ILLUSTRATED S O U R C E B O O K of MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

S E C T I O N 11

Ideas for Flat Washers 11-2

Versatile Flat Washers 11-4
Jobs for Flat Rubber Washers 11-6
Take Another Look at Serrated Washers 11-8
Dished Washers Get Busy 11-10
Design Problems Solved with Belleville Spring Washers 11-12
How to Increase Energy of Belleville Spring Washers 11-14
SEM Applications 11-23
Creative Ideas for Cupped Washers 11-24
11-2

Ideas for Flat Washers

You can do more with washers than you may think.
Here are 10 ideas that may save the day next time
you need a simple, quick, inexpensive design.
Robert 0. Parmley

/loose f/f on shaff)

1 Are your belts overlapping? A flat washer,

loosely fitted to the shaft, separates them. 3 Need to hold odd-shaped parts? A flat washer
and Belleville spring make a simple anchor.

Rod, 1p Movemenf I

9Odeg approx E'd view

Ploa f
-~-
, --
L iquld f z
level f/owf
fvariable) fravei

of weld

2 How about a rod support? A bent washer permits

some rocking; i f welded, the support is stable. 4 Got a weight problem? Adding or subtracting
fiat washers can easily control float action.
 Washers 11-3

[Add ax/e rad for fucrungl a

5 How about some simpleflanges?Here the wash-

ers guide the twine and keep it under control. 8 Does your floor tilt? Stacked washers can level
machines, or give a stable height adjustment.

Rad

Arm

Axle

washer

6 Need some wheels? Here flat washer is the

wheel. A rubber disk quiets the assembly. 9 Here’s a simple iock. A machine bolt, a washer,
and a wing or lever nut make a strong clamp.

7 Want to avoid machining? Washers can make

anchors,stop shoulders, even reduce tubing ID. 10 Need a piston in a hurry? For light service,
tube, rod, and washer will be adequate.
11-4

Versatile Flat Washers:

can be used in a ,variety of unusual applications
Robert 0. Parmley

Stiffen machine mount Support a shaft

Machine screw ..
Machine base

round stock

square
weld

*-
Rubber grommet j

Stabilize a point

Guide wire or tubing

Act as a valve seat

Sleeve
Vacuum
 Washers 11-5

Washers are usually thought of bearing surfaces placed under bolt

heads. But they can be used in a variety of ways that could simplify
a design or be an immediate fix until a designed part is available.

Reinforce a roller Act as a pulley flange

Flat
washer

Form a pulley

Form a shock absorber

Act as a bearing surface

- ,Fiberglass housing

.. ... . _
,

....

'Plastic shell
'Cap screw
11-6

Jobs for Flat Rubber Washers

Rubber washers are more versatile that you think. Here are some
odd jobs they can do that may make your next design job easier.
Robert 0. Parmley

n r\

2 Impact absorption idler roller 3 compression mount

D

Valve stem

Cy1inder va Ive
 Washers 11-7

Tube crimped

Gefol /lot wosher of end Rubber flof woshersv

-- VOCUl
Ball

‘Adhesive bond

Rubber f/of wusher ‘Adhesive bond

‘Ploslic chamber

4 Compression ball seat 5 Hose bib retainer

,Connecfion

8 Protective bumper 9 Expansion isolator

11-8

Take Another Look

at Serrated-Washers
They're a stock item and come in a variety of sizes.
With a little thought they can do a variety of iobs.
Here are just eight.
Robert 0. Parrnley
Washers 11-9
11-10

Dished Washers Get Busy

Robert 0. Parmley

Jam nuf Dished washer3

1
Add rubber befwsen

A 0 HEIGHT ADJUSTMENT 20 GUIDE WHEEL

wosbers for gr@power

To remove pi??

I Refahing ring

COIL SPRING STABlLlZEA 10 SIMPLE VALVE

 Washers 11-1 1

Let these ideas spur your own design creativity. Sometimes commercial
Belleville washers will suit; other wise you can easily dish your own.

