Chapter two semiconductor diodes and their applications

Chapter two
Semiconductor diodes and their application
Chapter objective:
 To discuss the basic concept of ideal diode, terminal characteristics of diode, physical
operation, application and special type of diode.

2.1 Ideal diode

The first electronic device to be introduced is
called the diode. It is the simplest of
semiconductor devices but plays a very vital
role in electronic systems, having
characteristics that closely match those of a
simple switch. It will appear in a range of
applications, extending from the simple to the
very complex. The term ideal refers to any
device or system that has ideal characteristics
perfect in every way. It provides a basis for
comparison, and it reveals where
improvements can still be made. The ideal
diode is a two-terminal device having the
symbol and characteristics shown in Figs.
2.1a and b, respectively.
Figure 2.1 Ideal diode: (a) symbol; (b) characteristics.

Ideally, a diode will conduct current in the direction defined by the arrow in the symbol and act
like an open circuit to any attempt to establish current in the opposite direction. In essence:
 The characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a switch that can conduct
current in only one direction.
 The ideal diode, therefore, is a short circuit for the region of conduction.
 The ideal diode, therefore, is an open circuit in the region of non-conduction.

Figure 2.2 (a) Conduction and (b) non-conduction states of the ideal diode as determined by the
applied bias.

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In general, it is relatively simple to determine whether a diode is in the region of conduction or

non-conduction simply by noting the direction of the current ID established by an applied voltage.
For conventional flow (opposite to that of electron flow), if the resultant diode current has the
same direction as the arrow head of the diode symbol, the diode is operating in the conducting
region.

2.2 Terminal characteristics of a diode

Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a voltage across its terminals leaves
three possibilities:
I. no bias (VD =0 V),
II. forward bias (VD > 0 V), and
III. reverse bias (VD<0)

I. No applied bias (VD =0 V)

Figure 2.3 no-bias p-n junction

Under no-bias (no applied voltage) conditions, any minority carriers (holes) in the n-type
material that find themselves within the depletion region will pass directly into the p-type
material. The closer the minority carrier is to the junction, the greater the attraction for the layer
of negative ions and the less the opposition of the positive ions in the depletion region of the n-
type material. The majority carriers (electrons) of the n-type material must overcome the
attractive forces of the layer of positive ions in the n-type material and the shield of negative ions
in the p-type material to migrate into the area beyond the depletion region of the p-type material.
However, the number of majority carriers is so large in the n-type material that there will
invariably be a small number of majority carriers with sufficient kinetic energy to pass through
the depletion region into the p-type material. Again, the same type of discussion can be applied
to the majority carriers (holes) of the p-type material. The resulting flow due to the majority
carriers is also shown above.

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A close examination of Fig. 2.3 will reveal that the relative magnitudes of the flow vectors are
such that the net flow in either direction is zero. This cancellation of vectors has been indicated
by crossed lines. The length of the vector representing hole flow has been drawn longer than that
for electron flow to demonstrate that the magnitude of each need not be the same for cancellation
and that the doping levels for each material may result in an unequal carrier flow of holes and
electrons. Generally, In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.

II. Forward bias (VD > 0 V)

A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying the positive potential to the p-type
material and the negative potential to the n-type material as shown in Fig. 2.4.A semiconductor
diode is forward-biased when the association p-type and positive and n-type and negative has
been established.

Figure 2.4 Forward-biased p-n junction.

The application of a forward-bias potential VD will “pressure” electrons in the n-type material
and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the boundary and reduce the
width of the depletion region as shown in Fig. 2.4. The resulting minority-carrier flow of
electrons from the p-type material to the n-type material (and of holes from the n-type material to
the p-type material) has not changed in magnitude (since the conduction level is controlled
primarily by the limited number of impurities in the material), but the reduction in the width of
the depletion region has resulted in a heavy majority flow across the junction. An electron of the
n-type material now “sees” a reduced barrier at the junction due to the reduced depletion region
and a strong attraction for the positive potential applied to the p-type material. As the applied
bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a flood
of electrons can pass through the junction.

