Nutrition & Food Science

Dietary assessment of five male sports teams in Greece

Maria Hassapidou
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Maria Hassapidou, (2001),"Dietary assessment of five male sports teams in Greece", Nutrition & Food Science, Vol. 31 Iss 1
pp. 31 - 35
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(2007),"Dietary assessment, anthropometric measurements and nutritional status of Greek professional athletes", Nutrition
& Food Science, Vol. 37 Iss 5 pp. 338-344 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00346650710828361
Sue Murphy, Yvonne Jeanes, (2006),"Nutritional knowledge and dietary intakes of young professional football players",
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Dietary assessment of
five male sports teams
in Greece
Maria Hassapidou
Downloaded by The University of British Columbia Library At 13:09 30 January 2016 (PT)
The author
Maria Hassapidou is a Professor at TEI, Thessaloniki,
Greece.
Keywords
Diet, Sports, Greece
Abstract
Healthy and suitable nutrition plays an important role in
the athletic performance providing the long-term needs of
training and the short-term needs of competition. In
Greece, despite the great interest in sports since ancient
times, there is no adequate information regarding the
dietary practices and the nutritional status of the athletes
today. The anthropometric characteristics and dietary
intakes of 47 eÂlite male athletes of five different sport
teams: rowers, volleyball players, cyclists, weightlifters
and distance runners were assessed in this study. Dietary
data were collected during the competitive period. The
study showed that, although the athletes reported an
adequate mean energy and micronutrient intake, the
intake of macronutrients was not in balance. Volleyball
players and distance runners had lower than
recommended carbohydrate intakes, not meeting their
fuel requirements. Weightlifters had the highest
overconsumption of fat at the expense of carbohydrates.
This calls for an urgent need of nutrition education for the
athletes in Greece, in order to improve their diet and
achieve an optimum athletic performance.
Electronic access
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
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Nutrition & Food Science
Volume 31 . Number 1 . 2001 . pp. 31±34
# MCB University Press . ISSN 0034-6659
31
Introduction
Interest in sport has increased greatly over the
last decades. The science of nutrition in
relation to sports performance has progressed
and we now have a better understanding of
the relationship between diet and physical
performance.
A number of investigators (Burke and
Read, 1987; Di Chen et al., 1989;
Brotherhood, 1984) have reported that many
athletes do not follow the best dietary pattern
for optimal sports performance.
Studies have revealed athletes in negative
energy balance (Short and Short, 1983), with
low carbohydrate intakes (Steele, 1970) or
athletes with low vitamin and mineral intakes
(Nieman et al., 1989; Newhouse and
Clement, 1988).
Eating problems, as it has been reported,
cluster in sports, where low weight is thought
to improve performance (e.g. distance
running), where rating may be influenced by
appearance (figure skating, gymnastics) or
where athletes must compete in specific
weight categories (Sykora et al., 1993).
Existing studies generally find that athletes
have problems more frequently than the
general population and that sports
characterized by specific weight requirements
or appearance expectations (wrestling,
gymnastics) have more problems than sports
in which weight is less important (Burke and
Deakin, 1994).
In Greece, although there has been great
interest in sport since ancient times,
information about dietary practices and the
nutritional status of athletes is scarce.
The present study aimed to examine
anthropometric characteristics of 47 eÂlite
male athletes, of five different sports teams:
rowers, volleyball players, cyclists,
weightlifters and distance runners, and to
assess their dietary intakes during the
competitive period. No similar study has been
carried out in Greece before.
Methodology
All athletes were recruited, on a voluntary
basis, from five athletics teams in Athens. At
the start of the study, more athletes
participated but some dropped off later and
the final sample consisted of 47 eÂlite
professional athletes (16 rowers, 14 volleyball
 Dietary assessment of five male sports teams in Greece Nutrition & Food Science
Maria Hassapidou Volume 31 . Number 1 . 2001 . 31±34

players, six cyclists, five weightlifters and six Table I Anthropometric characteristics of the athletes
distance runners), members of national teams Age Weight Height Percentage
in Greece. Sport Number (years) (kg) (cm) of fat
Data were collected over the competitive
season when athletes were both practising and Rowers 16 23 + 3 87 + 8 188 + 7 11 + 3
competing in games or meets. Volleyball players 14 24 + 3 87 + 7 194 + 8 9 + 3
Cyclists 6 25 + 6 68 + 5 176 + 6 7 + 1
Weightlifters 5 27 + 5 99 + 5 177 + 7 18 + 3
Distance runners 6 21 + 4 61 + 5 175 + 5 7 + 2
Anthropometric data

Height was measured to the nearest
centimetre and weight was recorded to the
nearest 0.1kg with a portable metric scale that
was calibrated daily. The percentage of body
fat was determined using skinfold
measurements. Four skinfolds were taken:
Downloaded by The University of British Columbia Library At 13:09 30 January 2016 (PT)
players were taller, followed by rowers.
Cyclists and distance runners had lower
percentages of body fat, as expected by their
type of sport. The highest mean percent body
fat was found in weightlifters.
Table II shows the results for energy

