Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 50 ( 1992) 323-344 323

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

On the generation of oceanic surface waves by underwater

volcanic explosions

Dean G. Duffy
Laboratoryfor Atmospheres, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA
(Received May 1, 199 1; revised and accepted July 30, 199 1)

ABSTRACT

Duffy, D.G., 1992. On the generation of oceanic surface waves by underwater volcanic explosions. J. Vokcanol.Geotherm.
Rex, 50: 323-344.

The oceanic surface waves generated by submarine volcanism are modeled as the response of a compressible ocean to
an underwater point explosion at an arbitrary depth over an elastic half-space. We generalize the work of Kajiura and
Miyoshi by allowing the elastic sea floor to influence both the sound and surface gravity waves. The classic work of Press
and Ewing is extended to allow for the movement of the oceanic free surface. From numerical inversion techniques, we
find that most of the energy is radiated away as surface gravity waves. A mixture of direct and reflected P- (compressional)
and S-type (distortional) head waves may produce high-frequency, large-amplitude oscillations in the sea surface.

1. Introduction

Large-amplitude water waves may be generated by impulsive geologic events such as earth-
quakes, land slides and submarine volcanism. Due to the sometimes deadly consequences, this
problem has received the attention of numereous authors over the last sixty years. The earliest
models (Honda and Nakamura, 195 1; Unoki and Nakano, 1953; Grizarian, 1955; Driessche and
Braddock, 1972; Hammack, 1973; Sebekin, 1986) accounted only for the shallow water waves
(tsunamis) excited by an instantaneous piston-like deformation of an otherwise rigid sea floor and
solved the resulting Cauchy-Poisson problem. Only Miyoshi ( 1954, 1955) and Stoneley ( 1963)
included the compressibility of the ocean. More recent works have sought to find those tsunamis
that result from earthquakes. Ward ( 1980, 198 1, 1982) formulated a theory of tsunami generation
by submarine earthquakes using normal modes on a spherically symmetric, self-gravitating and
elastic Earth. Comar ( 1984a,b) used normal modes as well in a model of tsunami generation by a
realistic earthquake source with full ocean-earth interactions. Finally, Gusyakov and Chubanov
( 1987 ) numerically modeled the tsunamis generated by earthquake sources which are typical for
island-arc zones. In all of these studies, the source of excitation lies outside of the ocean and elastic
waves radiating from the earthquake must carry energy to the ocean.
Tsunamis may also be generated by a large explosion that may accompany submarine volca-
nism. This possibility was first considered by Unoki and Nakano ( 1953). Interest in this process
has been renewed recently by the intriguing possibility that the tsunamis from the 1883 explosion
of Krakatau may have originated in a submarine volcanic explosion [see, for example, Yokoyama
( 198 1, 1987) and Francis ( 1985 ) 1. In this case, the excitation force resides within the ocean and
can directly force the ocean.
The difficulty with previous analyses of water waves generated by submarine volcanism is that

0377-0273/92/$05.00 0 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

Correspondence to: D.G. Duffy, Laboratory for Atmospheres, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 2077 1,
324 D~G.DUFFY

they assume that the sea floor is rigid so that there are no elastic waves. The purpose of this paper
is to remove this restriction. To do this, we model the generation of water waves by submarine
volcanism as the response of three increasingly realistic ocean/solid earth systems to an impulsive
point source. In this paper we have ignored variations in the ocean's bathymetry as well as the
presence of any coastline. Furthermore, we have neglected the near proximity of the cone (see Fig.
1 ) which could transmit energy directly to the ocean's bottom through elastic waves.
It would appear that many aspects of this problem have already been solved because of the
important role that underwater explosions play in seismic exploration. As early as 1929, Sezawa
(1929) discovered the surface gravity waves generated by a submarine explosion for oceans of
various depths but with a rigid sea floor. Later, Press and Ewing (1950) found the normal modes
resulting from an explosive charge in a liquid layer that overlies a semi-infinite elastic solid. Honda
and Nakamura ( 1953, 1954) completed the Press and Ewing analysis by computing the contribu-
tion from the branch cut integrals. Both Rosenbaum (1965) and Haddon (1987b) have ap-
proached the submarine explosion problem through the use of complex "leaky modes" which drain
energy from the water into the solid earth. Apparently unaware of earlier work, Babeshko et al.
( 1984 ) found the waves in a fluid layer and underlying elastic half-space excited by a near-bottom
source. All of these analyses have neglected the weight of the ocean. Finally, Scholte ( 1943 ) and
Slezkin (1986) have found the planar water waves generated in an ocean overlying a vibrating,
elastic sea bed. They found two classes of wave solutions: surface gravity and a variety of Rayleigh
waves. Because they assumed normal mode solutions and neglected the branch cut integrals, the
role of the P-type and S-type head waves could not be considered.
In this paper we unify all of these previous analyses into one mathematical theory of the gener-
ation of oceanic surface waves generated by submarine volcanism. In section 2 we find the oceanic
water waves generated in an incompressible ocean overlying a rigid sea floor by volcanic eruptions
at various depths. We recover Kujiura's ( 1963 ) classic solution and present detailed computations
for impulsive explosions at various depths. In section 3 we expand our results by allowing the
ocean to be compressible. Although Miyoshi (1954) examined the case where the forcing is at the
bottom, our results give the response for any arbitrary depth. Finally, in section 4 we replace the
rigid sea floor with an elastic layer. We have thus generalized the Press and Ewing analysis to allow
for surface gravity waves. Section 5 gives a summary of our findings.

2. Incompressible ocean with a rigid sea-bed

We begin our analysis by stating the known solution for an incompressible ocean of depth D over
a rigid sea-bed (see Fig. 1 ). It was first derived by Kujiura (1963) who extended the work of
Terazawa (1915 ) and Lamb (1922 ) to an oceanic basin of finite depth. Assuming that the distur-
bances are axially symmetric, we scale the variables as follows:
(r',z') =D(r,z), (b ' =D2CoO, d' =Dd, t' = (g/D)l/2t
where r denotes the nondimensional radial distance from the source, z the nondimensional depth
(positive pointing downwards), t the nondimensional time, g the gravitional attraction constant,
Co the amplitude of the displacement source and d the nondimensional depth of the source. Note
that our displacement potential ~ differs from the velocity potential used by Terezawa, Lamb, Ka-
jiura and others by a differentiation in time. Because we wish our solution to apply to any forcing
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACE WAVES BY UNDERWATER VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 325

Z'= 0 ' "'~v

V° T ocean
d'

Z'= D,//,/////~/(h/j~
Vp, Vs
Fig. 1. Schematic for the problem.

