Element
Process
Fig. Elements of the final control opration

Signal Conversions
 The modification to the control signal to properly
interface with the actuator
 For example, the electric motor actuator to operate the

valve
Current-to-voltage conversion
 The devices that perform signal conversions are called

transducers

Actuator
The translation of control signal into action on the
control element
For example
– Valve (control element)  Mechanism to open

or close the valve
 can be electrically (Solenoid, or motor)
 pneumatically
 hydraulically controlled
– Heater (control element)  Relay switch

Control Element
• The device that influences the process variables
• For example
Flow  Valve
Temperature  Heater

Signal Conversions
 Signal conversion is to convert low-energy control
signal to a high-energy signal to drive the actuator
 The signal from controller comes in 3 forms
 Electrical current 4-20 mA
 Pneumatic pressure 3 to 15 psi
 Digital signal

 Common element to perform analog signal
conversion are
 Relay
 Amplifiers
 Common element to perform digital signal
conversion are
 ON/OFF control
 DAC
 Direct action

Pneumatic Signals
 In pneumatic system, signals is carried in form
of gas pressure
 The pressure gas travels at speed of 330 m/s.
 There are 3 types of conversion
 Amplification
 Nozzle/Flapper system
 Current-to-Pressure converters

Amplification
 Pneumatic amplifier or booster raise pressure

via a regulator
 As the input pressure increases, the diaphragm

motion will move the plug into the booster

 As the signal pressure varies, the
diaphragm motion will move the plug
in the body block of the booster.
 If motion is down, the gas leak is
reduced and pressure in the out put line
is increased.
 The device is reveres acting, because a
high-pressure will cause out put
pressure to decrease. many other
designs are also used
A pneumatic amplifier or booster converts the signal pressure to a higher

Pressure or the same pressure
Nozzle/Flapper System
 An important signal coversion is from pressure
to mechanicaal motion and vice versa.
 This conversion can be provided by a
nozzle/flapper system(sometimes called a
nozzle/baffle system). Adiagram of this device
is sown in figure below .
 A regulated supply of pressure, usually over 20
psi, provides a source of air through the
restriction.
 The nozzle is open at the end where the gap
exists between the nozzle and flapper ,and air
escape in this region.
Current-to-Pressure Converters
 The current- to-pressure, or simply I/P converter, is an important element in
process control.
 often, when we want to use the low-level electric current signal to do work, it is
easier to let the work be done by a pneumatic signal.
 The I/P converter diven us a linear way of translatin the 4-to 20-mA current in to
a 3-to15- psig signal.

I/P Converter
• Convert 4-20 mA into 3-to-15 psi signal

 There are many designes for these converter, but the basic princiipl almost always
involves the ues of a nozzle/floapper system.
 Fig above illustrates a simply way to construct such a converter.
 Notic that the current through a coil produces a force that will tend to pull the
flapper down and close off the gap.

 A high current produces a high pressure so that the device is direct acting .
 Adjustment of the spring and perhaps the position relative to the pivot to
which they are attached allows the unit to be calibrated so that 4mA
corresponds to 3 psi and 20 mA corresponds to 15 psi

Power Electronics
 The high power electronics devices to convert low-
level energy signal to high-level energy signal
 The devices is categorized into
 Switching devices
 Controlling devices

Switching Devices
 The solid-state semicoductor devices that can

either be in an off or on state
 SCR
 GTO
 TRIAC

SCR
 SCR or thyristor is the device that conducts current
in the forward bias direction if a positive voltage is
applied to the gate
 SCR will continue to conduct unless there is the

forward bias is removed

 During the ON state, there will be voltage
drop across SCR called Ron
 The power dissipated in SCR is
P  I 2 Ron
Application of SCR is shown below

 The figure illustrated
how the SCR can be
used in full-wave
rectifier to control
power to the load

 The trigger signal can be implemented as shown
below
 The opto-coupler allows the control voltage to

change current through the photoresistor
• Thus, changing the charging rate of the
capacitor
• When the capacitor voltage reaches the
required gate triggered voltage, the capacitor
discharge through R, turn on the SCR

Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)
 A significant improvement to SCR
 Turn on in forward bias with positive voltage
 Turn off in forward bias with negative voltage

TRIAC
 Can conduct current in both direction
 Positive gate voltage will conduct in one

direction
 Negative gate voltage will conduct in opposite

direction

 TRIAC is limited in applications because it is
slow
 To turn off by taking voltage across the

TRIAC to zero
 In order to provide necessary positive and

negative voltage the TRIAC is used with
DIAC
Controlling Device
 The devices that are used to smooth control

of current flow through it
 BJT
 Power MOSFET
 IGBT

Actuator
 If a valve is used to control fluid flow, some mechanism must
physically open or close the valve.
 If a heater is to warm a system, some device must tern the heater on
or off or vary its excitation.
 These are examples of the requirements for an actuator in the
process-control loop.
 Notice the distinction of this device from both the input control
signal and the control element itself (valve, heater ,and so on, as
shown in figure below).

Electrical Actuator
 Action is the result of input electrical signal
 Solenoid
 Electrical motor
i. DC motor
ii. AC motor
iii. Stepping motor

Solenoid
 An elementary device that converts an electrical
signal into mechanical motion (linear)
 The solenoid consists of a coil and plunger

 The plungr may be freeatanding or spring loaded.
 The coil will have some voltage or current rating and may be dc ac.
 Solenoid specfications include the electrical rating and the plunger pull or
push force when excited by the specified voltage

Turning Electrical Power into
Mechanical Work

Presentation Agenda
• Discuss how a Solenoid Works
• Show some different types of Solenoids
• Discuss Applications for Solenoid use.
• Introduce Web Resources

How a Solenoid Works.
1. Apply Current
2. Magnetic Field Builds
3. Stop and Plunger
Become Attracting
Magnets
4. Magnetic Force Drives
Plunger to Stop

Basics Types of Solenoids
• Push • Rotary
• Pull • Open
• Clapper • Closed

Types of Solenoids
Pull Solenoids
• Force is Directed Back
towards Solenoid.
Push Solenoids
• Force is Directed AWAY
from Solenoid

Types of Solenoids
Clapper Solenoids
• Typically Force
application can be the
same as a Push or Pull
• Greater amount of End
Force/Hold Force

Types of Solenoids
Rotary Solenoids • Every Company has
• Apply a Torque over a different ways to
range of Rotation. obtain the rotary
motion.

Types of Solenoids
Rotary Solenoids
• Other Configurations:

Types of Solenoids
• Open Frame Solenoids • Closed Frame Solenoids
or Tubular Solenoids

Typical Solenoid Applications
• Linear Applications
– Valve Actuators
– Latching/Switching
– Pushing/Pulling Objects
• Sorting
• Shutters
• Characteristics
– Size  as Force 
– Limited Stroke Lengths
• 5/8” is a Long Stroke

Typical Solenoid Applications
• Rotary Solenoids
– Sorting Machines
– Shutter Actuators
• Characteristics
– Strokes from 5° to 90°
– As Stroke Increases
Starting Torque 

Web Resources For Solenoids
http://www.camdec.com
http://www.gwlisk.com
http://www.ledex.com
http://www.ramcompany.com
http://www.takaha.com

Conclusions
• Solenoids Convert Electrical Energy to

Mechanical Work
• Different Types of Solenoids for
Different Types of Applications
– Linear and Rotary
• Major Considerations
– Size
– Stroke and Force Limitations

DC Motor
 The rotation of DC motor is produced by the
interaction of two constant magnetic fields
 One from the permanent magnets, the other is from

a current passing through a wire

 Many DC motors use electromagnet instead of a
permanent magnet to provide static field
 Series field
 Shunt field
 Compound

• Series field
– Large starting torque
– Difficult to control speed
– Good in applications for starting heavy load
• Shunt field
– Smaller starting torque
– Good speed control
– Application: conveyer system
• Compound field
– Attempts to obtain the best of features of both of
the two previous types

Synchronous Motor
• An AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning
with coils passing magnets at the same rate as
the alternating current and resulting magnetic
field which drives it.

• The speed of rotation of a synchronous motor
is related to frequency of ac excitation
120 f
ns  (rpm)
p

Induction Motor
• An induction motor (IM) is a type of
asynchronous AC motor where power is
supplied to the rotating device by means of
electromagnetic induction.
• Stator windings are arranged around the rotor
so that when energized with a polyphase
supply they create a rotating magnetic field
pattern which sweeps past the rotor.

• This changing magnetic field pattern can
induce currents in the rotor conductors. These
currents interact with the rotating magnetic
field created by the stator and the rotor will
turn.

Step Motor
• The rotation of step motor is done by
sequence of pulses train
• The speed of step motor is determined by the
rate of pulse
• A driver circuit is used to converted the pulse
train into proper driving signals

Pneumatic Actuators
• Conversion of pressure signal into action
F  A  p1  p2 
p1  p2  pressure difference (Pa)

A  diaphragm area m 2  
F  force (N)
• If we need to double the available force for a given

pressure, it is only to double the diaphragm area

• The action of pneumatic actuator is shown
below
• The shaft position is linearly related to applied

control pressure
A
x  p
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Example
Suppose a force of 400 N must be applied to
open a valve. Find the diaphragm area if a
control gauge pressure of 70 kPa (10 psi) must
provide this force

Hydraulic Actuator
• The inherent compressibility of gases cause
limit to the output force
• When large force is required, hydraulic
actuator may be employed.
• The basic idea is the same except fluid is
incompressible
• The hydraulic pressure is given by

F1
pH 
A1
• This pressure is transferred equally to the

working piston as
Fw  pH A2

• Thus, the working force is given by
A2
Fw  F1
A1

Example
a. Find the working force resulting from 200 N
applied to a 1 cm radius forcing piston if the
working piston has a radius of 6 cm
b. Find the hydraulic pressure.