Washers

Section A - A
Workpiece

here for non-slipp;ng

Base
non-s//p arrangement/
3 0
ALIGNING BUTTONS
will rotate if holding screw is shouldered 4, V-BELT PULLEY

Rubber sur face adhesive. A

tope on bevels

Sbc7 f f
Alternate: Profecf corners and Washers /

c
I 7 1 1 1 I

,Lock washer

I I

7. END AND CORNER PROTECTION

Sho f f s Beflevil/e sprjng washers Enlarged

\I
Jam ffufs
/
Work area

11 FLARED SPOOL-FLANGES 12 0 CORRUGATING ROLLERS FOR PAPER OR CARDBOARD

11-12

Design Problems Solved with

Belleville Spring Washers
Robert 0. Parmley

Pulley assembly Retain tapered coil spring

Knurled adjustment

Mounting spring stabilizer

Force (Nut and washer
 Washers 11-13

~elleviIlesprings are a versatile component that offer a wide range of applications.

There are many places where these components can be used and their availability
as a stock item should be considered when confronted with a design problem that
requires a fast solution.

Secure anchor bolt Clamp fixture spring

,Belleville

r
._

Lock retainer

Lock mechanism

Machine leg spring mounts I

spring disc

A €5 C
11-14

HOWto Increase Energy Capacity

of Belleville,SpringWashers
New equations give stress-energy relationships and lead to the unusual arrangement
of nesting Bellevilles one inside the other.
H. P. Swieskowski

INCE 1867, when M i e n F. Belfeville was issued a
S patent in Paris for the invention, Belleville springs
have never ceased to find wide application. Now, more
and more, they are being used to absorb high impact
energies. With the arrangements and new design
equations given here, you can easily design for maximum
energy-absorbing capacity.
Also called conical disk springs, Belleville springs are
actually no more than conical washers. They are very
compact, which leads to first of several advantages:
@They can absorb a large amount of energy at high
loads and with a comparatively short working stroke.
They can return to the system practically all the energy
they absorb during the compression or impact stroke.
With ring springs, in contrast, approximately 50% of
the input energy is dissipated as heat.
Their load-deflection characteristics can be altered
simply by adding or removing individual washers, by
stacking washers in various parallel-series combinations,
and by nesting them inside larger washers, Fig 1.
Generally speaking, Belleville springs are better suited
than helical compression springs where longitudinal
space is limited, in other words, where space for solid
height is limited and where a helical spring would result
in a small index (the ratio of the mean coil diameter to
the wire diameter).
Design recommendations
You don’t need a maze of nomographs and tables to
calculate the impact load a Belleville spring must absorb.
With these new design equations, given below, you can
predict the amount of induced stress directly. But first,
some important findings:
Nested springs-ne washer inside another-require
no more space than single springs and reduce the maxi-
mum stress by 14%.
One-parallel-series arrangements of Belleville springs are
more efficient energy absorbers than two- or three-parallel

TWO-PARAiLEL SERIES THREE-PARALLEL SERlES

1 .. Four arrangements of
Belleville springs. The nested design
has highest efficiency for absorbing
energy. Contrary to popular opinion,
the one-parallel design is more efficient
than the two- or three-parallcl designs
 Washers 11-15

series - contrary to some popular misconceptions.

0 Final working stress is directly proportional to the
square root of the energy capacity and inversely propor-
tional to the outside diameter and square root of the
solid height.
Oneparallel-series equations
To simplify analysis, it is assumed that the minimum
working height is equal to the solid height and that there
is no precompression for assembly. Thus the total deflec-
tion is
Fs = HF - Hs
For symbols, see Box on page 93.
Bel!eville
The height-thickness ratio, B = h / t , determines the springs
shape of the load-deflection curve. By varying the B
values, it is possible to obtain a wide variety of load-
deflection curves, Fig 2. The curves are plotted against the
deflection in terms of height as the spring washers are com-

NESTED ARRANGEMENT I

.Preload
nut

for most ratios of dish height (deflec-

tion to flat) to metal thickness. Buffer mechanism with Belleville
springs for high-impact energy absorption.
11-16

pressed from free height to solid height.