(1) triceps; intakes, reported by the athletes, expressed as

(2) abdomen; total caloric intake per day and as Kcal per kg
(3) suprailiac; and of body weight. The highest mean energy
(4) thigh. intake per day and per kg body weight, as
reported by the athletes, was found for
Body density was calculated using the cyclists, followed by rowers. Distance runners
formula proposed by Jackson et al. (1980). had the lowest mean daily energy intake.
Body density was converted to percentage of When energy intake was expressed as Kcal per
body fat using the Siri equation (McArdle et kg body weight, the lowest value was found
al., 1994). for weightlifters.
Macronutrient intakes as reported by the
athletes are presented in Table III. Protein
Dietary intake intakes ranged from 1.6g/kg for weightlifters
to 2.7g/kg for cyclists. The percentage energy
All subjects kept weighed dietary records for provided by proteins ranged from 15 to 20 per
seven consecutive days during the competitive cent. Carbohydrate intake ranged from 37 to
season. Subjects had to weigh, according to 56 per cent of total energy intake (3-9g/kg
instructions given to them, all foods and body weight). The lowest carbohydrate intake
drinks consumed during the day. Scales were (37 per cent of energy) was found for
provided to the athletes as well as cups and weightlifters. A total of 50 per cent of energy
plates with known weights. Dietary intakes was provided by carbohydrates for distance
were analyzed using the Microdiet computer
runners and cyclists whereas higher
program. Foods were coded by two dietitians
carbohydrate intakes were found for rowers
using McCance and Widdowson's food
(55 per cent of energy) and volleyball players
tables. Greek food recipes were added in the
(56 per cent of energy).
basic database according to the Food Fat intakes ranged from 26 per cent of
Composition Tables and Composition of Greek
energy for rowers and 28 per cent for
Cooked Food and Dishes (Trichopoulou,
volleyball players to 44 per cent for
1992).
weightlifters.
Micronutrient intakes as reported by the
athletes are presented in Table IV. Vitamin as
Results
Table II Energy intakes of the athletes
Table I shows the anthropometric Sport Number Kcal/day Kcal/kg
characteristics of the athletes. Distance
Rowers 16 4,211 + 227 48 + 3
runners and cyclists had lower weights
Volleyball players 14 3,500 + 338 40 + 4
compared with athletes of the other three
Cyclists 6 5,023 + 780 74 + 11
sports. The highest mean weight, as expected,
Weightlifters 5 3,157 + 420 32 + 4
was found for weightlifters. When heights
Distance runners 6 2,926 + 453 48 + 7
were compared it was found that volleyball
32
 Dietary assessment of five male sports teams in Greece Nutrition & Food Science
Maria Hassapidou Volume 31 . Number 1 . 2001 . 31±34

Table III Macronutrient intakes of the athletes

Protein Fat Carbohydrates
Sport Daily g Per kg Energy (%) Daily g Per kg Energy (%) Daily g Per kg Energy (%)
Rowers 188 + 19 2.2 + 0.2 19 + 3 124 + 22 1.4 + 0.2 26 + 4 587 + 15 6.7 + 0.2 55 + 5
Volleyball players 168 + 16 1.9 + 0.2 19 + 2 111 + 15 1.3 + 0.2 28 + 5 460 + 26 5.3 + 0.3 56 + 4
Cyclists 185 + 12 2.7 + 0.2 15 + 3 189 + 20 2.8 + 0.3 34 + 5 633 + 98 9.3 + 1.4 50 + 7
Weightlifters 156 + 28 1.6 + 0.3 20 + 2 153 + 93 1.5 + 0.9 44 + 7 289 + 128 2.9 + 1.3 37 + 9
Distance runners 116 + 14 1.9 + 0.2 16 + 1 116 + 24 1.9 + 0.4 34 + 3 374 + 63 6.1 + 1.0 50 + 3

Table IV Micronutrient intakes of the athletes

Vitamin A Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C Vitamin E Vitamin B6 Vitamin B12 Ca Zn Fe
Sport g RE mg mg mg mg mg mg g mg/d mg/d mg/d

Rowers 5,639 + 1,432 2.8 + 0.2 3.9 + 0.5 48 + 6 321 + 29 12 + 1 2.7 + 0.3 5.9 + 2 1,682 + 384 17 + 4 32 + 2
Volleyball players 4,196 + 1,200 2.7 + 0.7 2.9 + 0.9 38 + 6 271 + 10 12 + 3 2.2 + 0.3 7.4 + 2 1,553 + 119 19 + 3 27 + 3
Cyclists 3,693 + 860 4 + 0.6 3.8 + 1.4 49 + 7 171 + 57 23 + 5 2.6 + 0.1 6+3 1,729 + 222 30 + 5 38 + 5
Downloaded by The University of British Columbia Library At 13:09 30 January 2016 (PT)