Control Elements
• The device to control variables.
• A general standard devices are
– Mechanical
– Electrical
– Fluid valve

Mechanical Control Element
• Perform some mechanical operation
• Examples are
– Solid-Material Hopper Valve
– Paper Thickness

Solid-Material Hopper Valve
• The control system is to maintain the flow of
grain from storage bin
• The flow depends on the height of the grain in
the bin

Paper Thickness
• Control of paper thickness
• Paper thickness is controlled by the height of
the roller

Electrical Control Element
• A direct electrical effect on the process control
situation
• Examples are
– Motor-Speed Control
– Temperature Control

Motor-Speed Control
• The speed of motor depends on supply
voltage, load, and others
• The motor speed control regulate the
operating voltage or current

Temperature Control
• Control of temperature through a heater
which is directly supply by electrical signal

Fluid Valve
• The element to regulate the flow of fluid
• The regulation of the flow is done by placing a
variable-size restriction in the flow path

• The flow rate varies with square root of
pressure drop
Q  K p

K  proportionality constant m3 / s/Pa1/2 
p  p2  p1  pressure difference (Pa)

Control Valve Type
• Classified by relationship
between the valve stem
position and the flow rate
– Quick Opening
• Used for full ON/full OFF
• Small motion of the stem,
resulted in maximum possible
flow rate
– Linear
• Flow rate varies linearly with stem
position
Q S

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Qmax S max Dessie Fentaw 286
– Equal Percentage
• Percentage change in stem position equal percentage
change in flow rate
• Range of flow rate is
Qmax
R
Qmin
• The flow rate is given by
Q  Qmin RS / Smax

Example
An equal percentage valve has a maximum
flow of 50 cm3/s and a minimum of 2 cm3/s. If
the full travel is 3 cm, find the flow at a 1 cm
opening

CHAPTER 3
Process control loop tuning and

Controllers

Introduction
 In this chapter, we study the nature of controller action for
systems with operations and variables that range over
continuous values.
 The controller inputs the results of measurements of the
controller variable and determines an appropriate output to the
final control element.
 Essentially, the controller is some form of computer either
analog or digital, pneumatic or electronic.

Closed-loop control system in process control.

 The Controller provides a corrective signal. Output will depend on vε.
 The Output signal conditioning or Signal conditioner is the interface between the
controller output (a signal) to the output actuator.
 The Output actuator or Final correcting device directly affects a process change: motor,
heater, solenoid, etc.
 The Input sensor detects any changes in the process respect to the set-point.
 The Input signal conditioning converts the output from the input sensor to a process
variable signal.

The Controller is the heart of any electronic control system and possesses the following
characteristics:
i. It maintains the process variable within acceptable limits of the set point.
ii. The smaller the variations of the process from the set point the better the controller.
iii. The faster the controller responds when the process variable deviates from the set point
the better the controller.

Controller Principles
 The controller takes input, solve certain

equations to calculate the proper output
 The equations describe the mode or action of

the controller

Process Characteristics
 To select which mode of operation to used

depends on the characteristics of the process
 Process equation
 Dynamic behavior of the process

 The control of liquid temperature in the tank
 The controlled variable is TL(liquid temprature)

 TL depends on many parameters in the process
TL  F (QA , QB , QS , TA , TS , T0 )
where QA , QB  flow rates in pipes A and B
QS  steam flow rate
TA  ambient temperature
T0  inlet fluid temperature
TS  steam temperature
 The controller loop adjusts QS and regulate the TL, regardless

of each parameters vary with each other

Process Load
 Set of parameters in the process that results in controlled
variable equal to setpoint value, excluding controlled
variable
 When the load changes, the controlling variable is adjusted

to compensate for this change to bring back to the setpoint
Process Lag
 The time delay that process responds to the load change

Example
 An inlet flow is suddenly double. The process
gradually change the liquid temperature.

Self-Regulation
 A significant characteristic of some processes to adopt a

specific value or stable value of controlled variable under
nominal load without regulation via process control loop is
called self-regulation.
 The control operations are significantly affected by the self

regulation.

Control System Parameters
 Error
 Variable Range
 Control Parameter Range
 Control Lag
 Dead Time
 Cycling
 Controller Modes

Error
 The deviation or error of the controlled
variable from the set point is given by
e  r b
e  error
b  measured indication of variable
r  setpoint of variable (reference)

 The previous equation is error as an absolute sense
 To express error as percent of span
r b
ep   100
bmax  bmin

Example
The temperature has a range of 300 to 440 K and a set

point of 384 K. Find the percentage of span error
when the temperature is 379 k

Control Parameter Range
 The controller output expressed as percentage

 where 0 % is the minimum controller output and
100 % is the maximum controller output
u  umin
p  100
umax  umin
p  controller output as percent of full scale

u  value of the output
umax  maximum value of controlling parameter
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Example
A controller outputs a 4-to-20 mA signal to control motor speed from 140 to
600 rpm with a linear dependence. Calculate (a) current corresponding to 310
rpm and (b) the value of (a) expressed as the percentage of control output.
Soln.
We find the slope m and intersect by the linear equation

Control Lag
 The time for the process-control loop to make

necessary adjustment to the final control element
Example,
A change in liquid temperature occurs, it is required

some finite time for the control system to
physically actuate the steam control valve

Dead Time
 Dead time is the delay from when a controller

output signal is issued until when the measured
process variable (PV) first begins to respond.
 The presence of dead time is never a good thing in a

control loop.

Cycling
 An oscillation of the error about zero
 It means the controlled variable varies up and

down between the setpoint

Controller Modes
 Discontinuous controller mode
 A discrete state of output from the controller
 Continuous controller mode
 Smoothly continuous adjust the output
 The choice is depended on
 Process characteristics
 Cost analysis
 Product rate
 Other industrial factors

Direct Action
 When controlled variable increases as controller output increases
 Level control
• Level increase, the value should open more (drive signal
should increase)
Reverse Action
 When an increase in controlled variable cause a
decrease in controller output
 Temperature control
If temperature increase, the drive to the heater should be
decrease

Discontinuous Controller Modes
 Two position mode

 Multi-position mode
 Floating control mode

Two Position Mode
 The controller will output 2 values of signal
depends on ep
 0% e p  0
p
100% e p  0
Heater,
 if temperature drops below setpoint, the heater is
turn ON.
 If the temperature rises above the setpoint, it is turn
OFF

Neutral Zone
 During -ep to ep, the controller output will not
change
 This is design to prevent excessive cycling

Example
A liquid-level control system linearly converts a displacement

of 2 to 3 m into a 4 to 20 mA control signal. A relay serves as
the two position controller to open or close an inlet valve. The
relay closes at 12 mA and opens at 10 mA. Find (a) the
relation between displacement level and current and (b) the
neutral zone or displacement gap in meter

Multi position Mode
 Provide several intermediate setting of

controller outputs
 Try to reduce cycling behavior and overshoot
 This mode is represent by
p  pi e p  ei i  1, 2,...n
Example
100 e p  e1

p   50 e1  e p  e1
 0 e p  e1

 The graph represents the error and the control output
 The overshoot and undershoot are due to process lag time

and controller lag time

Floating-Control Mode
 p is not uniquely determined by error ep
Single speed floating controller
The output p of the controller change at a fixed rate

when error exceeds the neutral zone
dp
 KF e p  e p
dt
dp
 rate of change of controller output with time
dt
K F  rate constant (%/s)
e p  half the neutral zone
 The previous equation is integrated, we get
p   K F t  p(0) e p  e p
p(0)  controller output at t=0
 It shows that the present output depends on the time history

of error

 If deviation persists, the controller saturates at either
100% or 0%

Multiple Speed
 The possible rate for controller depends on
magnitude of ep
dp
  K Fi e p  e pi
dt

Continuous Controller Mode
 Proportional control mode

 Integral control mode
 Derivative control mode

Proportional Control Mode
 Each value of error (ep) has a unique value of

controller output in one-to-one correspondence
p  K p e p  p0
K p  proportional gain between error

and controller output (% per %)
p0  controller output with no error (%)

Direct and Reverse Action
From r b
ep   100
bmax  bmin
 As b (measured)increases --> p decreases -->

reverse action
 To get direct action, put negative sign for Kp

Proportional Band
 The range of error to cover 0 to 100% controller
output is called proportional band (PB)
100
PB 
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Dessie Fentawp 326
Summary
 If error is zero, the output is constant equal to p0
 If there is error, for every 1% of error, a correction
Kp percent is added to or subtracted from p0,
depending on the sign of error
 There is a band of error about zero of magnitude PB
within which the output is not saturate at 0% or
100%

Offset
 A load change permanently effects the output of the
controller
Example

Integral Control Mode
 Integral mode eliminates offset by allowing the

controller to adapt by changing zero output.
 Integral action is provided by summing error over

time, multiplying that sum by a gain and adding the
result to the present controller output.
t
p(t )  K I  e p dt  p (0)
0

 p(0) is the controller output when the integral
action starts
 KI expresses how much controller output in
percent is needed for every percent time
dp (t )
accumulative error, an  Kother
I ep
way
dt
 When error occurs, the controller begins to

increase (decrease) its output at a rate that
depends on the size of the error and the gain

Example
An integral controller has a reset action of 2.2 minutes. Express the integral controller
constant in s-1.Solution:
Find the output of this controller to a constant error of 2.2%.
Given Data: Reset action time = TI = 2.2 min =
132 Seconds
Error = ep = 2.2%
Asked: Integral controller constant = KI = ?
Controller output = p = ?

Summary
 If error is zero, the output stays fixed at value equal

to what it was when the error went to zero
 If error is not zero, the output will begin to increase

or decrease at a rate of KI percent/second for every
1% of error

Integral mode controller action
a). The rate of output change depends on error
b).an illustration of integral mode output and error

Derivative Control Mode
 Derivative action responds to the rate at which the
errors is changing. That is, the derivative of the error
de p
p (t )  K D
dt
 KD tells us how much percentage change the controller
output for every percent-per-second rate of change of
error

Summary
 If error is zero, the mode provide no output
 Derivative action is not use alone because it provides

no action when error is constant
 If the error is changing, the mode contribute an output

KD percent for every 1 % per s of rate of change of
error

How would a derivative controller with KD = 4 s respond to an error that
varies as ep=2.2 Sin(0.04t)?
Solution
Given: KD = 4 s ep = 2.2 Sin(0.04t) Asked: Derivative controller o/p=?
For derivative mode, p(t) = KD (dep/dt)
p(t) = 4 x d/dt(2.2 Sin(0.04t))
= 4 x 2.2 x Cos(0.04t) x 0.04
= 0.352 Cos(0.04t)

Composite Control Mode
 The combination of basic modes
 Gain advantage of each modes
 Eliminate some limitations

Example
 PI
 PD
 PID

Proportional-Integrate
Control (PI)
 Combination of proportional mode and integral
mode
t
p  K P e p  K P K I  e p dt  PI (0)
0
where
PI (0)  integral term at t = 0

Example
A PI controller is reverse acting, PB=20, 12 repeats per minute. Find (a)
Proportional gain (b) Integral gain, and (c) Time that the controller output will
reach 0% after a constant error of 1.5% starts. The controller output when the error
occurred was 72%.