within the ocean, we shall find the the Green's function G(r,z,t) of a quiescent ocean when it is
impulsively forced at r = 0 and z = d :
02G 02G 10G
Oz2 -ff r2 +r 0--;=-4nf(r)O(z-d)H(t) (2.1)
where d( ) denotes the Dirac delta function and H( ) is Heaviside's step function. From the
convolution theorem, the actual response O(r,z,t) for any given source function is then obtained
by convoluting the Green's function with a given forcing. The boundary conditions are:
OZG(r,O,t) OG(r,O,t)
Ot2 - Oz (2.2)
and:
OG(r,l,t)
-0 (2.3)
Oz
Equation (2.2) is the dynamic and kinematic boundary conditions applied to the ocean-atmo-
sphere free surface while (2.3) is the kinematic boundary condition at the sea floor.
We solve (2.1)-(2.3 ) by a joint application of Laplace and Hankel transforms:
c + ~i oo

G(r,z,t)=~--~ii f e'tf ~(k,z,s)Jo(kr)kdkds (2.4)

c--ooi 0

where c is choosen so that the Laplace transform converges. The application of these transforms
yields the system of equations:
d2C
dz 2 - k 2 G = 0 , 0_<z_<1 (2.5)

sZ~(r,O,s) _ d ~ ( k , 0 , s )
dz (2.6)

G( k,d+,s ) =~( k,d-,s) (2.7)

dG(k,d+,s) dG(k,d-,s) 2
- (2.8)
dz dz s
326 D.G. DUFFY

dG(k,l,s) = 0 (2.9)
dz
where d + and d - are points slightly greater than and less than z = d, respectively. Equations ( 2.7 ) -
(2.8) are jump conditions across the singularity at z = d. Equation (2.8) is obtained by integrating
the transformed form of (2.1) across a narrow strip between d + and d - .
The solution of (2.5)-(2.6 ) follows immediately and the Laplace transform may be inverted in
closed form. The solution may then be written as:
OO

cosh(k) sinh [k( 1 - I z - d l ) ] - s i n h [ k ( 1 - z - d ) ]

0

2k [ 1 - cos (ogt) ] ×cosh[k(d-cosh2(k)l

+ ~-~ )]cosh[k(1 - z ) ]}dk (2.10)

where 092= k tanh (k). Equation (2.10) gives the surface gravity waves that are generated by an
impulsive shock at depth z = d.
The most interesting quantity given by our solution is the elevation of the free surface. For ease
of comparison with previous work, we adopt the source term given by Unoki and Nakano (1953),
namely:
S(r,t) = [H(r)-H(r-b)]H(t) (2.11)
Physically, this corresponds to adding mass to system at z=d and 0 < r<b. This yields the free
surface:

oo

f Jo(kr)J1 (kb)cosh[k( 1 - d ) ]o9 sin (ogt)

q(r,t) = 2 b k sinh (k) dk (2.12)
0

because ~ (k,s) = s2g(k,s) d(k,O,s). Equation (2.12 ) was integrated using a sixth-order Cotes for-
mula (Fr0berg, 1969, p. 201 ). The integration was extended out to those k's in which the integrand
was negligibly small ( < 10--6). In Figures 2 and 3 we illustrate (2.12 ) by computing the surface
elevation at time t = 100 (Fig. 2 ) and at the point r = 100 (Fig. 3 ) in which the source is located at
various depths d. One of the most striking aspects of Figure 2 is the presence of beats or modula-
tions in the elevation of sea level with distance when the source is near the surface. These modu-
lations in the sea level were also found by Unoki and Nakano (1953) in their study of tsunamis
generated by an explosion in an infinitely deep ocean. Figure 3 shows that the leading edge of the
tsunami is followed by a gradual decrease in the amplitude of the oscillations. Note also the ele-
vated sea surface after the passage of the surface gravity waves. This results from the addition of
mass to the ocean from the source term. Eventually, as the tsunami propagates off to infinity, this
dome of water spreads out and the sea level at a given point decays to zero. This is seen in Figure
3.
In addition to our nondimensional calculations, we have also reworked our calculations for the
situation similar to a submarine Mount St. Helens. These dimensional calculations are also pre-
sented on Figures 2 and 3 using scales at the very bottom and fight side of the figures. In these
calculations we have taken the depth of the ocean to be D = 4 . 0 8 km which results in an unit of
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACE WAVES BY UNDERWATER VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 327

SOURCE AT Z " 0 . 2 5 ( I . KM)

0.015 24. E
E L
L 0 . 0 1 0 -- -- IE. E
V
E A
V T
i o.oo5 - -¢ -- 8. oI
o O. 000 0. N
N C
-0.005 I -8. M
SOURCE AT Z - 0.50 (2. KM)

L O.OlOI-- -- 16. E
E V
V A
A 0.13(251--- -- 8. T
T [

0 O- OOO O. N
N C
-o.oos-- I I I I I I I I I -8. M
SOURCE AT Z " 0.75 (3. KM)
0.015 24. E

E E
L 0.010 -- -- 16. V
E
V A
A O. 0 0 5 -- -- 8. T
I
T ,. 0
I
0 O. 000 - - O. N
N C
-o.oo5 I I I I I I I I I -e. M
50URCE AT Z = 1.013 (4. KM)
0.015 24. E

L 0.010 - - -- IB. E
E V
V A
A 0. 005 - - -- 8. T
I
T 0
I
o O. 0 0 0 -- O. N
N C
-o.oo5 I I I I I I I I I -B. M
O. 12. P4. 3B. 48. BO. 7P. 84. 915. 108. 120.
NONOI MENSI ONAL DISTANCE
I I i I I I
O. 98. 196. 294. 392. 490.
DISTANCE IN KILOMETERS

Fig. 2. Elevation of sea level at t = 100 [ t' = 34 minutes if D = 4.08 k m ] of an incompressible ocean overlying a rigid sea-
bed when volcanic eruption occurs at depth d. The value of b is 0.5 [ 2 km if D = 4.08 km and Co = 4 × 1 0 - 3 ].

nondimensional time equaling 20.4 s. Computing a numerical value o f Co is more difficult. It is

related to the amount o f mass added to the system. By taking b=0.5, we have assumed that the
pyroclastic surge takes the form o f a cylinder with a radius of (approximately) 2 km. If we use the
volume ejected by Mount St. Helens, 0.2 km 3 from Moore and Sisson ( 1981 ), the C o = 4 × 10 -3.
328 [)(;. DUFFY

SOURCE AT E = 0 . 2 5 (1. KM)