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Figure 2.5 silicon semiconductor diode characteristics

resulting in an exponential rise in current as shown in the forward-bias region of the

characteristics of Fig. 2.5. Note that the vertical scale of Fig. 2.5 is measured in milliamperes
(although some semiconductor diodes will have a vertical scale measured in amperes) and the
horizontal scale in the forward-bias region has a maximum of 1 V. Typically, therefore, the
voltage across a forward-biased diode will be less than 1 V. Note also, how quickly the current
rises beyond the knee of the curve. It can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state physics
that the general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by the following
equation for the forward- and reverse-bias regions:

Where Is = reverse saturation current k = 11,600/η with η= 1 for Ge and η= 2 for Si for relatively
low levels of diode current (at or below the knee of the curve) and η= 1 for Ge and Si for higher
levels of diode current (in the rapidly increasing section of the curve).
TK = TC +273 but = ೡ and kη = 11600 from these relation =
And kη after rearranging , the diode current formula is reduced to:

iD  IS[e(vD nvT ) 1]

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III. Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)

If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p-n junction such that the positive terminal
is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is connected to the p-type material
as shown in Fig. 2.6, the number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the n-type
material will increase due to the large number of “free” electrons drawn to the positive potential
of the applied voltage. For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will increase
in the p-type material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion region. This
widening of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the majority carriers to
overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero as shown in Fig. 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Reverse-biased p-n junction.

The number of minority carriers, however, that find themselves entering the depletion region will
not change, resulting in minority-carrier flow vectors of the same magnitude indicated in Fig. 2.4
with no applied voltage. The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the
reverse saturation current and is represented by Is. The reverse saturation current is seldom more
than a few microamperes except for high-power devices. In fact, in recent years its level is
typically in the nanoampere range for silicon devices and in the low-microampere range for
germanium. The term saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its maximum level quickly
and does not change significantly with increase in the reverse-bias potential, as shown on the
diode characteristics of Fig. 2.5 for VD < 0 V. The reverse-biased conditions are depicted in Fig.
2.7 for the diode symbol and p-n junction. Note, in particular, that the direction of Is is against
the arrow of the symbol. Note also that the negative potential is connected to the p-type material
and the positive potential to the n-type material—the difference in underlined letters for each
region revealing a reverse-bias condition.

Figure 2.7 Reverse-bias conditions for a semiconductor diode.

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RESISTANCE LEVELS
As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another the resistance of the diode
will also change due to the nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve. It will be demonstrated in
the next few paragraphs that the type of applied voltage or signal will define the resistance level
of interest. Three different levels will be introduced in this section that will appear again as we
examine other devices. It is therefore paramount that their determination be clearly understood

DC or Static Resistance

The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an

operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The resistance of the
diode at the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of VD and
ID as shown in Fig. 2.8 and applying the following equation:

The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels obtained
for the vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region
will naturally be quite high. Since ohmmeters typically employ a relatively constant-current
source, the resistance determined will be at a preset current level (typically, a few milliamperes).

Figure 2.8 Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

In general, therefore, the lower the current through a diode the higher the dc resistance level.

AC or Dynamic Resistance

In dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in the region

surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied, the situation will
change completely. The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down
a region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage as shown
in Fig. 2.9 With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would be the Q-point appearing

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on Fig. 2.9 determined by the applied dc levels. The designation Q-point is derived from the
word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.”

Figure 2.9 Defining the dynamic or ac resistance.

A straight-line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in Fig. 2.9 will define a
particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic
resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. An effort should be made to keep the
change in voltage and current as small as possible and equidistant to either side of the Q-point. In
equation form,

where signifies a finite change in the quantity

The steeper the slope, the less the value of Vd for the same change
in Id and the less the resistance. The ac resistance in the vertical-
rise region of the characteristic is therefore quite small, while the
ac resistance is much higher at low current levels. In general,
therefore, the lower the Q-point of operation (smaller current or
lower voltage) the higher the ac resistance.
Figure 2.10 Determining the
ac resistance at a Q-point.