Summary
 One-to-One correspondence
 Eliminate offset
 When the error is zero, p = pI(0)
 If the error is not zero, the proportional term

contributes a correction and the integral term begin
to increase the accumulate value

Proportional Derivative
Control (PD)
 Combination of proportional and derivative modes.
de p
p  K Pep  K P K D  p0
dt
 Cannot eliminate the offset proportional controller
 Can handle fast process load changes if offset error

is acceptable

Example
A PD controller has Kp = 2.0, KD = 2 s, and P0 = 40%. Plot the controller output for
the error input shown in Fig below

Three-Mode Controller (PID)
 Powerful Complex Controller
 Combines the proportional, integral, and derivative

modes
 Can be used in any process condition

t
de p
p  K P e p  K P K I  e p dt  K P K D  pI (0)
0
dt

Design of Analog Controllers
Instructor : Dessie Fentaw

Introduction
 This chapter provides a detailed description of how controller
modes are implemented using analog techniques. Both
electronic techniques and pneumatic techniques are discussed.
 More emphasis is given on the electronic controllers, realized
using op amps as the active element because of its wide spread
use.
 Pneumatic techniques are also discussed because there are many
operations where a complete implementation of process control
loop uses pneumatic methods.
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to provide an understanding of how controller
modes are implemented using electronic techniques. After the detailed study of
this chapter, you should able to:
1. Diagram the physical appearance of an analog controller.
2. Diagram and describe how two position and three position control can be
implemented using comparators
3. Draw a schematics and describe how op amps can be used to implement
the proportional, integral and derivative modes of analog control
4. Design an op amp circuit that will implement the proportional integral,
proportional derivative, and proportional integral derivative control
modes.
General Features
 An analog controller is a device that implements different controller
modes using analog signals to represent the loop parameters.
 The analog signal may be in the form of an electric current or a
pneumatic air pressure.
 The controller accepts a measurement expressed in terms of one of these
signals, calculates an output for the mode being used, and outputs an
analog signal of the same type.
 Since controller does solve equations, it can be treated as an analog
computer.
 The controller must be able to add, subtract, multiply, integrate and find
derivatives of analog voltages or pressures.
Typical Physical Layout
Fig. Typical physical appearance of a controller

Electronic controllers
Electronic method of realizing controller
modes necessitates the use of OPAMPs as the
primary circuit elements.
Error detector
The detection of an error signal is done in
electronic controllers by taking the difference
between voltages. One voltage is generated by the
process signal current passed through a
resistor. The second voltage represents the set
point, which is usually generated by a voltage
divider using a constant voltage as a source.

Error detector
An error detector also can be made from a differential amplifier as shown in
Figure.
The sensor signal current passes to ground through RL providing a signal
voltage Vm = IRL.
The differential amplifier then subtracts this from the set point voltage.
Error detector using a ground based current and a differential amplifier.

Two Position controller
 Two Position controller implementation using OPAMP is shown as
figure below represents the OPAMP implementation of ON/OFF
controller with adjustable neutral zone.
A two position controller with neutral zone made from op amps and a comparator.

 Assume that, if the controller input voltage, Vin reaches a value VH then the
comparator output should go to the ON state, which is defined as some voltage V0.
 When the input voltage falls bellow a value VL the comparator output should
switch to the OFF state, which is defined as 0 V.
This defines a two position controller with a neutral zone of:
NZ = VH - VL
as shown in the Figure

 Assume that, in the beginning, the comparator is in the OFF state. i.e.
the voltage, V1 at the input of the comparator is less than the set
point voltage, Vsp. Hence,
Vout = 0
 The comparator output switches states when the voltage on its input,
V1 is equal to the set point value Vsp Analyzing this circuit,
Substituting Vout = 0 yields
V1 = Vin

The comparator changes to ON state when V1 = Vin = VH. Thus, the high (ON)
switch voltage is
VH = Vsp
and the corresponding output voltage Vout is
Vout = V0 With this V1 changes to

Three position controller
The figure below shows how a simple three position controller can be
realized with op amps and comparators.
A three position controller using two comparators and op amps

 Assume that, the output of the comparators is 0 V for the

OFF state and V0 volts for the ON state.
 The summing amplifier also includes a bias voltage input,
VB which allows the three position mode response to be
biased up or down in voltage to suit particular needs.
 The inverter is needed to convert the sign of the inverting
action of the summing amplifier.


Response of the three position controller

Proportional Mode controller design
Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has the response given by:
P = Kp ep + P0
Where P = controller output 0 – 100 %
Kp = Proportional gain
ep = error in percent of variable range
P0 = Controller output with no error

Implementation of P Mode controller using
OPAMP
 If both the controller output and error expressed in terms of voltage, then
the above equation is a summing amplifier.
 Figure shows such an electronic proportional controller.
An op amp proportional mode Controller

Implementation of P Mode controller using OPAMP
Now, the analog electronic equation for the output voltage is:
Vout = Gp Ve + V0
Where, Vout = output voltage
Gp = R2/R1 = gain, Ve = Error voltage, V0 = output with zero error
Thus, first identify that the output voltage range of the circuit, whatever it is,
represents a swing of 0% to 100%. Thus, if a final control element needs 0 to 5
V, then a Zener is added as shown in the Figure so that the op amp output can
swing only between 0 and 5V.
A zener diode used to clamp the output swing of an op amp controller

Design Procedure:
First, for the input, determine the range of measurement from which the error voltage
was produced.
e.g. Consider that, the temperature is to be measured and controlled from 100°C to
200°C and this is converted to 2.0 to 8.0 V.
Hence, the measurement range is (8.0 – 2.0) = 6.0V. Then error voltage can be expressed
as a percent of this range. This will be correlated with the error in equation 2.15. i.e,
Where, ep = error expressed as percentage of span

r = set point value (Reference)
b = measured indication of variable
bmax = maximum of measured value
bmin = minimum of measured value

Finally, calculate the gain (Gp) of which is not simply Kp. The actual value of
Gp must be determined so that its effect in voltage is the same as that required by Kp in
terms of percent.
e.g. Kp = 4 %/%
The output voltage range = 0 to 5 V
Input voltage span = 2 to 8 V
Find corresponding Gp
Solution:
Input voltage range = (8-2) V = 6 V.

Method 1
Kp = 4 %/% means: if the error constitutes 1 % of the input range, then the output must
be changed by 4 % of its range.
1 % of the input range = (0.01) (6V) = 0.06 V
4 % of the output = ( 0.04) ( 5 V) = 0.2 V
Now, Gp = (Kp % of the output)/ (1 % of the input range)
Gp = 0.2/0.06 = 3.33
Method2:
PB = 100/Kp
PB = Percent of error that will cause a 100 % change of output.
Now, with the given data, PB = 100/4 = 25 %
Therefore, 25 % change of input error must produce a 100 % change of output.
Now, 25 % change of input is = (0.25) (6 V) = 1.5 V
100 % of the output = 5 V
So, Gp = (5V)/(1.5 V) = 3.33.
Integral Mode controller
The general representation of integral controller is:
Where, P( t) = controller output in percent of full scale

KI = integration gain (per/s)
ep(t) = deviations in percent of full scale variable value
PI(0) = Controller output at t = 0

Implementation of I-mode Using OPAMP
Integral controller implemented using OPAMPs is shown in Figure.
An op amp integral mode controller
Analysis of the circuit gives,

 The values of R and C can be adjusted to obtain the desired integration time.
The initial controller output is the integrator output at t = 0.
 If KI is made too large, the output rises so fast that overshoots of the optimum
setting occur and cycling is produced.
Determination of GI
 The actual value of GI and therefore R and C, is determined from KI and the
input and output voltage ranges.
 Integral gain says that, an input error of 1 % must produce an output that
changes as KI % per second. Or if an error of 1 % lasts for 1 s, the output must
change by KI percent.

Integral gain says that, an input error of 1 % must produce an output that changes as KI
% per second. Or if an error of 1 % lasts for 1 s, the output must change by KI percent.
e.g. Consider an input range of 6 V Output range of 5V
KI = 3.0 %/(%-min)
Note: Integral gain is often given in minutes because industrial processes are slow,
compared to a time of seconds. This gain is often expressed as integration time, TI,
which is just the inverse of the gain.

e.g. Consider an input range of 6 V Output range of 5V KI = 3.0 %/(%-min)
Note: Integral gain is often given in minutes because industrial processes are
slow, compared to a time of seconds. This gain is often expressed as integration
time, TI, which is just the inverse of the gain.
Solution
First convert the time units to seconds.
Therefore, [(3 %)/(%-min)][( 1min/60s)] = 0.05%/(%-s)
Error of 1 % for 1 sec = (0.01)(6V)(1s) = 0.06 V-s
KI % of the output = (0.0005)( 5V) = 0.0025 V
The integral gain GI = (KI % of the output ) / (Error of 1 % for 1 sec)
= (0.0025V)/(0.06 V-s)
= 0.0417 s-1 Values of R and C can be selected from this.
Derivative mode
The derivative mode is never used alone because it can not provide a
controller output when the error is zero or constant.
The control mode equation is given by:

Implementation of derivative controller using OPAMP
Consider an OPAMP differentiator circuit shown in below.
OPAMP differentiator circuit

The theoretical transfer function for this circuit will be given by
where, the input voltage has been set equal to the controller error voltage.

From ac analysis, we can write these currents in terms of voltage and

impedance as
Equation shows that the magnitude of the output voltage increases linearly
with frequency, so in principle, as the frequency goes to infinity, so does the
output. Clearly this is unacceptable in control theory.

 From a practical perspective, this circuit can not be used because it tends
to be unstable, that is, it may begin to exhibit spontaneous oscillations in
the output voltage.
 The reason for this instability is the occurrence of very large gain at high
frequencies where the derivative is very large.
 In order to make a practical circuit, a modification is provided that
essentially clamps the gain above some frequency to a constant value.
A Practical derivative mode op amp controller


Guidelines to design derivative mode controller

1. Estimate the maximum frequency at which the physical system can respond, fmax.
2. Set 2π fmax R1C = 0.1 and solve for R1( C is found from the mode derivative gain
requirement)
3. Equation shows that the following responses will result from this selection:
f = 0.1 fmax Vout = 0.995 (2π fR2C) |Ve| Derivative action
f = fmax Vout = 0.707 (2π fR2C) |Ve| Transition action
f = 10fmax Vout = 0.0995 (2π fR2C)|Ve| No Derivative action
Assuming this criterion has been met, we can ignore R1 for the controller design and
define the circuit derivative gain or derivative time in seconds as GD = R2C. GD will
be determined from the design controller derivative gain KD.