The conventional load and stress formulas for Belle-
ville springs are
Load 3 ( A - 1)
Ga =
T In A

The constants can be iuickly approximated by means

of Fig 3.
The stress equation, Eq 2, givcs the value of the com-
pressive stress which occurs on the convex side at the
inner diamzter. The stress h2s a maximum value when
fi = h. Hen-e the maximum (final) stress from Eq 2 is
where the constants C,, C,and Y are given by the equa-
t;ons

The energy stored in one washer compresszd from

2.c

1.E

l.E

1.4

1.2

a
" 1.c
2
0
c
D
U
0

3 0E
.

Of

01

0;

(
0 2h 0 4h 0 6h 0.8h h
Deflection in terms of height, h

2 . . LOAQ-DEFLECTION CURVES. The hcight-thicknebs ratio, S , dclci-iniiics thc shape of t l ~ cCUI'VC.

 Washers 11-17

free height to the flat position is obtained by integration

of Eq 1:

-
For an assembly of N washers in series

Keeping in mind that H , = Nt and B = h / t , Eq 5

is rewritten to read

E N =
+
EHs t4B2(B2 4)
(6)
Z ( l - Q') YD,'
Combining Eq 3 and 6 gives the relationship between
final stress and energy capacity: SYMBOLS
General symbols
. .
For the usual spring materials where E = 30 X loR A = Diameter ratio (A = D , , / D ,)
psi and Q = 0.3, the final stress is B = Height-thickness ratio ( B = h / t )
c = Constant; see equations or chart for
values of C, and C,
Di = Inside diameter, in.
For all practical purposes, the stress at solid height,
Do = Outside diameter, in.
which is the final stress, can be chosen at the permissible E = Modu-us of elasticity, psi
stress-the maximum working stress for the spring. E X = Energy capacity, in.-lb
F = Deflection, in.
text continued, page 94 FS = Total deflection, in. (FS=HF--HX)
h = Dish height, in.
H F = Free height of spring assembly, in.
HS = Solid height of spring assembly, in.
(HsxNt)
P = Load, Ib
Q = Poisson's ratio
s = Stress, psi
ss = Final stress, psi
t = Thickness of washer, in.
Y = Constant, see equation or chart for
values
For one-parallel series
S'S Variation index of final stress
Energy capacity and final stress of in-
ner spring in nested design, in.-lb, psi
E.<,s: Energy capacity and final stress of
outer spring in nested design, in.Jb,
psi
N = Number of washers in one-parallel
series
For two-parallel series
B, = Height-thickness ratio
S"1 = Final stress, psi
N? = Number of parallel units each con-
taining two washers
For three-parallel szries
B.3 = Height-thickness ratio
SWd = Final stress, psi
Ra tto of OD/ ID = Number of parallel units each con-
N,
taining three washers
3 . . CONSTANTS for load and stress equations.
11-18

This is particularly true for critical applicalions where Step 3: Calculate final working stress from Eq 8:
spring space is limited and loading is of an impact nature.
In the design of Belleville springs, a main consideration
is to keep the final stress at a safe and reasonable level.
Eq 8 shows that the final stress is inversely proportional = 222,000psi
to the outside diameter and the square root of the solid Step 4: Calculate the thickness, t . If the stress value
height; therefore, we make these two values as large as of 222,000 psi is acceptable, the thickness t can now
space requirements allow. Doubling the value of the be calculated from either Eq 3 or 6.
outside diameter (keeping all other variables constant) From Eq 3:
will result in a 50% reduction in the final stress. A
similar increase in the solid height will produce a 30%
reduction. Eq 8 further shows that the final stress is
directly proportional to the square root of the energy
capacity.
The values for the outside diameter, solid height, and
energy capacity are usually given within narrow limits for
a particular application. The outside diameter is deter- Ski, 5: Dctcrminc thc dish height, I?:
mined by the hole diameter into which the spring mud I& = B1 = 0.3(.055) = 0.011 itb.
fit. The value of the solid height is dictated by the
Step 6: Determine the number of washers:
minimum working height and the energy capacity is pre-
scribed by functional considerations.
The question now remains, what ratios of A = OD/ ID
and B = h / t will result in the minimum final stress?
Visual examination of Eq 8 does not readily show the The complete design data for this spring are listed
stress effect of the two ratios. However, by simplifying in the second column in Table 1. The data will be com-
Eq 8, a series of design curves, Fig 4, is obtained in pared later to a nested arrangement.
which the final stress factor is plotted wiah respect to Variations in stroke
ratio A . Ratio B acts as a parameter. For this chart,
Eq 8 becomes The analysis shows that increased spring travel can be
obtained with n o corresponding increase in final stress.

where S’, is called the variation index of the final stress.