0.014 22.4

0.010 -- - 16.0

O. 006 -- 9.6

O. 0021 -- 3.2

-0- 002 -3.2

50URCE AT J~ = 0 . 5 0 (2. KM)
0.014 22.4

0.010 -- ~_~ 16.0

0- 006 - - 9.6

O. 002 - - l 3.2

I I I I I I
- 0 . 002 -3,2
SOURCE AT Z = 0 . 7 5 (3. KM)
0.014 22,4

0.010 -- 16.0

O. 006 - - 9.6

0. 002 - -
~.'..'.'?::::t::-....~...
........... 3.2

- 0 . 002 I I I I I I I -3.2

j
SOURCE AT Z m |'00 (4" KM)
0.014 22.4

0 . 0 1 0 -- - - t6.0

O, 006 - - - - 9.6

0.002 -- "- 3.2

- 0 . 002 1 [ I I I I I -3.2
O. 60. 120. 180. 240. 3130. 360. 420. 480. 540. 600.
NOND IMENS IONAL T lME

I I I I I J
O. 41. 82. 122. 163. 204.
TIME IN MINUTES

Fig. 3. S a m e as Fig. 2 except that we present the temporal evolution of sea-level elevation at r = 100 Jr' = 4 0 8 k m if
D=4.08 km].

As these figures show, typical elevations of the free surface at moderate distances from the explo-
sion are on the order of a few centimeters.
Having found the solution for incompressible fluids, we now introduce compressibility.
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACE WAVES BY UNDERWATER VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 329

3. Compressible ocean with a rigid sea-bed

In order to make the ocean compressible, we replace the governing equation (2.1) by:
1 02G 02G 02G 10G
V~ Ot 2 Oz 2 Or2 r Or =4nJtr)Jtz-d)H~t)" " ' '' (3.1)

while boundary conditions ( 2 . 2 ) - ( 2.3 ) remain unchanged. The parameter Vg is the square of the
speed of sound in water divided by gD. For geophysical flows, Vo>> 1 and we anticipate that the
sound waves will propagate much faster than the surface gravity waves. If we use joint Hankel-
Laplace transforms, (2.5) becomes:
d2G
dz~- m2~=0, 0<z< 1 (3.2)

where m 2 = k2 + s 2/Vg whereas ( 2 . 6 ) - (2.9) remain unchanged by the addition of compressibility.

The Green's function which satisfies ( 3.2 ) along with ( 2.6 ) - ( 2.9 ) is:
d,, , 2cosh[m(1-d)]cosh(mz) 2scosh[m(1-d)]sinh(mz)
tK, Z,S) = s ~ - ~ c - ~ s h ( - - ~ m sinh(m) ] t m[s 2 cosh(m) + m sinh(m) ] (3.3)

for 0 < z < d a n d

~,, , 2m c o s h ( m d ) + 2 s 2 sinh(md) × c o s h [ m ( 1 - z ) ] (3.4)

tx'z'S;=s--mm[~-)~mm sinh(m) ]
for d < z < 1. Because m = (k2+s2/V2) 1/2, it appears that we have to deal with a branch cut in
inverting (3.3)-(3.4). However, when the hyperbolic functions in (3.3)-(3.4) are expanded, the
transforms are purely even functions of m and thus no branch points or cuts exist. As in the pre-
vious section, we invert the Laplace transform by converting the line integral into a closed contour
by introducing an infinite semicircle in the left side of the complex s-plane. By Jordan's lemma the
contribution from the semicircle at infinity is zero. For this reason the inversion follows as a
straightforward application of the residue theorem. The singularities are located at s = 0 and:
m tanh (m) + s 2 = 0 (3.5)
The solutions of this transcendental equation (3.5) lie along the imaginary axis. Although the
precise solutions must be computed numerically, an asymptotic approximation is given by:

1 2 tanh(k)l}
So = i O g o = i ~ × { l - - ~ o [ s e c h ( k )-F (3.6)

sn = ico, = i V o x / ( 2 n - 1 )27~2/4 + k 2 × ( 3.7 )

( 2 n _ 1 )2zc2/4 4z~2(2n-1)2[12k2-7(2n-1)2zc2]'~
14 VZ[(2n_l)ZzcZ/4+k212÷ ~ (-2n-__S1 ~ - ~ j 3

where n = 1, 2, 3, .... Comparing (3.6) with the results from the previous section, we observe that
(3.6) is the external surface gravity wave with a correction due to the compressibility of the water.
The solutions expressed by (3.7) are added by the compressibility. They correspond to sound
waves within the ocean. Equations ( 3.6 ) - ( 3.7 ) were used as a first guess in the numerical solution
330 I),G. DUFFY

of (3.5) by Newton's method. Typically only a few iterations were necessary to obtain solutions
with six significant digits.
Once we find the poles in the s-plane we can obtain the inverse Laplace transform. Then the
Green's function may be written:
oo

G(r,z,t)=f Jo(kr)kdk{c°sh[k(l- z-d)]+cosh[sinh(k)

k(1-k Iz-dl ) ]
o

_ 2 V 2 mo{cosh [mo( 1 -z-d) ] + cosh [ mo( 1 +z-d) ] }cos(oJot)

co2{mo( 1 + 2 V2)cosh(mo) + (1 - Ogo~)sinh(mo) }

- 2 V ~ {sinh[mo(l -z-d) ]-sinh[mo(1 -Iz-dl)]}cos(o.)ot)

too( 1 + 2 V~)cosh (too) + ( 1 - Ogo2)sinh(mo)

- 2 V ~ ~ mn{cos[mn( 1 -z-d) ] + c o s [ m n ( 1 +z-d) ]}cos(ognt)

n=l co2,{m~(l+2V:o)Cos(mn)+(1-o92,)sin(mn)}
-2Vg ~ {sin[m~(l-z-d)]-sin[m.(1- Iz-dl)]}cos(~.t)
n=, mn ( 1 + 2 ~ o ) - c o ~ - ~ i i ~----~,)-~n ~ - - ~ (3.8)
where mo= (k2-co~/Vo 2) J/2 and ran= (o9~,/Vo-k 2) )/2. Miyoshi (1954, 1955) derived a similar
result in his study of tsunamis generated by a compressible ocean. However, his forcing was present
at the bottom of the ocean.
If we again study the elevation of the free surface q(r,t) by a source given by (2.11 ), then the
elevation is given by:

; { mocosh[mo(1-d) ]sin(ogot)
tl(r,t)=4bV~ J, (kb)Jo(kr)dk ~oo[mo( 1 +2Vo:)cosh(mo) + ( 1 -OgoZ)sinh(mo) ]
o

m,cos [m, ( 1 - d ) ] sin (o9, t)

+ L _ (3.9)