Composite controller modes
Composite modes combine the advantages of each mode and in some
cases eliminate the disadvantages. Composite modes are implemented
easily using op amp techniques.
Proportional - Integral mode
PI controller is the combination of proportional and integral controller defined by:
Where, P = controller output in percent of full scale

ep = process error in percent of the maximum
KI= Integral gain
PI(0) = initial controller integral output
Composite controller modes
Implementation of PI controller using op amps Figure a shows one method of
implementation of the PI controller using op amps.
An op amp proportional integral (PI) mode controller

To derive an expression for the output voltage of this circuit, first define
nodes and currents as shown in the Figure.
An op amp proportional integral (PI) mode controller

Note that, there is no current through op amp input terminals and no voltage
across the input terminals. Therefore, Va = 0 and
I1 + I2 = 0
I3 – I2 = 0
The relationship between the voltage across the capacitor and current
through a capacitor is given by

Where Vc is the voltage across the capacitor. Combining this with Ohm’s law
allows the preceding current equations to be written in terms of voltage as:

In order to solve for Vout, integrate this equation to eliminate the derivative on
Vout. i.e.:

Proportional Derivative Mode
PD controller is the combination of proportional and derivative mode of
controllers. The general definition of PD controller is:
Where, P = Controller output in percent of full output

KD = Derivative time constant (s)
ep = error in percent of full scale range
P(0) = Zero error controller output

Implementation of PD controller using op amps.
Figure shows how a PD controller can be implemented using op amps.
Where the quantities are defined in the figure and the output inverter has
been included. This circuit includes the clamp to protect against high gain at
high frequency in the derivative term.
An op amp Proportional Derivative (PD) mode controller

With the condition becomes as usual, 2π fmax RC = 0.1. Assuming this criterion
has been met, while deriving the equation for the PD response given below.

Derivation of PD controller response
Analysis of PD circuit can be performed using the circuit shown in Figure
showing currents and nodes. The voltage across the op amp input terminals,
Vb = 0. Also there is no current in to the op amp inputs.
An op amp Proportional Derivative (PD) mode controller

Application of KCL, to the two active nodes provides the equations:
I1 + I2 -I3 = 0
I4+ I3 = 0
Ohm’s law and the differential relation between current and voltage for a
capacitor can be used to express these equations in terms of voltage.

Substituting one over the other we have:

After rearranging and some more algebra, this reduces to:
PD controller still has the offset error of a proportional controller

because the derivative term cannot provide reset action.
Three Mode Controller
Three mode controllers is the combination of proportional, integral and
derivative mode of controllers.
Characterized by:
Where, P = controller output in percent of full scale

ep = process error in percent of the maximum
KI= Integral gain
KD= Derivative gain
PI(0) = initial controller integral output
The zero error term of the proportional mode is not necessary because
the integral automatically accommodates for offset and nominal setting.

Implementation of three mode controller using op amps
Three mode controller can be implemented by a straight application of op amps as
shown in Figure below.
Implementation of a three mode (PID) controller with op amps

For the analysis, assume the voltages as indicated in figure as shown


R3 has been chosen from 2π fmax R3CD = 0.1 for stability

Chapter 4
Programmable Logic Controllers and
Applications
CONTENTS
1. What is PLC
2. Electrical Ladder Logic Diagrams
3. Software Ladder Logic Diagrams
4. PLC Implementation
5. An example
5/29/2019 Dessie Fentaw (DEC) 398

Programmable Logic Controllers(PLC)
 Every control system may be divided into three general sections:
 input devices (sensors),
 controllers, and
 output devices (actuators).
 The input devices sense what is going on in the process, the
controller decides what to do about it, and the output devices
manipulate the process to achieve the desired result.

 A programmable logic controller or PLC is a general-purpose
controller, applicable to many different types of process control
applications.
 The word “programmable” in its name reveals just why PLCs are
so useful: the end-user is able to program, or instruct, the PLC to
do virtually any control function imaginable.
 Unlike PID loop controllers, which are special-purpose devices
intended to perform a single type of control function, a PLC may
be instructed to do almost anything with the signals it receives
from input devices.
PLCs were introduced to industry as electronic replacements
for electromechanical relay controls.
In applications where relays typically control the starting and
stopping of electric motors and other discrete output devices,
the reliability of an electronic PLC meant fewer system
failures and longer operating life.
The re-programmability of a PLC also meant changes could be
implemented to the control system strategy must easier than
with relay circuits, where re-wiring was the only way to alter
the system’s function.
 Additionally, the computer-based nature of a PLC meant that

process control data could now be communicated by the PLC
over networks, allowing process conditions to be monitored in
distant locations, and by multiple operator stations.
 The legacy of PLCs as relay-replacements is probably most
evident in their traditional programming language: a graphical
convention known as a Ladder Diagram.

 Large PLC systems consist of a rack into which circuit “cards”
are plugged.
 These cards include processors, input and output (I/O) points,
communications ports, and other functions necessary to the
operation of a complete PLC system.
 Such “modular” PLCs may be configured differently according
to the specific needs of the application.
 Individual card failures are also easier to repair in a modular
system, since only the failed card need be replaced, not all the
cards or the whole card rack.
 Small PLC systems consist of a monolithic “brick”

containing all processor, I/O, and communication functions.
 These PLCs are typically far less expensive than their
modular cousins, but are also more limited in I/O capability
and must be replaced as a whole in the event of failure.
 The following photographs show several examples of real
PLC systems, some modular and some monolithic.

The first photograph is of a Siemens (Texas Instruments) 505 series PLC
The power supply and processor card for each rack is located on the left-hand
end, with I/O cards plugged into slots in the rest of the rack.
Input devices such as switches and sensors connect by wire to terminals on input
cards, while output devices such as lamps, solenoids, and motor contactor coils
connect by wire to terminals on output cards.
 One of the benefits of modular PLC construction is that I/O cards
may be changed out as desired, altering the I/O configuration of the
PLC as needed.
 If, for example, the PLC needs to be configured to monitor a
greater number of sensors, more input cards may be plugged into
the rack and subsequently wired to those sensors.
 Or, if the type of sensor needs to be changed – perhaps from a 24
volt DC sensor to one operating on 220 volts AC – a different type
of input card may be substituted to match the new sensor(s).

photograph shows an Allen-Bradley (Rockwell) PLC-5 system, used to monitor

and control the operation of a large natural gas compressor.
 Like the Siemens 505 PLC seen previously, this Allen-Bradley

PLC-5 system is fully modular and configurable.
 A modern PLC manufactured by Siemens appears in this photograph, an S7-300,

which is a different design of modular PLC.
 Instead of individual cards plugging into a rack, this modular PLC design uses
individual modules plugging into each other on their sides to form a wider unit.
While the Siemens S7 and

Rockwell ControlLogix PLC
platforms represent large-
scale, modular PLC systems,
there exist much smaller PLCs
available for a fraction of the
cost.

 The above figure is a semi-modular PLC design, with a minimum

of input/output (I/O) channels built into the processor module, but
having the capacity to accept multiple I/O modules plugged in to
the side, much like the Siemens S7-300 PLC.

low-end PLCs are strictly monolithic, with no ability to accept additional I/O
modules.
 Some low-end PLCs are strictly monolithic, with no ability to
accept additional I/O modules.
 This General Electric Series One PLC (used to monitor a small-
scale hydroelectric power generating station) is an example of a
purely monolithic design, having no “expansion” slots to accept
I/O cards.
 A disadvantage of monolithic PLC construction is that damaged
I/O cannot be independently replaced.

 If an I/O channel on one of these PLCs becomes damaged, the entire
PLC must be replaced to fix the problem.
 In a modular system, the damaged I/O card may simply be
unplugged from the rack and replaced with a new I/O card.
 Another disadvantage of monolithic PLCs is the inherently fixed
nature of the I/O.
 The end-user cannot customize the I/O configuration to match the
application.
 For these reasons, monolithic PLCs are usually found on small-scale
processes with few I/O channels and limited potential for expansion.
Input/output (I/O) capabilities
 Every programmable logic controller must have some means of
receiving and interpreting signals from real-world sensors such as
switches, and encoders, and also be able to effect control over
real-world control elements such as solenoids, valves, and motors.
 This is generally known as input/output, or I/O, capability.
Monolithic (“brick”) PLCs have a fixed amount of I/O capability
built into the unit, while modular (“rack”) PLCs use individual
circuit board “cards” to provide customized I/O capability.


 Some PLCs have the ability to connect to processor-less
remote racks filled with additional I/O cards or modules,
thus providing a way to increase the number of I/O channels
beyond the capacity of the base unit.
 The connection from host PLC to remote I/O racks usually
takes the form of a special digital network, which may span a
great physical distance.


Objectives:
 Know general PLC issues
 To be able to write simple ladder logic programs
 Understand the operation of a PLC

Introduction
 The advent of the PLC began in the 1970s, and has become the most common
choice for manufacturing controls.
 PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain
predominant for some time to come.
 Most of this is because of the advantages they offer;

 Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
 Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
 Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
 Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
 Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.

What are PLCs and How do they work?
 PLCs are often defined as a very small model of industrial computers that
contain hardware and software used to perform control functions.
 A PLC consists of two basic sections:
 the central processing unit (CPU), and
 the input/output interface system.
 The CPU, which controls all PLC activity, can further be broken down into:
 the processor, and
 memory system.