It can be seen from Fig 5 that the final stress is at a
minimum when the diameter ratio A = 1.7 for all values
of B. Also, for a given B value, the final stress increases
at most by 3% in bhe range 1.5 4 A 6 2.0. Therefore,
we recommend that the diameter ratio should be kept
within the range of 1.5 to 2.0. 16
Note also from Fig 4 that in the favorable diameter
ratio range the final stress increases with increasing values
of B. This condition is true except for the height-thickness 15
ratio of B = 3, for in the range of A = 1.5 to A =
2.0, the final stress for B = 3 is less thm that for
smaller B values (of 1 < B L 2). Belleville washers, 14
however, have \been generally designed for energy ca-
pacity with B values less than unity because frequently
a short work stroke and a high degree of stability are
required. -2: 1.3
x
D
Example lane-parallel design .-
A set of Belleville springs, grouped into a oneparallel 2 12
rn
c
series arrangement, are to absorb the recoil of a rifle I
-
bolt. The given requirements are: n
c
Outside diameter, Do = 0.900 in. -
LL 1.1
Solid height, H8 = 2.035 in.
Stroke, F8 = 0.407 in.
Energy-absorption requirement, EN = 100 in.-lb
Material = alloy steel, AIS1 6150 1.c
Step 1: Select the diameter ratio. Based on the pre-
vious recommendations, a ratio of A = O D / l D = 1.7
is chosen. Therefore from Fig 3 (or, for more accuracy, G:
from the equations of the constants) :
C, = 1.15, C, = 1.26, Y = 0.61 I I
Ot I
Step 2: Determine the height-thickness ratio. In this
case a stroke of 0.407 is required, which means that 0 20 30 40
Dicrneter ratio, A:OD/ID
B = - h- -%!? 0.2
. . STRESSES
F8
=
2 H, 2.035 4 I N one-parallel Bellevilles
 Washers 11-19

Consider the point A = 2.0 and S'# = 1.07 in Fig 4. scripts o and i purtain to the oulcr and inncr springs,
The two curves B = 1 and B = 3 intersect at this point respectively.
which means that two spring designs can occupy the .Stroke, F8
same spring space (in other words, with the same Ha and Solid height, Ha
Do values), end have equal energy capacities and final Diameter ratio, A = 1.7
stresses-however, their total travel, FB, will be in the 0 Material, AISI 6150
proportion of 3 to 1. To illustrate this point, consider Outside diameter (the outside diameter of nested
the two springs listed in Table I1 with the same values for: arrangement equals the outside diameter of single spring)
Outside diameter, Do = 2.300 in. For outer spring
Inside diameter, Di = 1.150 in.
Solid height, H s = 3.650 in.
Total travel, k's 6 3.000 in.
Energy requirement = 342 in. lb.
Material AISI 6150 For inner spring
The two springs have been desigded to B = 1 and
B = 3. Final stress and energy capacity of both designs
are equal, but the springs differ in total travel and
numfber of washers. The load-deflection diagram for
each design is shown in Fig 5. The energy capacities for For efficient design, the stress in the nested arrange-
the springs are represented by the areas under the curves. ment should be equally distributed, thus Sao = &'. There-
The areas are equal to each other. Note that there is an fore Eq 9 and 10 result in
energy content common to both designs. The total travel EN' = 2.89 .EN' (11)
for design B (4.95 in.) is three times that of design A
(1.65 in.).
From the basic assumption that EN = ENo EN', and+
from Eq 11, it follows that
Nested arrangements E N = 1.346 E N o (12)
Again, to simplify the analysis, it is assumed that The relationship between the final stress of the single
there is no diametral clearance between the nested springs. springs to that of the nested spring is obtained from Eq
To have a meaningful comparison, both assemblies are S, 9 and 12 as
designed to the same values for: Ss = 1.168s" (13)
.Energy capacity, EN = ENo -t EN' (where super- Therefore, the percentage reduction in final stress, AS,