Compressibility has several effects. First, the surface gravity wave portion is slightly retarded in
its propagation speed. Second, a high-frequency, small-amplitude oscillation is superimposed upon
the surface gravity wave solution. Finally, because these sound waves travel faster than the surface
waves, the sound waves arrive earlier than in the compressible case. This early arrival may be
illustrated in two ways. In Figure 4 we show the surface elevation for 120 < r < 240 when t= 100,
b=0.5 and Vo= 7.5 or 408 k m < r ' < 816 km when t' = 3 4 minutes, b' = 2 km, V~)= 1.5 km s ~ ~and
D = 4.08 km. The incompressible solution is zero in this region because the surface gravity waves
have not propagated this far, stopping at r ~ 110 or r' ~ 440 km if D = 4.08 km. However, the sound
waves have a faster phase and group velocity and have propagated well beyond this point. We note
that the variations of sea level are a composite of many different sound waves. The maximum sea
elevations occur when the source is at d = 1 (d' = 4 km) because c o s [ m , ( 1 - d ) ] is near its maxi-
mum value.
In Figure 5 we show the surface elevation for 0 < t < 90 when r = 100 or 0 < t ' < 30.6 minutes
when r ' = 408 km and D = 4.08 kin. When compressibility is ignored this point is quiescient be-
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACEWAVESBY UNDERWATERVOLCANICEXPLOSIONS 331

SOURCE AT E " 0.25 ( I . KM)

O. 0136 4.8

E
L O. 003 2.4
E
V
A O. EX30 0.0
T
l
0 -0. 003 -2.4
N

-0. 006 I I I I I I I I I -4.B

SOURCE AT Z " 0.50 (2. KM)
O. 006 4.B

O. 003 2.4

O. 1300 0.0

- 0 . 003 -2.4

- 0 . DOE I I I I I I 1 I -4,8

SOURCE AT 7 - 0.75 (3. KM)

O. 006 4.8

O. 003 2.4

O. [300 0.0

- 0 . 003 -2.4

- 0 . 006 I I I I I I I I I -4.8
SOURCE AT Z " 1.00 (4. KM)
4.8

0.003 2.4

O.DO0 0.0

-2.4
-°=?
-o.oo61
F" 1 /
7 I
7I I I I I I -4.B
120. 132. 144. 1.56. 168. 180. 192. 204. 216. 228. 240.
NONOIMENSIONAL DISTANCE
I I I I I I
490. 588. 686. 784. 882. 980.
DISTANCE IN KILOMETERS

Fig. 4. Elevation o f sea level, multiplied by Vo2, at t = 100 [t' = 34 m i n u t e s if D = 4 . 0 8 k m ] o f a compressible ocean over-
lying a rigid sea-bed when volcanic eruption occurs at d e p t h d. The parameters are b = 0 , 5 and Vo= 7.5 [b' = 2 km and
V6 = 1.5 km s-~ if D = 4 . 0 8 k m and C o = 4 × 10-3].
332 D.O. DUFFY

SOURCE AT Z = 0 - 2 5 (I. KM)

0.015 24.
E 0.010 I
16.
L
E 0.005 8.
V
A -0.000 o.
T
I -0.005 - B.

0
N -0.010 -16.
-0.015 -24.
SOURCE AT Z = 0.50 (2. KM)
0.015

E 0.010 16.
L
E 0. 005 B.
v
A -0.000 O.
T
I -0.005 - B,

0
N -0.010 -I6.
-0.015 1 -2"1.
SOURCE AT Z " 0.75 (3. KM)
0.015 24.
E 0.010 -- 16.
L
E 0.005-- B.
V
A -0. 000 O.
T
I -0. 005 - - -- 8,

o
N - 0 . 0 1 0 -- -]6.

-0.015 -24,
50URCE AT Z - 1 . 0 0 (4. KM)
0.015 24.

E 0.010 -- 16.
L
E O.O05-- B.
V
A -0. 000 O.
T
I - 0 . 005 - -
0
N - 0 . 0 1 0 -- -16.

-0.015 1
O. 9. 18. 27. 36. 45. 54. 63. 72. 81. 90.
NONOIMENSIONAL TIME
I I I I I I
0.00 6.12 12.24 18.36 24.48 30.60
TIME IN MINUTES

Fig. 5. S a m e as Fig. 4 e x c e p t t h a t we p r e s e n t t h e t e m p o r a l e v o l u t i o n o f t h e sea-level e l e v a t i o n ( t i m e s Vo2 ) at r = 100

[r' = 4 0 8 k m i f D = 4 . 0 8 k m ] .
GENERATIONOFOCEANICSURFACEWAVESBYUNDERWATERVOLCANICEXPLOSIONS 333

cause no surface gravity waves have yet arrived. However, when compressibility is included, we
have high-frequency, sound waves producing a small elevation in the sea surface.
In summary, the response of a compressible ocean overlying a rigid sea floor to an impulsive
forcing consists of very small-amplitude O ( V6-2 ), high-frequency sound waves and surface gravity
waves. The sound waves travel much faster than the surface gravity wave by O(Vo). Both the
sound and surface gravity waves decay as r-1/2
In the next section we introduce a sea floor which is elastic.

4. Compressible ocean overlying an elastic sea-bed

In this section we represent the sea-bed as an infinitely deep half-space with the Lam6's constants
2s and #s and density ps. Within this sea-bed two types of waves may exist: there are compressional
(transverse) and distortional (longitudinal) waves with the corresponding phase speeds
Vp-2- (2s+2#~)/(p~gD) and V 2 = # s / ( p ~ D ) . For convenience, solutions within the ocean (solid
earth) are denoted with a subscript 1 (2). The various Green's functions are governed by the
equations:
1 OZG1 02G1 O2G1 10GI
--=4zrJ(r)6(z-d)H( t) (4.1)
V 2 Gt 2 Oz 2 Gr z r Or
for 0_<z< 1, and
1 02G21 02G21 02G21 10G21
=0 (4.2)
V 2 Ot 2 Oz 2 Or 2 r Or
l 02G22 02G22 02G22 1 0G22
--=0 (4.3)
V 2 Ot 2 ~ Or 2 r Or
for z > 1 where G21 corresponds to the Green's function for the compressional (Helmholtz) poten-
tial, ~2 and Ge2 the Green's function for the distortional (Helmholtz) potential, g2 [ see Press and
Ewing (1950) ]. The potential ~2 is scaled by DZCowhile the potential ~t2 is scaled by D3Co. Solu-
tions to ( 4 . 1 ) - ( 4.3 ) must satisfy the boundary conditions:
02GI OGI
Ot 2 - Oz (4.4)

at z = 0 and
02G21+ 2 03G22 1 03G22
20rOz OrOz 2 V2s OrOt 2 = 0 (4.5)
[-OZGI 02GI 10Gl]