What are PLCs and How do they work?
 The input/output system is physically connected to field devices
 (e.g., switches, sensors, motor starters, light, valves, etc.), and
 provides the interface between the CPU and the information providers (inputs) and
controllable devices (outputs). Origin - in 1968
 Original goals:
 Programmable
 communication capable
 Maintainable
 Reliable
 Compact
 inexpensive
 Additional features:
• discrete & continuous control

PLC - Introduction
What does PLC stand for?
 PLC - programmable logic controller

 PLC implements logic control functions by means of a
program

PLC - Introduction
Features

PLC - Introduction
Features

PLC - Introduction
An application example 1: Gate Control
 PLC can sense a vehicle at the entrance or exit, and open

and close the gate automatically
 The current vehicle count is easily determined by
programming a simple counter

PLC - Introduction
An application example 2: Conveyor System
 PLC can be used to start/stop latching logic for motor

control
 Counters can be used for monitoring product amounts

PLC - Introduction
Comparing traditional and programmable control systems - 1

PLC - Introduction
Comparing traditional and programmable control systems - 2
 In traditional control, the switches S1, S2 and S3 must close for K1 to be

turned on - the wiring makes the rule
 In PLC systems, the program is written to perform the logic “when S1 is

closed AND S2 is closed AND S3 is closed, THEN turn on K1” - the
program makes the rule

It is much simpler to change program then wiring!

PLC - Introduction
How does a PLC differ from a computer?
 A computer is optimized for calculation and display tasks
 A computer is programmed by specialists
 A PLC is designed for (logic) control and regulation tasks
 A PLC is programmed by non-specialists
 A PLC is well adapted to industrial environment

PLC - Introduction
Why are PLCs so common?
 They are cost-effective
 They are flexible, reliable and compact
 They have significant advantages over traditional

control systems based on relay or pneumatics

PLC - Introduction
Where are PLCs used?
 In every industry where automation is involved, from

individual machines to whole processes.

PLC - Introduction
What tasks do PLCs perform?
 The logic control tasks such as interlocking, sequencing,

timing and counting (previously undertaken with relays or
pneumatics)
 In addition, PLCs can perform a variety of calculation,

communication and monitoring tasks

PLC - Introduction
Outputs & Power Supply

Communication
Ports (RS-485)
Inputs

PLC Components
Structure of a PLC

PLC Components

PLC - Introduction
The PLC processor

PLC - Introduction
PLC Input/Output Devices

PLC - Introduction
PLC Input Devices
 Push buttons
 Switches (limit switches, level switches, etc.)
 Sensors
 .....

PLC - Introduction
PLC Output Devices
 Relay contacts
 Solenoid valves
 Signal devices (such as lamps, alarms, etc.)
 Motors
 ...

PLC - Introduction
Programming terminal

PLC - Introduction
 Programming is done through programming terminal
 Programming terminal translates engineering language

(logic control) to machine language (binary code)

PLC - Introduction
Programming through standard computer
 Most PLC manufacturers offer software packages that allow a

standard computer to be used as a programming terminal

PLC - Introduction
Programming through standard computer

PLC - Introduction
Relating the program to inputs and outputs
 The CPU reads the data from the inputs
 The program in the CPU uses the inputs to evaluate the
control logic.
 As the program runs, the CPU updates the data
 The CPU writes the data to the output

PLC - Introduction
Relating the program to inputs and outputs

PLC - Introduction
Data Flow in the PLC

PLC - Introduction
 One of the advantages of PLC is that it can be programmed by non-
specialists
 Program can be written either in the form of a

statement list: a set of mnemonic instructions representing a function of
the CPU
 or a ladder diagram: a graphical language resembling the electrical
relay diagrams

Ladder Logic
 Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLCs.
 A relay is a simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a

switch, as pictured in Figure 1.
 When a voltage is applied to the input coil, the resulting current
creates a magnetic field.
 The magnetic field pulls a metal switch (or reed) towards it and the
contacts touch, closing the switch.
 The contact that closes when the coil is energized is called normally
open.
 The normally closed contacts touch when the input coil is not
energized.
 Relays are normally drawn in schematic form using a circle to

represent the input coil. Figure 1:
 The output contacts are shown with two parallel lines. Simple Relay Layouts and
 Normally open contacts are shown as two lines, and Schematics
 will be open (non-conducting) when the input is not energized.
 Normally closed contacts are shown with two lines with a diagonal line
through them.
 When the input coil is not energized the normally closed contacts will
be closed (conducting).
 Relays are used to let one power source close
a switch for another (often high current)
power source, while keeping them isolated.
 An example of a relay in a simple control
application is shown in Figure 2.

 In this system the first relay on the left is used as
normally closed, and will allow current to flow until a
voltage is applied to the input A.
Figure 2
 The second relay is normally open and will not allow
A Simple Relay Controller
current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input B.
 If current is flowing through the first two relays then

current will flow through the coil in the third relay, and
close the switch for output C.
 This circuit would normally be drawn in the ladder logic

form.
 This can be read logically as C will be on if A is off and

B is on.
 The example in Figure 2 does not show the entire control system, but only the
logic.
 When we consider a PLC there are;

 inputs,
 outputs, and
 the logic.
 Figure 3 shows a more complete representation of the PLC.

 Here there are two inputs from push buttons.
 We can imagine the inputs as activating 24V DC relay
coils in the PLC.
 This in turn drives an output relay that switches 115V

AC, that will turn on a light.
Note:
 in actual PLCs inputs are never relays, but outputs

are often relays.
 The ladder logic in the PLC is actually a computer

program that the user can enter and change.
Notice that;
 both of the input push buttons are normally open,
 but the ladder logic inside the PLC has one normally
open contact, and one normally closed contact. Figure 3
A PLC Illustrated With Relays

Programming:
 The first PLCs were programmed with a technique

that was based on relay logic wiring schematics.
 An example of ladder logic can be seen in Figure 4.

 To interpret this diagram imagine that the power is on the
vertical line on the left hand side, we call this the hot rail.
 On the right hand side is the neutral rail.
 In the figure there are two rungs, and on each rung

there are combinations of inputs (two vertical lines)
and outputs (circles). Figure 4
A Simple Ladder Logic Diagram
 If the inputs are opened or closed in the right
combination the power can flow from the hot rail, through  In the top rung the contacts are normally
the inputs, to power the outputs, and finally to the open and normally closed.
neutral rail.
 Which means if input A is on and input B is
 An input can come from a sensor, switch, or any other
off, then power will flow through the output
type of sensor.
and activate it.
 An output will be some device outside the PLC that is
switched on or off, such as lights or motors.
 Any other combination of input values will
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 The second rung of Figure 4 is more complex,
 there are actually multiple combinations of inputs that will result in the output Y turning on.
 On the left most part of the rung, power could flow through the top if C is off and D is on.
 Power could also (and simultaneously) flow through the bottom if both E and F are true.
 This would get power half way across the rung, and then if G or H is true the power will be delivered to
output.
 Other methods for programming PLCs:

 One of the earliest techniques involved mnemonic instructions.
 These instructions can be derived directly from the ladder logic diagrams and entered into the PLC
through a simple programming terminal.
 An example of mnemonics is shown in Figure 5.

 The first line 00000 has the instruction LDN (input load and
not) for input 00001.
 This will examine the input to the PLC and
 if it is off it will remember a 1 (or true),
 if it is on it will remember a 0 (or false).
 The next line uses an LD (input load) statement to look at

the input.
 If the input is off it remembers a 0,
 if the input is on it remembers a 1 (note: this is the

reverse of the LD).
 The AND statement recalls the last two numbers

remembered and
 if the are both true the result is a 1, otherwise the

result is a 0. Figure 5
An Example of a Mnemonic Program
 This result now replaces the two numbers that were and Equivalent Ladder Logic
recalled, and there is only one number remembered.
 The process is repeated for lines 00003 and 00004, but
 when these are done there are now three numbers

remembered.
 The oldest number is from the AND,
 the newer numbers are from the two LD Dessie

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 The AND in line 00005 combines the results from the last LD instructions and now there are
two numbers remembered.
 The OR instruction takes the two numbers now remaining and

 if either one is a 1 the result is a 1, otherwise the result is a 0.
 This result replaces the two numbers, and there is now a single number there.
 The last instruction is the ST (store output) that will look at the last value stored and
 if it is 1, the output will be turned on,
 if it is 0 the output will be turned off.
 The ladder logic program in Figure 5, is equivalent to the mnemonic program.

 Even if you have programmed a PLC with ladder logic,
 it will be converted to mnemonic form before being used by the PLC.

Input adjustment interface
 Input adjustment module turns a level of real logic to a level that suits CPU unit
 For example, input from a sensor which works on 24 VDC must be converted to a signal of 5 VDC in order
for a CPU to be able to process it.
 This is typically done through opto-isolation
 Opto-isolation means that:

 there is no electrical connection between external world and CPU unit.
 They are "optically" separated, or in other words, signal is transmitted through light.
 External device brings a signal which turns LED on,

 whose light in turn incites photo transistor which in turn starts conducting, and
 a CPU sees this as logic zero (supply between collector and transmitter falls under 1V)
 When input signal stops LED diode turns off,

 transistor stops conducting,
 collector voltage increases, and
 CPU receives logic 1 as information.

Output adjustment interface
 Output interface is similar to input interface.
 CPU brings a signal to LED diode and turns it on.

 Light incites a photo transistor which begins to conduct electricity, and
 thus the voltage between collector and emitter falls to 0.7V , and
 a device attached to this output sees this as a logic zero.
 Inversely it means that a signal at the output exists and is interpreted as logic one.
 Photo transistor is not directly connected to a PLC controller output.

 Between photo transistor and an output usually there is a relay or
 a stronger transistor capable of interrupting

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Connecting sensors and execution devices
 Two terms most frequently mentioned when discussing connections to inputs or

outputs are:
 "sinking" and "sourcing".
 The most brief definition of these two concepts would be:

 SINKING = Common GND line (-)
 SOURCING = Common VCC line (+)

Input lines
Following pictures display some examples of sensor outputs and their connection with a PLC
controller.
 Mentioning is that sinking-sourcing and sourcing - sinking pairing is always used, and not
sourcing-sourcing or sinking-sinking pairing.

Output lines
 PLC controller output lines usually can be:
 Transistors in PNP connection
 Transistors in NPN connection
 Relays
 The following two pictures display a realistic way how a PLC manages external devices.
 Main difference between these two pictures is a position of "output load device".
 By "output load device" we mean some relay, signalization light or similar.

Input Devices / Sensor Wiring
i.e. examining the various electrical wiring techniques for sensors.
 When a sensor detects a logical change it must signal that change to the PLC.
 This is typically done by switching a voltage or current on or off.
 In some cases the output of the sensor is used to switch a load directly,
completely eliminating the PLC.
 Typical out-puts from sensors (and inputs to PLCs) are listed below in relative
popularity.
 Sinking/Sourcing - Switches current on or off.
 Plain Switches - Switches voltage on or off.
 Solid State Relays - These switch AC outputs.
 TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) - Uses 0V and 5V to indicate logic levels.