TABLE I . . SINGLE VS NESTED ARRANGEMENTS

NESTEO ARRANGEMENT
ONE-PARALLEL
ARRANGEMENT OUTER SPRING INNER SPRING

Thickness, in. 0.055 0.051 0.030

Dish height, in. 0.01 1 0.0102 0.006

Number of washers 37 40 68

Diameter ratio 1.7 1.7 1.7

Outside diameter, in. 0.900 0.900 0.530

Inside diameter, in. 0.530 0.530 0.312

Height-thickness ratio 0.20 0.20 0.20

Stroke, in. 0.407 0.408 0.408

Solid height, in. 2.035 2.040 2.040

Energy capacity, in.-lb. 100 74 26

Material, AIS1 6150 6150 61 50

Final stress, psi 222,000 191,000 191,000

11-20

that is gained by the substitution of a nested arrange- values for energy capacity, stroke, solid height, diameter
ment for a single spring is ratio, material, and outside diameter.
For two spring washers in parallel, the load-deflection
formula is

The stress reduction is constant and applies generally

because it is independent of the solid height and outside
= + l - Q 24EF
)YDa[(
h :)
- - (h-P) t+t3 ]I (1A)

diameter of the single spring. The energy stored in the washers upon compression
,from free to solid height is
I'xample >Nested design
Assume that the final stress of 222,000 psi in the first
cxample is excessive and must be reduced. The use of a
riested arrangement will decrease the stress by 31,000 psi
to 191,000 psi. A nested arrangement that is equivalent The energy stored in ,a two-parallel series, as shown
to the first spring in energy and space conditions is easily in Fig 1, with N , pairs of washers is
computed with the aid of Eq 3 and Eq 9 through 13. The
design data are listed in Table I.
The solid height and total stroke of the nested design (5A)
are not exactly equal to those of the single spring because
the number of washers in each spring has to be a whole With the equations H , = 2N,t and B. = h / t , Eq 5A
number. However, their differences are negligible, and is transformed to
for comparison purposes the height and stroke are con-
sidered equal. Note that the individual energy capacities
total 100 in.-lb in Table 1. Eiv = EH&Bz2 (B2' 4) + (OA)
2(1 - Q') Y Doz
Other parallel-series arrangements Stress at solid height of the two-parallel series is
A comparison is now made of a one-parallel series
with two-parallel and three-parallel series. Again, for a
vlilid comparison, all spring assemblies have the same
L

300

/-Spring A

n
- 20c
T3
0
-I

Spring B

IOC /

I I 1

10 1.65 2.0 3.0 I 4.95

Deflection, in
5 .. COMPARISON OF ENERGY CAPACITY. Both springs can absorb equal amounts for a given
stress level. Spring A, however, accomplishes the job in one-third the distance required for spring B.
 Washers 11-21

TABLE 11. .SAME PERFORMANCE - DIFFERENT TRAVEL

Combining Eq 3A and 6 A gives the following expres-

sion for the two-parallel series:
I SPRING
A
SPRING
B

I
(I -Q2) 2E
H s E(Rz2f4)
x Y )"[c, 2+ C2] (7A) Outside diameter, in. 2.300 2.300

Inside diameter, in. ~ 1.150 1.1 50

The relationship of the final stress of the one-parallel
series to the final strew of two-parallel series, obtained Height, in. 0.055 0.075
from Eq 7 and 7A, is
~

i
Thickness, in. 1 0.055 0.025

Height-thickness ratio 1.o 3.0

Diameter ratio 2.0

From the given condition that both assemblies should
have equal strokes, it follows that Number of washers 30 66

Bg = 2R (15)
I
Solid height, in. 1.65 I .65
Therefore, Eq 14 is rewritten as
Total travel, in. 1.65 4.95

L Final stress, psi 21 8,000 21 8,000

1
i
A graph of the stress ratios for one and two-parallel Energy capacity, in.-lb. 342 342
series arrangements are shown in Fig 7. Note that in
the practical range -of B, ( B 1), the one-parallel series
Material, AIS1 6150 61 50
is more efficient &an the two-parallel series. This is
particularly true for B values between 0.3 and 0.6 where
ail 8% stress savings can be realized.
11-22