2 [-02G21 02G2' IOGzl-] - 2102Gz2, a 3 G z z . 1 0_3G221

(V2-Vs)L~+-~r2 + r Or J + 2 V s [ ~ S 2 -e--~r3 -~ V 2 0 t 2 O r J (4.6)

ZJ OGI -- OG21 [ 02G22 1 02G22 (4.7)

Oz Oz Oz 2 V2s Ot 2
334 :~) ¢; t)[:r~'~',

at z = 1 where A is the ratio of the density of water to the density of the solid earth. Equation (4.4)
corresponds to the free surface condition while (4.5)-(4.7 ) arise due to a balance of stress condi-
tions at the interface between the ocean and the solid earth (see Press and Ewing, 19 50).
The solutions must satisfy not only the boundary conditions (4.4)-(4.7) but also a jump con-
dition at the source z = d. Upon integrating the Hankel and Laplace transformed (4.1) over a
narrow strip from d - to d ÷, the jump conditions are found to be:
~1 ( k,d+,s) = ~ ( k,d-,s) (4.8
and
dO,(k,d+,s) ddl(k,d-,s) 2 ,~4.9
dz dz s

The Green functions that satisfy the transformed ( 4.1 )- ( 4.3 ) are:
~l(k,z,s)=A~ sinh(m~z)+B~ cosh(mlz), O<z<d (4.10i
G~(k,z,s)=Azsinh(mtz)+Bzcosh(m~z), d<_z<_l (4.11 i
Gzl(k,z,s)=.Ce -mz,(z-l), Z> 1 ! 4. t2 i
G22(k,z,s)=Ee -m22(z-l), z>_ 1 ~4.13)
where rn~ = (kZ+s2/V~ )~/2, m21 = (k2+s2/V2p )1/2 and m22= (k2+s2/V~ )1/2. Upon substituting
(4.10)-(4.13 ) into the boundary and jump conditions (4.4)-(4.9 ) we determine the arbitrar3:
constants:
2s cosh [ml ( 1 - d ) ] 2m21 s 5[s 2 sinh (ml d) +m~ cosh (m~ d) ]
AI - 4.14)
m~[s2cosh(m~)+m~ sinh(ml) 1 ml[s2cosh(m~)+m~ sinh(mt) l.(~'

2 cosh [ml ( 1 - d ) ] 2m21s3[s 2 sinh(m~d)+m~ cosh(m~d) ]

4.15!
B1 - s i s 2 cosh(ml ) +m~ sinh(mt ) ] Is 2 cosh (ml) + ml sinh(m~ ) ] 9

2 sinh ( m l ) [S 2 sinh (ml d) + m l cosh(ml d) ]

A2 = sml [s2 cosh ( ml ) + m, sinh(ml) ]

2mzlsS[s 2 s i n h ( m l d ) +rnt cosh(mld) ]

m~ [s 2 cosh (ml) +m~ sinh(m, ) ] !4.16)

2 cosh(m~ ) [s 2 sinh (m~ d) + m l cosh (m~ d) ]

B2-
sml [s 2 cosh(ml ) + m l sinh (m,) ]
2m21 s 3 [s 2 sinh (ml d) + ml cosh (rnl d) l (4.17~
m~ [s 2 cosh (ml) + m j sinh(m~ ) ]

2zlI/~,s( 2kZ + s2/ V~ ) [s2sinh (m~d) + m~cosh ( mld) ] 4.18~

C-
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACE WAVES BY UNDERWATER VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 335

E_4AVZm2~s[s2 s i n h ( m l d ) + m l c o s h ( m l d ) ]
(4.19)

where:
= rnl V 4 [ (2kZ+s2/VZ)Z-4kZrn2~ m22] Is 2 cosh(ml ) + ml sinh ( m l ) ] (4.20)
+As4m21 Is 2 sinh(ml ) + m i cosh ( m l ) ]
The first terms in (4.14)-(4.17 ) were found in the previous section. They represent the surface
gravity waves modified by compressibility and oceanic sound waves. The second terms in (4.14 ) -
( 4.17 ) and (4.18 ) - (4.19 ) are new and represent the effect of an elastic sea-bed.
The inversion of the first terms of ( 4 . 1 4 ) - (4.17 ) was found in the previous section and is taken
as known. The inversion of the new terms is more difficult. Because we are interested in the oceanic
surface elevation, we give the mathematical analysis for this quantity; any other field may be com-
puted by analog. The joint Hankel and Laplace transform of the surface elevation when the forcing
equals (2.11 ) is:
2 cosh[mt ( l - d ) ] bJ~(kb)
c,r,t~k,S)_s2 cosh(m~) +m~ sinh(m~) k

2 [s 2 sinh (mr d) + m~ cosh (mL d) ] bJ~ (kb)

A[s2sinh(m~)+m~ cosh(m~) ] k
{ 1
[s 2 c o s h ( m l ) + m l sinh ( m l ) ]
m~ V 4s [ ( 2 k 2+ s 2/ V s2) 2 -4k2m21m22]} (4.21)

To invert (4.21 ) we again apply the residue theorem. There are two sources of singularities: s 2
c o s h ( m ~ ) + m ~ s i n h ( m ~ ) = 0 and ~ = 0 [the singularities associated with s 2 s i n h ( m ~ ) + m l
cosh(m~ ) = 0 are removable]. The first term in (4.21) is inverted in the previous section and its
inverse is given by (3.9). The first part of the second term of (4.21) may also be inverted in a
similar manner and gives the same expression ( 3.9 ) except for the multiplicative constant - 1/A.
This term gives both the correction due to the surface gravity, and oceanic sound wave solutions
of the previous section due to the replacement of a rigid sea floor by an malleable one. Note that
because A < 1, the surface gravity waves and sound waves shown in Figures 2-5 will be inverted.
Similar results were found by Slezkin (1985 ) in his planar wave solutions of tsunamis on an in-
compressible sea generated by elastic vibrations in the oceanic floor. He found that the surface
gravity waves were 180 ° out of phase compared to the corresponding wave solutions of vertical
displacement at the sea floor. This is in contrast with the case of a rigid sea floor where the surface
gravity waves and the sea floor displacement are in phase.
Finally, we invert the rather formidable second part of the second term of (4.21 ). Fortunately,
inversions of transforms similar to (4.21) have been throughly studied [see Rosenbaum (1965)
and H a d d o n ( 1987b ) ]. All of these studies invert the Hankel transform by first using the residue
theorem and then by inverting the Laplace transform via numerical integration. Inversion of the
Hankel transform yields normal modes and two branch cut integrals associated with the multival-
ued functions rn21 (the P wave) and m22 (the S wave). To satisfy the radiation condition the
proper Riemann surface consists of Re (m2 ~) > 0 and Re (rn22) > 0. We denote this physical sheet
as the ( + + ) sheet whereas the three aphysical sheets are ( + - ), ( - + ) and ( - - ) where the
plus and the minus signs denote the sign of the Re (m2~) and Re (m22), respectively. Because the
integrand of (4.21 ) is an even function of rn~, it does not introduce any branch points or cuts.
336 r*.~;.DUVW