Switches
 The simplest example of sensor outputs are switches and relays.
 A simple example is shown in Figure 1.1. PLC Input Card

24 V DC
NO PB 00
+ 01
24 V dc
Power 02
Supply
- 03
V+
04
Relay 05
Sensor output
06
V-
07
COM
Fig.1.1
 In the figure a NO contact switch is connected to input 01.
 A sensor with a relay output is also shown.
 The sensor must be powered separately, therefore the V+ and V- terminals are connected
to the power supply.
 The output of the sensor will become active when a phenomenon has been detected.
 This means the internal switch (probably a relay) will be closed allowing current to flow and
the positive voltage will be applied to input 06.
Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL)
 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) is based on two voltage levels, 0V for false and 5V for true.
 The voltages can actually be slightly larger than 0V, or lower than 5V and still be detected correctly.
 This method is very susceptible to electrical noise on the factory floor, and should only be used when
necessary.
 TTL outputs are common on electronic devices and computers.
 When connecting to other devices simple circuits can be used to improve the signal, such as the Schmitt
trigger in Fig.1.2. Vi
Vi Vo
t
Vo
t
Fig.1.2
 A Schmitt trigger will receive an input voltage between 0-5V and convert it to 0V or 5V.
 If the voltage is in an ambiguous range, about 1.5-3.5V it will be ignored.
 If a sensor has a TTL output the PLC must use a TTL input card to read the values.
 If the TTL sensor is being used for other applications it should be noted that the maximum current output
is normally about 20mA.
Sinking/Sourcing
 Sinking sensors allow current to flow into the sensor to the voltage common,
 while sourcing sensors allow current to flow out of the sensor from a positive source.
 For both of these methods the emphasis is on current flow, not voltage.
 By using current flow, instead of voltage, many of the electrical noise problems are reduced.
 When discussing sourcing and sinking we are referring to the output of the sensor that is
acting like a switch.
 In fact the output of the sensor is normally a transistor, that will act like a switch (with some
voltage loss).
 A PNP transistor is used for the sourcing output, and an NPN transistor is used for the
sinking input.
 When discussing these sensors the term sourcing is often interchanged with PNP, and
sinking with NPN.

 A simplified example of a sinking output sensor is shown in Fig.1.3.
V+
V+
Physical
phenomenon Current flows in
Sensor
when switched on
output NPN
Sensor
&
Detector
Active
Line
V-
V-
Fig.1.3
 The sensor will have some part that deals with detection, this is on the left.
 The sensor needs a voltage supply to operate, so a voltage supply is needed for the sensor.
 If the sensor has detected some phenomenon then it will trigger the active line.
 The active line is directly connected to an NPN transistor.
 If the voltage to the transistor on the active line is 0V, then the transistor will not allow
current to flow into the sensor.
 If the voltage on the active line becomes larger (say 12V) then the transistor will switch on
and allow current to flow into the sensor to the common.

 Sourcing sensors are the complement to sinking sensors.
 The sourcing sensors use a PNP transistor, as shown in Fig.1.4.

V+
V+
Physical
phenomenon
Active
Sensor Line
&
Detector Current flows out
PNP when switched on
Sensor
output
V-
V-
Fig.1.4
 When the sensor is inactive the active line stays at the V+ value, and the
transistor stays switched off.
 When the sensor becomes active the active line will be made 0V, and the
transistor will allow current to flow out of the sensor (hence sourcing).

Direct Control Using NPN/PNP Sensors
 Most NPN/PNP sensors are capable of handling currents up to a few amps, and
they can be used to switch loads directly.
 An example using sourcing and sinking sensors to control lights is shown in
Fig.1.5.
V+ V+
Power
Sensor NPN Siinking
supply
V- V- (COM)
V+ V+
Power
Sensor PNP Sourcing
supply
V- V- (COM)
Fig.1.5
 In the sinking system in Figure 1.5 the light has V+ applied to one side.
 The other side is connected to the NPN output of the sensor.
 When the sensor turns on the current will be able to flow through the light, into the output
to V- common.
 (Note: Yes, the current will be allowed to flow into the output for an NPN sensor.)
 In the sourcing arrangement the light will turn on when the output becomes active, allowing
current
5/29/2019to flow from the V+, thought the sensor,
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A PLC Input Card for Sinking Sensors
 At this point it is worth stating the obvious –

 The output of a sensor will be an input for a PLC.
 And, as we saw with the NPN sensor, this does not necessarily indicate where current is flowing.
 There are two viable approaches for connecting sensors to PLCs.
 The first is to always use PNP sensors and normal voltage input cards.
 The second option is to purchase input cards specifically designed for sourcing or sinking
sensors.
 An example of a PLC card for sinking sensors is shown in Fig.1.6.
+V Current flow
V+
Internal Card Electronics
V+ Power
supply
V-
Sensor
NPN
00 V- (COM)
01
Fig.1.6
Note: PLC Data Bus External Electrical
 When a PLC input card does not have a common but it has a V+ instead, it can be used for NPN
sensors.
 In this case the current will flow out of the card (sourcing) and we must switch it to ground.
ASIDE:
 This card is shown with 2 optocouplers (one for each output).
 Inside these devices the is an LED and a phototransistor, but no electrical connection.
 These devices are used to isolate two different electrical systems.
 In this case they protect the 5V digital levels of the PLC computer from the various external voltages
and currents.
 The dashed line in the figure represents the circuit, or current flow path when the sensor is active.
 This path enters the PLC input card first at a V+ terminal (Note: there is no common on this card) and
flows through an optocoupler.
 This current will use light to turn on a phototransistor to tell the computer in the PLC the input current is
flowing.
 The current then leaves the card at input 00 and passes through the sensor to V-. When the sensor is
inactive the current will not flow, and the light in the optocoupler will be off.
 The optocoupler is used to help protect the PLC from electrical problems outside the PLC.

PLC Input Card for Sourcing Sensors
 The input cards for PNP sensors are similar to the NPN cards, as shown in Fig.1.7.
Current flow
00 V+
PNP Sensor
Internal Card Electronics
V-
01
V+
Power
supply
V-
Com
Fig.1.7
Note: PLC Data Bus External Electrical
 When we have a PLC input card that has a common then we can use PNP sensors.
 In this case the current will flow into the card and then out the common to the power
supply.
 The current flow loop for an active sensor is shown with a dashed line.
 Following the path of the current we see that it begins at the V+, passes through the sensor,
in the input 00, through the optocoupler, out the common and to the V-.
Two Wire Sensors
 Wiring is a major concern with PLC applications, so to reduce the total number of wires, two wire sensors
have become popular.
 But, by integrating three wires worth of function into two, we now couple the power supply and sensing
functions into one.
 Two wire sensors are shown in Figure 1.8. 00 V+

Two wire V+
Power
Sensor supply
V- V-
PLC Input Card
for Sourcing Sensors 01
COM
+V
00
V+
PLC Input Card
for Sinking Sensors Two wire
Sensor V+
Power
01 V- supply
V-
Fig.1.8
 A two wire sensor can be used as either a sourcing or sinking input.
 In both of these arrangements the sensor will require a small amount of current to power the sensor, but
when active it will allow more current to flow.
 This requires input cards that will allow a small amount of current to flow (called the leakage current), but
also be able to detect when the current has exceeded
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Sourcing and Sinking Schematic Symbols
 When drawing wiring diagrams, the symbols in Figure 1.9 are used for
sinking and sourcing proximity sensors.
 Notice that:
 In the sinking sensor when the switch closes (moves up to the terminal) it
contacts the common.
 Closing the switch in the sourcing sensor connects the output to the V+.
 On the physical sensor the wires are color coded as indicated in the
diagram.
 The brown wire is positive,
 The blue wire is negative and
 The output is white for sinking and black for sourcing.
 The outside shape of the sensor may change for other devices, such
as photo sensors which are often
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The Comparator (Schmitt trigger )
 When the op-amp has one input sensor signal connected to its inverting input
terminal and a second input sensor signal connected to its noninverting input
terminal, it will compare the voltage level of the two inputs and the output will
be the amount of difference between the two signals multiplied by the gain.
 Since the gain for this configuration is infinite, the slightest difference in voltage
between the two inputs will cause the output to be driven to its maximum value.
 This maximum value is called saturation, and it will be approximately the full
amount of the power supply voltage.
 If Vnonin signal > Vinv Signal, the Vo will be +ve saturation.

 If Vinv Signal is larger, the Vo will be -ve saturation.
 Fig.1.10 shows the modifications that can be made to the comparator circuit to
make the comparator a useful circuit (Schmitt trigger ).

 For example;
 R is connected in series with a cadmium sulfide cell (CdS cell) that is a light
sensor.
 Which provide a voltage drop circuit that is connected to the noninverting
input.
 And a reference voltage is applied to the inverting input through
potentiometer.
 A diode and the coil of a control relay are connected in series with the
output terminal.
 The diode will ensure that only +ve voltage will pass to the coil to energize
it.
 If the pot is set to provide 5V to the inverting input,

 the output will be –ve as long as the voltage supplied by the sensor to the
noninvrting terminal is < 5V.
 As long as the output voltage is –ve , the diode will be reverse biased & no
current will flow to the relay coil.
 If the light conditions change and the sensor’s resistance changes so

that the voltage drop ckt produces a voltage > 5V reference voltage,
 The output will become +ve & the diode will be forward biased and allow
current to flow to the coil of the CR.
 When current flows through the CR coil, it becomes magnetized and closes
the NO contacts.
PLC Functions
 Ladder logic input contacts and output coils allow simple logical decisions.
 However, Functions extend basic ladder logic to allow other types of

control.
• For example, the addition of timers and counters allowed event based
control.
 Most of the functions will:

 use PLC memory locations to get values, store values and track function status.
 normally become active when the input is true. But, some functions, such as
TOF timers, can remain active when the input is off.
 Hence, Basic PLC Function Categories as;

 Combinatorial Logic  Lists
 (i.e. a form of digital logic, in w/h  shift registers/stacks
the o/p states depend on the i/p  Sequencers
states, but not on other factor.)
 Program Control
 relay contacts and coils
 branching/looping
 Event
 Immediate inputs/outputs
 Timer instructions
 fault/interrupt detection
 counter instructions
 Input and Output
 Data Handling
 PID
 Moves
 Communications
 Mathematics
 High speed counters
 Conversions
 ASCII string functions
 Numerical Logic
 Boolean operations
 Comparisons

Data Handling
 Move Functions
 There are two basic types of move functions;
 MOV (value, destination) - moves a value from one location in memory and
place it in another memory location.
 MVM (value, mask, destination) - moves a value to a memory location, but with
a mask to select specific bits.