Similarly, the h a 1 stress of the three-parallel series TABLE 111.. ONE-PARALLEL VS THREE-PARALLEL ARRANGEMENTS
(shown in Fig 1) is

ONE-PARALLEL THREE-PARALLEL
SERIES SERIES
In combination with Eq 7, and the fact that both
assemblies have equal strokes, it follows that the ratio Number of individual washers 26 48
of stresses of one-parallel to three-parallel design is
Outside diameter, in. 1.87 1.87

Inside diameter, in. 1.10 1.10

L - Diameter ratio, 1.7 1.7

This equation is also plotted in Fig 6. Note that in
the practical B range, the one-parallel series offers a Height 0.034 0.055
better utilization of spring space than a three-parallel
series. For example, two spring assemblies that corre- Thickness, in. 0.085 0.046
spond to the points B = 0.4 and Ss/S, = 0.87 (a one-
parallel series, with B = 0.4, and a three-parallel series, Height-thickness ratio, 0.4 1.2
with B, = 1.2) will have equal strokes and energy ca-
pacities and occupy the same space package. The final
Stroke, in. 0.884 0.884
stress of the one-parallel series, however, will be 13%
less. This comparison is shown in Table III.
Solid height, in. 2.21 2.21
G e d load-deflection formulas
Energy capacity, in.-lb 600 600
Formulas that can be used to good advantage for
load-deflection ( P / F ) calculations are Final stress, psi 305,000 266.000
P -
_ - 4Et3
F (1-&2) D2YN
and
P -
_ 4Et4
(20)
F (1-Q')D)
For the usual spring materials where E = 30 X 10"
psi and Q = 0.3, the above equations are reduced to

-P= 132 X 106ta

(19A)
F Do2Y N
and
-P= 132 X 106t4
F D2 Y H s
The formulas are more convenient to use than Eq 1
and are acceptably 'accurate for B values less than dr
equal to unity, where the rate is essentially linear, as
can be seen from Fig 2.

Other design recommendations

To simplify the analysis, it was assumed that there
was no initial spring compression and also that there was
no clearance between minimum operating height and
solid height. However, in actual practice, it is recom-
mended that a small precampression be applied to pre-
vent looseness and that clearance be provided to avoid
loading to flat position. The two recommendations are
easily satisfied by designing for a total energy capacity
slightly larger than actually required.
Stress values given by Eq 2 and 8 are localized stresses
that occur at the inner diameter and not throughout the
entire cross section. Therefore, caloulated stress values
may at times exceed the yield point of the spring mate-
rial and yet be permissible.
 Washers 11-23

SEM Applications
N. Dale tong

w h e n a split lockwasher is called for in a screw fastening, mercial requirements usually vary-depending upon either
a flat washer is invariably necessary. The ways of assembling the designer’s decision or product-cost restrictions. For good
them illustrated below are strict requirements in military quality and reliable service, however, the fastening methods
specifications-especially for electronic equipment. Corn- shown here can be depended on to pay off.

ASSEMBLY OF FLAT WASHERS AND SPLIT LOCKWASHERS

Flut washers should be placed between ...

Nomefa/ maieriol /F/oi washer

F/ai washer

M e i d Q032-ik
or less i h k k

F/af washer--- -

washer
11-24

Creative Ideas for Cupped Washers

A standard off-the-shelf item with more uses than many ever considered.
Robert 0. Parmley

€nd Cupped washer )

(press fit or weld)

2 Simple step pulley 3 Rod aligner and pipe-end bearing

Cupped washer

sher (sectioned]

m y’’’A

b Tubing connector 7 Simple piston for cylinder‘

 Washers 11 -25

1 Coil spring stabilizer and compression brake

Cupped washers
Cupped washers h

‘snap rings Snop’ring Inverted Post shoe

4 Simple pulley and roller 5 Post anchors and supports

CURRed washers
I V I [sectioned

Plostic stem
Cupped washer)’
I. 1
8 Toggle switch housing 9 Protection for step shoulders