One of the intriguing aspects of this problem is the appearance of additional normal modes as
the frequency (to= is) increases, with a simultaneous jump in the value of the branch cut integrals.
A detailed analysis shows that some of the singularities residing on the other three aphysical Rie-
mann surfaces have migrated from these surfaces to "pop" onto the proper one. In the early 1960's
Rosenbaum ( 1965 ) realized that if he deformed both his k and o9 contour integrations so that they
crossed over onto these improper Riemann surfaces he could re-express the branch cut integrals as
a sum of residues from these improper modes. Because the improper modes decay with time as
they leak energy from the ocean into the solid earth, they are called "leaky modes". Another ad-
vantage of his analysis was the continuous evolution of normal mode solutions and branch cut
integrals. Unfortunately, this method, as formulated by Rosenbaum, was really not understood
and was difficult to apply. Recently, however, Haddon, in a series of articles ( 1984, 1986, 1987a,
b, 1989), clarified this technique and showed how it might be applied to a number of geophysical
problems. We shall use this technique to invert the final term in (4.21 ).
Our analysis begins by replacing the Bessel function by its Hankel function equivalent so that
the limits of integration change ( 0 , ~ ) to ( - ~ , ~ ). Then our inversion of the second part of the
second term may be written:

2b R e ~ e,,,.,tdo9 fl J~ (kb)H~ 2) (kr)

~/22=~n
n U /- K

ml [mr c o s h ( m l d ) -092 sinh(m~ d) ] [ (2k2-o92/V2)2-4k2rn2~ m22]~ (4.22)

× [ml cosh(ml ) --o92 sinh ( m l ) ]

with:
~ = m ~ [ (2k2-o92/VZ)Z-4k2m2~ m22] [m~ sinh (ml) -o02 cosh(ml ) ]
+~(O9/Vs)4mzl [ml cosh(m~ ) - t o z sinh(ml ) ] 4.23)
in which ml = (k2-o92/V 2 )1/2, m21= (kao92/V2s )1/2, and m 2 2 = (k2-o92/V2) I/2, where H o (2~
(kr) denotes the Hankel function of the second kind of order zero. The path integration F is taken
along a straight line I m ( o g ) = - a ( a > 0 ) from the point o g = - i a on the imaginary axis to
Re (to) = ~ while the line integral K lies along the real k-axis from - ~ < k < ~ and passes beneath
the branch point at k = 0.
As Haddon's papers show, the choice of the deformed contours depends completely on the lo-
cation of various branch points in the og-plane. The og's corresponding to the branch points of me 1,
m22 and the Hankel function is found by solving ~ (og,to/Vv) = 0, ~ (og,to/Vs) = 0 and ~ (co,0) = 0,
respectively, using the IMSCpackage ZANIN which finds zeros of an analytic functions by a method
devised by Miiller (1956). Following Haddon (1987b) we denote these branch points as o9~,,
ogc and OgDmfor the ruth mode, respectively; OgA and ogZ'mare given in Table 1 along with the cor-
responding k's in Table 2.
Most of the singularities of ~ ( o g , k ) = 0 are simple poles. To maintain the simplicity of only
working with simple poles, Haddon ( 1987b ) also avoided points where two simple poles originat-
ing from different Riemann surfaces might coalesce to form a second-order pole. The numerical
determination of these points is difficult. We computed them by solving ~ ( o g , k ) = ~k(og,k)=0
using the IMSL routine Z S C N T . This routine uses the secant method to solve simultaneous nonlinear
equations by an algorithm devised by Wolfe (1959). In Table 1, we have given the ogEm,OgF points
where the roots coalesce to become second-order points on the ( - - ) Riemann surface and the
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACEWAVESBY UNDERWATERVOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 337

TABLE 1

Locations of various branch points stated in the text for Vo= 7.5, Vp= 26.25 and Vs= 15.16 [ V ~ = 1.5 km s - z, V ~ = 5.25 km s - ~,
V~ = 3.03 km s - t if D = 4 . 0 8 km]

m co~ to~ 09~ to~

1 11.864 1.289 12.235 1.323 12.374 0. 12.645 1.888

2 35.371 1.298 36.651 1.203 36.907 0. 37.490 1.979
3 58.922 1.298 61.185 1.112 61.483 0. 62.296 2.002
4 82.479 1.298 85.735 1.041 86.066 0. 87.068 1.999
5 106.038 1.298 110.297 0.982 110.650 0. 111.816 1.981
6 129.598 1.298 134.867 0.932 135.235 0. 136.547 1.953
7 153.159 1.298 159.440 0.888 159.821 0. 161.264 1.919
8 176.720 1.298 184.017 0.849 184.407 0. 185.970 1.879
9 200.282 1.299 208.596 0.813 208.993 0. 210.666 1.836
10 223.843 1.299 233.177 0.781 233.579 0. 235.354 1.790
11 247.404 1.296 257.760 0.752 258.166 0. 260.035 1.742
12 270.966 1.299 282.343 0.725 285.752 0. 284.710 1.693
13 294.528 1.299 306.927 0.700 307.339 0. 309.380 1.641
14 318.089 1.299 331.512 0.676 331.926 0. 334.044 1.589
15 341.651 1.299 356.098 0.654 356.512 0. 358.704 1.536
16 365.213 1.299 380.684 0.634 381.099 0. 383.360 1.482
17 388.775 1.299 405.271 0.614 405.686 0. 408.013 1.427
18 412.336 1.299 429.858 0.596 430.272 0. 432.662 1.372
19 435.898 1.299 454.445 0.579 454.859 0. 457.307 1.317
20 459.460 1.299 479.033 0.563 479.446 0. 481.950 1.261