 Examples of the basic MOV are given as shown;
 When A is true,
 the MOV function moves a floating point
number from the source to the destination
address.
 The data in the source address is left

unchanged.
 When B is true,
 the floating point number in the source will
be converted to an integer and stored in the
destination address in integer memory.
 The floating point number will be rounded

up or down to the nearest integer.
 When C is true,
 the integer value of 123 will be placed in
the integer file N7:23.

 Mathematical Functions
 Mathematical functions will retrieve one or more values, perform an

operation and store the result in memory.
 The Arithmetic Functions are:

 ADD (value,value,destination) - add two values
 SUB(value,value,destination) – subtract
 MUL(value,value,destination) – multiply
 DIV(value,value,destination) – divide
 NEG(value,destination) - reverse sign from positive/negative
 CLR(value) - clear the memory location

 Consider an ADD function as shown;
 That will retrieve values from N7:4 and F8:35, convert them both to the
type of the destination address, add the floating point numbers, and store
the result in F8:36.
 The function has two sources labeled source A and source B.

 An application of the arithmetic function is shown as;
 Most of the operations provide the

results we would expect.
 The second ADD function retrieves a value
from N7:3, adds 1 and overwrites the
source - this is normally known as an
increment operation.
 The first DIV statement divides the integer

25 by 10, the result is rounded to the
nearest integer, in this case 3, and the
result is stored in N7:6.
 The NEG instruction takes the new value of

-10, not the original value of 0, from N7:4
invert the sign and store it in N7:7.

 A list of more advanced functions are given as:
 ACS(value,destination) - inverse cosine
 COS(value,destination) – cosine
 ASN(value,destination) - inverse sine
 SIN(value,destination) – sine
 ATN(value,destination) - inverse tangent
 TAN(value,destination) – tangent
 XPY(value,value,destination) - X to the power of Y
 LN(value,destination) - natural log
 LOG(value,destination) - base 10 log
 SQR(value,destination) - square root
 CPT(destination,expression) - accept an expression and

perform a complex calculation.

 An equation has been converted to ladder logic as;
 Given
LN
– Assign A = F8:0 Source A F8:1
Destination F8:4
B = F8:1
C = F8:2 XPY
Source A 21.78
D = F8:3 Source B F8:2
Destination F8:5
 The first step in the conversion is to convert
the variables in the equation to unused ACS
Source A F8:3
memory locations in the PLC. Destination F8:6
 The equation can then be converted using MUL
the most nested calculations in the equation, Source A F8:5
Source B F8:6
such as the LN function. In this case the Destination F8:7
results of the LN function are stored in ADD
Source A F8:4
another memory location, to be recalled Source B F8:7
later. Destination F8:7
 The other operations are implemented in a SQR

Source A F8:7
similar manner. Destination F8:0
• The same equation could have been implemented with a CPT function as
shown;
 The equation uses the same memory locations chosen in the previous
logic diagram.
 The expression is typed directly into the PLC programming software.

 Conversions:
 Ladder logic conversion functions are;
 TOD(value,destination) - convert from BCD to 2s compliment
 FRD(value,destination) - convert from 2s compliment to BCD
 DEG(value,destination) - convert from radians to degrees
 RAD(value,destination) - convert from degrees to radians
 Examples of the conversion functions are given as shown;
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 The functions load in a source value, do the conversion, and store the results.486
FLOWCHART BASED DESIGN
 Topics:
 Describing process control using flowcharts
 Conversion of flowcharts to ladder logic
 A flowchart is ideal for a process that has sequential process steps.
 The steps will be executed in a simple order that may change as the result of some simple
decisions.
 The symbols used for flowcharts are shown in Figure 7.

 These blocks are connected using arrows to indicate the
sequence of the steps.
 The different blocks imply different types of program actions.
 Programs always need a start block, but PLC programs rarely

stop so the stop block is rarely used.
 Other important blocks include operations and decisions.
 The other functions may be used but are not necessary for
most PLC applications.
Figure 7
Flowchart Symbols

 The general method for constructing flowcharts is:
1. Understand the process.
2. Determine the major actions, these are drawn as blocks.
3. Determine the sequences of operations, these are drawn with arrows.
4. When the sequence may change use decision blocks for branching.
o Once a flowchart has been created ladder logic can be written.
 There are two basic techniques that can be used,
 the first presented uses blocks of ladder logic code.
 The second uses normal ladder logic.

 Example:
 A flowchart is shown in Figure 8, for a control system for a large water tank.
Statement:
 When a start button is pushed the tank will start to fill, and the flow out will be stopped.
 When full, or the stop button is pushed the outlet will open up, and the flow in will be stopped.
 In the flowchart the general flow of execution starts at the top.
 The first operation is to open the outlet valve and close the inlet valve.
 Next, a single decision block is used to wait for a button to be pushed.
 when the button is pushed the yes branch is followed and the inlet valve is opened, and the outlet
valve is closed.
 Then the flow chart goes into a loop that uses two decision blocks to wait until the tank is full, or the
stop button is pushed.
 If either case occurs the inlet valve is closed and the outlet valve is opened.
 The system then goes back to wait for the start button to be pushed again.

Figure 8
A Flowchart for a Tank Filler
BLOCK LOGIC METHOD
 Step 1:
 Add labels to each block (name each
block) in the flowchart, as shown in
Figure 9.
 Each of the numbered steps will then be converted

to ladder logic
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Labeling Blocks in the Flowchart
 Each block in the flowchart will be converted to a block of ladder logic.
 To do this we will use the MCR (Master Control Relay) instruction.
 The instruction is shown in Figure 10, and will appear as a matched pair of outputs labeled MCR.
 If the first MCR line is true then the ladder logic on the following lines will be scanned as normal to
the second MCR.
 If the first line is false the lines to the next MCR block will all be forced off.
 If a normal output is used inside an MCR block, it may be forced off.
 Therefore latches will be used in this method
Figure 10
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Fentaw (DEC) 493
 STEP 2:
Write ladder logic to force the PLC into the first state
 The first part of the ladder logic required will reset

the logic to an initial condition, as shown in Figure
11.
 The line will only be true for the first scan of the PLC,
and
 at that time it will turn on the flowchart block F1

which is the reset all values off operation.
 All other operations will be turned off.
Figure 11
Initial Reset of States

 STEP 3
Write ladder logic for each function in the flowchart
 The ladder logic for the first state is shown in Figure 12.
 When F1 is true the logic between the MCR lines will be

scanned,
 if F1 is false the logic will be ignored.
 This logic turns on the outlet valve and turns off the inlet
valve.
 It then turns off operation F1, and turns on the next

operation F2.
Figure 12
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Cont…
 The ladder logic for operation F2 is

simple, and
 when the start button is pushed, it will

turn off F2 and turn on F3.
 The ladder logic for operation F3 opens

the inlet valve and moves to operation
F4.
Figure 13
Ladder Logic for Flowchart Operations F2 and F3
Cont…
 The ladder logic for operation F4 turns off
F4, and
 if the tank is full it turns on F6,
 otherwise F5 is turned on.
 The ladder logic for operation F5 is very
similar.
Figure 14
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Dessie Fentaw (DEC) F5
Cont…
 The ladder logic for operation F6 turns
the outlet valve on and
 turns off the inlet valve.
 It then ends operation F6 and
 returns to operation F2.
Figure 15
Ladder Logic for Flowchart Operation F6
SEQUENCE BITS
 In general there is a preference for methods that
do not use MCR statements or latches.
 The flowchart used in the previous example can

be implemented without these instructions using
the following method.
 The first step to this process is shown in Figure

16.
 As before each of the blocks in the flowchart are

labelled, but now the connecting arrows
(transitions) in the diagram must also be labelled.
 These transitions indicate when another function

block will be activated.
Figure 16
Label the Flowchart Blocks and Arrows
 The first section of ladder logic is
shown in Figure 17.
 This indicates when the transitions
between functions should occur.
 All of the logic for the transitions
should be kept together, and
 appear before the state logic that
follows in Figure 17.
Figure 17
The Transition Logic
 The logic shown in Figure 18
 will keep a function on, or
 switch to the next function.
 Consider the first ladder rung for F1,
 it will be turned on by transition T1 and
 once function F1 is on it will keep itself on,
 unless T2 occurs shutting it off.
 If T2 has occurred the next line of ladder logic
will turn on F2.
 The function logic is followed by output logic
that relates output values to the active
functions.
Figure 18
5/29/2019 Dessie Fentaw (DEC)The Function Logic and Outputs501
STATE BASED DESIGN
 Topics:
 Describing process control using state diagrams
 Conversion of state diagrams to ladder logic
 A system state is a mode of operation.
 Consider a bank machine that will go through very carefully selected states.
 The general sequence of states might be idle, scan card, get secret number, select
transaction type, ask for amount of cash, count cash, deliver cash/return card, then idle.