Weightlifters 5,942 + 1,653 2.5 + 0.5 2.7 + 0.8 33 + 5 168 + 81 15 + 4 2 + 0.9 8.5 + 3 1,591 + 118 23 + 7 22 + 3
Distance runners 4,462 + 1,512 2.5 + 0.2 2.8 + 0.7 29 + 6 164 + 48 19 + 9 1.7 + 0.2 3.9 + 3 1,832 + 283 25 + 8 28 + 2

well as mineral intakes vary between athletic
teams, but all mean values are well above the
RDA values showing an adequate intake of
vitamins and minerals by the athletes.
Discussion
In the present study the dietary intakes of
e lite male athletes, of five different sports,
have been determined. The study was
carried out during the competitive season.
Anthropometric measurements were taken
for all athletes. As expected, cyclists and
distance runners had lower mean weights
and percentage of body fat, compared to the
other athletes. In these sports low body
weight and body fat are considered
necessary for optimal performance. Body
weight and composition are functions of the
athletes' genetics, diet and training and
reflect the structural and functional
characteristics that are specifically
favourable for the sport involved.
Rowers and volleyball players had higher
mean percentages of body fat compared to
cyclists and runners but still significantly
lower than weightlifters. In these sports low
body weight is not so important and
percentages of body fat tend to be higher.
Weightlifters had the highest weight and
percentage of body fat. In this sport, athletes
generally try to compete in weight divisions
below their normal body weight and therefore
body weight fluctuation can be rapid,
frequent and large.
33
The mean reported energy intakes of
athletes varied from 2,926 +453Kcal per day
for distance runners to 5,023 + 780Kcal per
day for cyclists. Many investigators have
reported that most male athletes meet their
energy requirements and consume higher
energy intakes compared with female athletes.
(Hassapidou et al., 1999; Clark, 1991). Van
Erp-Baart et al. (1989) assessed the nutrient
composition of 419 athletes of different
sports. The highest energy intakes in this
study were found in endurance athletes
(cyclists, swimmers and rowers). These
results are in accordance with our study.
Most scientists agree that although athletes
consume diets high in calories they are failing
to eat the ideal diet when macronutrient
consumption is considered.
The average protein intakes of athletes of all
sports were found in this study to exceed the
recommended protein intakes. Athletes
involved in sports not requiring a strength-
training programme may not have protein
needs higher than the community RDA for
protein. As exercise commitments increase in
terms of intensity and duration then
significant adjustments must be made to
protein requirements especially for strength
training programme. Brotherhood (1984)
suggests a protein intake of 1.3g to 1.6g
protein/kg body weight for strength training
athletes.
A review of the most recent studies
(Lemon, 1991; Tarnopolsky et al., 1988)
suggests that the protein needs of strength
athletes are about 1.2g to 1.7g/kg /day. The
mean protein intakes of athletes of all
 Dietary assessment of five male sports teams in Greece
Maria Hassapidou
sports, in this study, were above these
recommendations.
Contribution of carbohydrate intake to total
energy intake varied from 37 per cent for
weightlifters to 56 per cent for volleyball
players.
If carbohydrates are assessed according to
g/kg/day guidelines, then intakes of
7-10g/kg/day meet the literature guidelines for
carbohydrate intakes of athletes undertaking
prolonged daily training sessions. On this basis
only rowers and cyclists appear to meet their
fuel requirements. Volleyball players and
distance runners had lower than
recommended carbohydrate intakes. The
lowest mean carbohydrate intake (3g/kg) was
Downloaded by The University of British Columbia Library At 13:09 30 January 2016 (PT)
found for weightlifters.
Fat intake above the recommended goals of
 30 per cent was found in this study for
cyclists, distance runners and weightlifters.
The highest fat intake was found for
weightlifters (44 per cent).
Higher fat and lower carbohydrate intakes
than recommended have also been reported for
athletes by other scientists (Di Chen et al.,
1989). The higher macronutrient imbalance
was found in the study for weightlifters. Van
Erp Baart et al. (1989) reported that
carbohydrate intake of weightlifters, in their
study, was 38 per cent of total energy intake, a
value very similar to the one found in our
study. Di Chen et al. (1989) also reported that
although weightlifters had higher energy
intakes than most strength athletes, they had
an overconsumption of protein and fat at the
expense of carbohydrate.
The mean micronutrient intakes of athletes,
of all sports, were above the recommendation,
showing that athletes met their requirements
for vitamins and minerals, despite failing to
eat the ideal training diet.
In conclusion the male athletes that
participated in the study had adequate energy
intakes and met their micronutrient
requirements. Macronutrient intakes were not
in balance, especially for weightlifters, who
had an overconsumption of fat at the expense
of carbohydrates.
This study showed that there is a need for
providing nutritional information to the
athletes in Greece, in order to improve their
diet and in this way their athletic
performance.
34
Nutrition & Food Science
Volume 31 . Number 1 . 2001 . 31±34
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