TABLE2

Co~espondingwavenumbersofthesingularitieslistedinTablel

m k~ k~ k~ kF

1 0. 0. 0.43138 0.00951 0.47139 0. 0.55590 0.10755

2 0. 0. 1.35689 -0.02571 1.40599 0. 1.58457 0.10826
3 0. 0. 2.29210 -0.04493 2.34222 0. 2.58475 0.08996
4 0. 0. 3.22971 -0.05819 3.27869 0. 3.57090 0.06541
5 0. 0. 4.16836 -0.06816 4.21523 0. 4.54809 0.03800
6 0. 0. 5.10749 -0.08228 5.15182 0. 5.51886 0.00912
7 0. 0. 6.04687 -0.08228 6.08841 0. 6.48468 -0.02057
8 0. 0. 6.98636 -0.08747 7.02502 0. 7.44655 -0.05068
9 0. 0. 6.98636 -0.09178 7.96164 0. 8.40513 -0.08100
10 0. 0. 8.86540 -0.09540 8.89826 0. 9.36092 -0.11138
11 0. 0. 9.80486 -0.09844 9.83489 0. 10.31429 -0.14172
12 0. 0. 10.74429 -0.10102 10.77152 0. 11.26555 -0.17195
13 0. 0. 11.68367 -0.10321 11.70815 0. 12.21492 -0.20205
14 0. 0. 12.62295 -0.10507 12.64478 0. 13.16255 -0.23195
15 0. 0. 13.56218 -0.10663 13.581415 0. 14.10864 -0.26166
16 0. 0. 14.50131 -0.10795 14.51805 0. 15.05334 -0.29114
17 0. 0. 15.44038 -0.10905 15.45469 0. 15.99671 -0.32039
18 0. 0. 16.37935 -0.10996 16.39132 0. 16.93892 -0.34940
19 0. 0. 17.31828 -0.11071 17.32796 0. 17.88000 -0.37816
19 0. 0. 18.25716 -0.11131 18.26460 0. 18.82005 -0.40666
338 D(;. DUFF'(

( + - ) Riemann surface, respectively. The corresponding wavenumbers k~ and k F are given in

Table 2. Finally, there are second-order poles associated with the coalescence of adjacent roots,
located at tOm,m+G1• Numerical computation reveals that in our problem the Re (tO~,m+1 ) lies half-
way between consecutive real parts of the cluster oftO~, tOAmand tO~ points while the Im (tO~,,,,+ ~)
is approximated by 3.14. Following Haddon ( 1987b), the K contour must pass over tO,',,, 0)m, c (gin
, t::
and tO~ and under the point tOm. D
Despite these restrictions, the number of possible integration paths is infinite. Consequently, the
actual path used in the integration is chosen so that an accurate answer is obtained with relatively
little computational cost. Haddon (1987b) found that for large r (i.e., those of interest to us), that
the integration may be broken into two parts. One involves an integration near the tO,n~ ~- (~Om,
,t 03mr
branch points while the other involves an integration from a point on the real axis and proceeds
out to infinity while passing over tO,,C,.The former contour gives the P-type head wave while the
latter gives the S-type head wave with direct and reflected P waves in the ocean. For large r, Had-
don showed that the amplitude of the P-type head wave is 1-3% that of the S-type head wave.
Thus, we shall neglect the P-type head wave. Had we wished to compute the form of these waves,
a method provided in Haddon ( 1987b ) would have been used.
The principal difficulty in integrating (4.22) lies with the rapid oscillatory behavior or the Han-
kel function for larger r. This was avoided by noting that along any small interval [ to.,top], (4.22)
can be written:

~ R,~(k~,to)ei~°t-ikm~dto (4.24)
O)t~

where Rm (kin,to) changes very slowly while the exponential oscillates rapidly. Expanding k,,, in to
and taking Rm from underneath the integral, (4.24) can be integrated to give:
Rm ( km,to~,)ei°Jrt-ik..(c°r)r X
exp [ i (toa - t o y ) t - i( Ok/Oto ) ( toa - to~,)r ] - e x p [ - i( tOy - tO.)t+ i( Ok/ OtO) (toy - to.)r]
i t - i( Ok/OtO)r
I4.25)

where Ok/Oto is the inverse of the group velocity and toy is the frequency at the center of the interval
[ to,,top ], The answer is given as a sum of these short interval integrals where Re (toB-to-) -0,0005.
Physically, the total solution is a superposition of waves given by the carrier frequency to~,which is
modulated by an amplitude that travels at the local group velocity.
Another difficulty arises if the chosen F contour results in the term exp[Im (km)r] being ex-
tremely large. This is avoided by constraining the Im(to) to lie near the real to axis which results
in Im (kin) being small. A successful choice of the F contour is shown in Figure 6; the broken line
shows the portion of the contour on the ( + - ) while the solid line shows that on the ( + + ) surface.
In Figure 7 we present the nondimensional surface elevation/722 of the sea surface as a function
of time at r = 100 or r' = 408 km if D = 4.08 km. The group velocity is computed analytically rather
than numerically. Equation (4.25) provides excellent results except at points of stationary phase.
For these few points the integral (4.24) is computed using the method of stationary phase.
Figure 7 shows the broad wave packet associated with the S head and direct and reflected P
waves. Although the important role that surface gravity waves play in generating destructive tsun-
amis has long been recognized, the effect of the elastic waves have only rarely been noted. An
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACEWAVESBY UNDERWATERVOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 339

example was given by Honda and Nakamura (1955) who reported on "sea shocks" - the violent
vibration that surface ships may experience near the location of a shallow focus submarine earth-
quake. Due to the speed at which these shocks arrive after the earthquake, they suggested that these
sea shocks were the passing P and S waves. Figure 7 shows that submarine volcanism could pro-
duce similar sea shocks. For an ocean of depth 4 km, our figure shows that the S and P waves result
in violent oscillations that would last 3-4 minutes in duration.
Finally, because of the form of the initial condition, only the first three modes contribute signif-
icantly to the wave field. We note that, as expected, the closer the source is to the ocean bottom,
the larger the amplitude of the elastic wave.

0.20

O. 15

~0i O. IC
f// !
/
!

i:
:'I ,,

i
/I /l

i
:
'[

J
:
)
{
t/

J
/[

0.0'2

o.oo I I I I I I I
O. riO. lOO. t~O. 200. • 300. ~'0. 400.
O)r
0.04

O.Og

~i o.ot !!