 A State based system can be described with system
states, and the transitions between those states.
 A state diagram is shown in Figure 19.
 The diagram has two states, State 1 and State 2.
 If the system is in state 1 and A happens the system

will then go into state 2,
 otherwise it will remain in State 1.
 Likewise
 if the system is in state 2, and B happens the system

will return to state 1.
 As shown in the figure this state diagram could be

used for an automatic light controller.
Figure 19
A State Diagram
 Consider the design of a coffee vending machine.
 The first step requires the identification of vending machine

states as shown:
 STATES
o idle - the machine has no coins and is doing nothing
o inserting coins - coins have been entered and the total is

displayed
o user choose - enough money has been entered and the user
is making coffee selection
o make coffee - the selected type is being made
o service needed - the machine is out of coffee, cups, or

another error has occurred
 The states are then drawn in a state diagram as shown in Figure 20.
 Transitions are added as needed between the states.
 Here we can see that when powered up the machine will start in an idle state.
 The transitions here are based on the inputs and sensors in the vending machine.
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Figure 20 Dessie Fentaw (DEC) 505
State Diagram for a Coffee Machine
State Diagram Example
 Consider the traffic lights in Figure 21.
 The normal sequences for traffic lights are
 a green light in one direction for a long period of

time, typically 10 or more seconds.
 This is followed by a brief yellow light, typically 4

seconds.
 It is understood that a green or yellow light in one

direction implies a red light in the other direction.
 Pedestrian buttons are provided so that when

pedestrians are present a cross walk light can be
turned on and the duration of the green light Figure 21
increased.
Traffic Lights

 The first step for developing a controller is to define the inputs and outputs of the system as shown.
 The inputs are used when defining the transitions.
 The outputs can be used to define the system state.
 Use a state table as shown in Figure 22.
 Here the light sequences are listed in order.
5/29/2019 Figure 22 Dessie Fentaw (DEC) 507

System State Table for Traffic Lights
 Transitions can be added to the state table to clarify the operation, as shown in Figure 23.
 Here the transition from Green E/W to Yellow E/W is S1.
• this means is that a cross walk button must be pushed to end the green light. This is not normal,
normally the lights would use a delay.
 The transition from Yellow E/W to Green N/S is caused by a 4 second delay (this is normal.)
 The next transition is also abnormal, requiring that the cross walk button be pushed to end the Green
N/S state.
 The last state has a 4 second delay before returning to the first state in the table.
Figure 23
State Table with Transitions
 A state diagram for the system is shown in Figure 24.
 This diagram is equivalent to the state table in Figure 23, but it can be valuable for doing
visual inspection.
Figure 24
A Traffic Light State Diagram

Conversion to Ladder Logic
 Block Logic Conversion

 State diagrams can be converted directly to ladder logic using block logic.
 This technique will produce larger programs, but it is a simple method to understand, and easy to debug.
 The traffic light example is to be implemented in ladder logic.
 The inputs and outputs are defined in Figure 25.
 first scan is the address of the first scan in the PLC.
 The locations B3/1 to B3/4 are internal memory locations that will be used to track which states are on.

Inputs and Outputs for Traffic Light Controller
 The initial ladder logic block shown in Figure 26
will initialize the states of the PLC,
 so that only state 1 is on.
 The first scan indicator first scan will execute the

MCR block when the PLC is first turned on, and
 the latches will turn on the value for state 1 B3/1

and turn off the others.
Figure 26
Ladder Logic to Initialize Traffic Light Controller

Figure 27
General Output Control Logic
 The first state is implemented in Figure 28. If state 1 is active this will be active.
 The transition is S1 or I/1 which will end state 1 B3/1 and start state 2 B3/2.
Figure 28
Ladder Logic for First State

 The second state is more complex because it involves a time delay, as shown in Figure 29.
 When the state is active the RTO timer will be timing.
 When the timer is done state 2 will be unlatched, and state 3 will be latched on.
 The timer is retentive, so it must also be reset when the state is done, so that it will start at zero the next
time the state starts.

Ladder Logic for Second State
 The third and fourth states are shown in Figure 30 and Figure 31.
 Their layout is very similar to that of the first two states.
Figure 30
Ladder Logic for State Three
Figure 31
Ladder Logic for State Four

Chapter Five
Introduction to fuzzy logic
Instructor Dessie Fentaw
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Introduction
 Fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic that deals with approximate, rather
than fixed and exact reasoning.
 Compared to traditional binary logic (where variables may take on true or false
values), fuzzy logic variables may have a truth value that ranges in degree
between 0 and 1.
 Fuzzy logic has been extended to handle the concept of partial truth, where the
truth value may range between completely true and completely false.
 Furthermore, when linguistic variables are used, these degrees may be managed
by specific functions.
 The term "fuzzy logic" was introduced with the 1965 proposal of fuzzy set
theory by Lotfi A. Zadeh. Fuzzy logic has been applied to many fields,
from control theory to artificial intelligence.
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Introduction
 Fuzzy logic is a superset of conventional (Boolean) logic that has been
extended to handle the concept of partial truth ,truth values between
"completely true" and "completely false.
 Zadeh says that rather than regarding fuzzy theory as a single theory, we
should regard the process of ``fuzzification'' as a methodology to generalize
any specific theory from a crisp (discrete) to a continuous (fuzzy) form .
 Just as there is a strong relationship between Boolean logic and the concept of
a subset, there is a similar strong relationship between fuzzy logic and fuzzy
subset theory.
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Introduction
 In classical set theory, a subset U of a set S can be defined as a
mapping from the elements of S to the elements of the set {0, 1},
U: S --> {0, 1}
 This mapping may be represented as a set of ordered pairs, with

exactly one ordered pair present for each element of S.
 The first element of the ordered pair is an element of the set S, and
the second element is an element of the set {0, 1}.
 The value zero is used to represent non-membership, and the value
one is used to represent membership.
 The truth or falsity of the statement.
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Introduction
x is in U
 is determined by finding the ordered pair whose first element is x. The
statement is true if the second element of the ordered pair is 1, and the statement
is false if it is 0.
 Similarly, a fuzzy subset F of a set S can be defined as a set of ordered pairs,
each with the first element from S, and the second element from the interval
[0,1], with exactly one ordered pair present for each element of S.
 This defines a mapping between elements of the set S and
 values in the interval [0,1].
 The value zero is used to represent complete non-membership, the value one is
used to represent complete membership, and values in between are used to
represent intermediate DEGREES OF MEMBERSHIP.
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Introduction
 The set S is referred to as the UNIVERSE OF DISCOURSE for the fuzzy subset
F. Frequently, the mapping is described as a function, the MEMBERSHIP
FUNCTION of F. The degree to which the statement
x is in F
 is true is determined by finding the ordered pair whose first element is x.

 The DEGREE OF TRUTH of the statement is the second element of the
ordered pair.
 In practice, the terms "membership function" and fuzzy subset get used
interchangeably.
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fuzzy logic system
A fuzzy logic system (FLS) can be defend as the nonlinear mapping of
an input data set to a scalar output data .
A FLS consists of four main parts:
 fuzzifier
 rules
 inference engine, and
 defuzzifier.
These components and the general architecture of a FLS is shown in
Figure below.
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fuzzy logic system
Figure 1 A Fuzzy Logic System
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fuzzy logic system
The process of fuzzy logic is explained in Algorithm
Fuzzy logic algorithm

1. Define the linguistic variables and terms (initialization)
2. Construct the membership functions (initialization)
3. Construct the rule base (initialization)
4. Convert crisp input data to fuzzy values
using the membership functions (fuzzification)
5. Evaluate the rules in the rule base (inference)
6. Combine the results of each rule (inference)
7. Convert the output data to non-fuzzy values (defuzzification)
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fuzzy logic system
 Firstly, a crisp set of input data are gathered and converted to a

fuzzy set using fuzzy linguistic variables, fuzzy linguistic
terms and membership functions.
 This step is known as fuzzification. Afterwards, an inference
is made based on a set of rules.
 Lastly, the resulting fuzzy output is mapped to a crisp output
using the membership functions, in the defuzzification step.
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fuzzy logic system
 In order to exemplify the usage of a FLS, consider an air
conditioner system controlled by a FLS shown below
 The system adjusts the temperature of the room according to the
current temperature of the room and the target value.
 The fuzzy engine periodically compares the room temperature
and the target temperature, and produces a command to heat or
cool the room.
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fuzzy logic system
Figure 2 : A Simple FLS to Control an Air Conditioner.
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Linguistic Variables
 Linguistic variables are the input or output variables of the system whose values
are words or sentences from a natural language, instead of numerical values. A
linguistic variable is generally decomposed into a set of linguistic terms.
 Example: Consider the air conditioner in Figure 2. Let temperature (t) is the
linguistic variable which represents the temperature of a room.
 To qualify the temperature, terms such as \hot" and \cold" are used in real life.
These are the linguistic values of the temperature. Then,
 T(t) = (too-cold, cold, warm, hot, too-hot) can be the set of decompositions for
the linguistic variable temperature.
 Each member of this decomposition is called a linguistic term and can cover a
portion of the overall values of the temperature.
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Membership Functions
 Membership functions are used in the fuzzification and defuzzification steps
of a FLS, to map the non-fuzzy input values to fuzzy linguistic terms and vice
versa.
 A membership function is used to quantify a linguistic term. For instance,
 in Figure 3, membership functions for the linguistic terms of temperature
variable are plotted.
 Note that, an important characteristic of fuzzy logic is that a numerical value
does not have to be fuzzified using only one membership function.
 In other words, a value can belong to multiple sets at the same time. For
example, according to Figure 3, a temperature value can be considered as
“cold" and “too-cold" at the same time, with different degree of memberships.
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Membership Functions
Figure 3: Membership Functions for T(temperature) = {too-cold, cold, warm,

hot, too-hot}.
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Fuzzy Rules
 In a FLS, a rule base is constructed to control the output variable. A fuzzy
 rule is a simple IF-THEN rule with a condition and a conclusion.
 In Table 1,sample fuzzy rules for the air conditioner system in Figure 2 are
listed.
 Table 2 shows the matrix representation of the fuzzy rules for the said FLS.
 Row captions in the matrix contain the values that current room temperature
can take, column captions contain the values for target temperature, and each
cell is the resulting command when the input variables take the values in that
row and column.
 For instance, the cell (3, 4) in the matrix can be read as follows: If
temperature is cold and target is warm then command is heat.
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Fuzzy Rules
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Inference
 Fuzzy inference is the process of formulating the mapping
from a given input to an output using fuzzy logic.
 The mapping then provides a basis from which decisions
can be made.
THANKYOU !!!
5/29/2019 dessie F 533

Process Control

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Process Control

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PROCESS CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION

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 We have a desired value that is referred to as the reference

 We also must have some way of measuring the actual

 We must also have some method of comparing the

 We finally need some method of changing the quantity

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 The liquid has a height or level h. The formula for Qout

 At some value of h Qout will equal Qin – it is at this point

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Qin = 2.5 gal/min

At what height will the tank self-regulate to?

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 In this case a human has been added to the

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 For automatic control the

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 The height is measured by a sensor (a float or electronic),

 Again the height is adjusted to a set point H by manipulating

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 Often used in repetitive

 This course will NOT cover such

 This course concentrates on

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Process control block diagram

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psi = Pounds per square inch

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 A control system can actually

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 Two criteria for judging the quality of

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Maintaining process variables (temperatures, pressures,

Processes are dynamic in nature, and changes are always

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1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS

1.3 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

1.4 CONTROL STRATEGIES