--o.ol i

', !i i
"O.~
O. 5, tO. I5. 20. ~. 30. ~LS. 40. '15. ~0.
kr
Fig. 6. T h e contours used for the first sixteen m o d e s ( m = 0 - 1 5 ) in integrating (4.22). T h e d a s h e d lines d e n o t e t h a t
portion o f the c o n t o u r o n the ( + - ) surface while the solid line denotes the ( + + ) surface. We h a v e not plotted any
negative values o f I m (kin) below - 0.02.
340 D.G. DUFFY

StXM?CfAT Z - 0.25 (I. Ktt)

0.036
1

4.8 F
A
0.0 ;
0
-0.Gil3
k
-4.8
t 1

-3.6
k
SOURCE AT if - 0.50 (2. KH)
0.006 3.6 I‘

0.003 z
4.6 V
A

0
1
0 -0.003- -4.8 N
N
c
-9.6 1?
S@JRCE AT Z - 0.75 (3. Ktl)
9.6 i
1
E
L O.M3 4.8 ;
E
P
V
A 0.030 0.0 ;
T
P
-0.Ou3 -4.8 N
c
I I I 1 I I I I I PI
-0.1X6 -9.6

WJRCE AT Z - l.M (4. KM)

O.DO6 9.6
F

;
o.m3 4.6
‘i
A
0.0 ;
0
-4.8 N

-0.006
I I 1 I I I I I
-9.6
k
0. 2. 4. 6. 0. 10. 12. 14. 16. 18. 20
NONDIRENSIONAL TINE

I 1 I I 1 I
0.0 81.6 163.2 244.0 326.4 408.0
TIE INSECfXE

Fig. 7. Elevation ofthe sea surface as a function of time at r= 100 [r’ ~408 km if Dz4.08 km] as the result of S-type head
anddirectandreflectedPwaves.Theparametersareb=0.5, V0=7.5, 1/,=26.25and V,=15.16 [b’=2km, vA=1.5km
s-‘, v;= 5.25kms-I, V;=3.04kms-‘ifD=4.08kmandC0=4X10’-3].
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACE WAVES BY UNDERWATER VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 341

5. Discussion and conclusion

In this paper we have sought to find the oceanic surface waves that would arise from submarine
volcanism in the open, uniform depth ocean. We have done this by the joint application of Hankel-
Laplace transforms to find the waves generated in a compressible ocean overlying an elastic half-
space to impulsive forcing within the ocean. There are five types of waves motions: P-type head,
S-type head, reflected P, sound and surface gravity waves. Of all of these waves, the surface gravity
wave is the most significant, followed by a mixture of S-type head and P reflected waves.
To illustrate this mixture of different types of waves, we show in Figure 8 what a ship at r' = 408
km if D = 4 . 0 8 km would expect to observe as time progresses if the volcano explodes at the sea
bottom. Shortly after the submarine volcano explodes, P-type head waves would appear. However,
because they decay as r -2 their amplitude is very small. Next, a mixture of S-type head and re-
flected P (from the oceanic wave guide) waves would cause violent oscillations for several min-
utes. While the ship was undergoing these oscillations, sound waves would appear. Because of their
small amplitude they would be unnoticed. Finally, the surface gravity waves would appear. As
discussed in the previous section, there is an initial steep trough in the sea surface, rather than a
ridge as predicted by many solutions where the sea floor is rigid.

0.010 16.
- t y p e head w a v e s .<. s u r f a c e gravity w a v e s

~. S - t y p e head, direct and r e f l e c t e d P w a v e s

0.005 -- 9.

O.OOOI O.
C
E
N
T
I
O. 005 - 8. M
E
T
E
sound w a v e s R
5
0.010 ~ _ _ K I L I I -16.
0. 14. 28. 42. 56. 70. 84. 00. 112. 126. 140.

NOND1PIEI~ l OIOL TIME

I I I I I I
0.00 9.52 19.04 28.56 38.08 47.60

TIME IN MINUTES

Fig. 8. Elevation o f the sea surface at r = 100 [ r' = 408 k m if D = 4.08 k m ] o f a compressible ocean overlying an elastic
sea-bed w h e n a v o l c a n i c eruption occurs at d e p t h d. T h e parameters are b = 0.5, Vo = 7.5, Vp= 26.2 5 a n d Vs = 15.16 [ b ' = 2
km, V~ = 1.5 k m s - l , V~ = 5 . 2 5 k m s - ' , V j = 3.04 k m s -1 i f D = 4.08 k m a n d C o - 4 × 1 0 - 3 ] .
342 t::~(; DUI-F'~

0.I0[ elastic waves

1.6

0"13'5
i 0.8

o.ooi~: 0.0
'\H" - ~ \

-0.~ f~tt -0.8

/"
/,

sound, surface gravity waves

II

-0.10 I I I I I -I .6
O. I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Ix~NOIHEN510NAL T I I"IE

I i I I I I l
0.0 20.4 40.8 61.2 81.6 102.0 122.4
TIHE IN SEOONDS

Fig. 9. Same as Fig. 8 except at r= 3 [ r' = 12.24 km if D = 4.08 km ].

Address for correspondence: Laboratory for Atmospheres, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 2077 l
USA.
AS a counterpoint to our far-field solution, we also computed the near-field solution at r = 3
[ r ' = 12.24 km if D = 4 . 0 8 km]. The elastic solutions were computed as outlined in Haddon
( 1987b ). As Figure 9 shows, the elastic, sound and surface gravity waves are intermingled because
the explosion has occurred so near to the observational point that the different types of waves have
not had an opportunity to separate out. Unlike the far-field solution, the elastic waves have the
largest amplitude, followed by the surface gravity waves. As one might expect, these waves have
considerably more amplitude than those in the far-field solution.
In this paper we have found for the first time the interplay of the elastic, sound and surface
gravity waves generated by an exploding submarine volcano. Our solution is limited to an open~
uniform depth ocean. Nevertheless, it is one further step towards a complete understanding of this
important geophysical phenomena. Finally, the mathematical methods used here may be applied
to similar problems where the forcing is beneath the sea floor as well as different forcing. These
problems involve similar mathematical difficulties in inverting the transforms.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Drs. R. Wayne Higgins and Hendrik L. Tolman for their careflal
reading of the manuscript and many useful suggestions, The author would also like to thank one of
the referees, Dr. Steven Ward, for his constructive suggestions. Ms. Laura Romberg assisted in the
preparation of the figures. Computer time was provided under the Air-Sea Interaction Studies
grant, RTOP 461-31, funded by NASA Headquarters.
GENERATION OF OCEANIC SURFACE WAVES BY UNDERWATER VOLCANIC EXPLOSIONS 343

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Comar, R.P., 1984a. The tsunami mode of a flat earth and its excitation by earthquake sources. Geophys. J. R. Astron.
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Comar, R.P., 1984b. Tsunami generation: A comparison of traditional and normal mode approaches. Geophys. J. R.
Astron. Soc., 77: 29-41.
Driessche, P. van der, and Braddock, R.D., 1972. On the elliptic generating region of a tsunami. J. Mar. Res., 30:217-
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