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Average AC Resistance
If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing such as indicated in Fig. 2.11 the
resistance associated with the device for this region is called the average ac resistance. The
average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance determined

Figure 2.11 Determining the average ac resistance between indicated limits

by a straight line drawn between the two intersections established by the maximum and
minimum values of input voltage. In equation form:

For the situation indicated by above Fig 2.11.

DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular operating region. In other
words, once the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed from a
schematic and the equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the actual

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behavior of the system. The result is often a network that can be solved using traditional circuit
analysis techniques.

1. Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is to approximate the characteristics
of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 2.12(a) The resulting equivalent circuit
is naturally called the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit. It should be obvious from Fig.2.12(a),
the straight-line segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual characteristics,
especially in the knee region. However, the resulting segments are sufficiently close to the actual
curve to establish an equivalent circuit that will provide an excellent first approximation to the
actual behavior of the device. In essence, it defines the resistance level of the device when it is in
the “on” state. The ideal diode is included to establish that there is only one direction of
conduction through the device, and a reverse-bias condition will result.

Figure 2.12 (a) Defining the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit using straight-line segments to
approximate the characteristic curve. (b)Components of the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit.

in the open-circuit state for the device. Since a silicon semiconductor diode does not reach the
conduction state until VD reaches 0.7 V with a forward bias (as shown in Fig. 2.12(b)), a battery
VT opposing the conduction direction must appear in the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.
2.12(b) The battery simply specifies that the voltage across the device must be greater than the
threshold battery voltage before conduction through the device in the direction dictated by the
ideal diode can be established. When conduction is established the resistance of the diode will be
the specified value of rav. Keep in mind, however, that VT in the equivalent circuit is not an
independent voltage source. If a voltmeter is placed across an isolated diode on the top of a lab
bench, a reading of 0.7 V will not be obtained. The battery simply represents the horizontal
offset of the characteristics that must be exceeded to establish conduction. The approximate level
of rav can usually be determined from a specified operating point on the specification sheet. For
instance, for a silicon semiconductor diode, if IF = 10 mA (a forward conduction current for the
diode) at VD = 0.8 V, we know for silicon that a shift of 0.7 V is required before the
characteristics rise and

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2. Simplified Equivalent Circuit

For most applications, the resistance rav is sufficiently small to be ignored in comparison to the
other elements of the network. The removal of rav from the equivalent

Figure 2.13 Simplified equivalent circuit for the silicon semiconductor diode.

circuit is the same as implying that the characteristics of the diode appear as shown in Fig. 2.13.
Indeed, this approximation is frequently employed in semiconductor circuit analysis. The
reduced equivalent circuit appears in the same figure. It states that a forward-biased silicon diode
in an electronic system under dc conditions has a drop of 0.7 V across it in the conduction state
at any level of diode current (within rated values, of course).
3. Ideal Equivalent Circuit
Now that rav has been removed from the equivalent circuit let us take it a step further and
establish that a 0.7-V level can often be ignored in comparison to the applied voltage level. In
this case the equivalent circuit will be reduced to that of an ideal diode as shown in Fig. 2.14
with its characteristics.

Figure 2.14 Ideal diode and its characteristics.

DIODE CIRCUITS: DC ANALYSIS AND AC ANALYSIS

In this section, we begin to study the diode in various circuit configurations. As we have seen,
the diode is a two-terminal device with nonlinear i–v characteristics, as opposed to a two-

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terminal resistor, which has a linear relationship between current and voltage. The analysis of
nonlinear electronic circuits is not as straightforward as the analysis of linear electric circuits.
However, there are electronic functions that can be implemented only by nonlinear circuits.
Examples include the generation of dc voltages from sinusoidal voltages and the implementation
of logic functions. we will develop the dc analysis and modeling techniques of diode circuits.
This section considers the current–voltage characteristics of the pn junction diode in order to
construct various circuit models. Large-signal models are initially developed that describe the
behavior of the device with relatively large changes in voltages and currents. These models
simplify the analysis of diode circuits and make the analysis of relatively complex circuits much
easier. And we will consider a small-signal model of the diode that will describe the behavior of
the pn junction with small changes in voltages and currents. It is important to understand the
difference between large-signal and small-signal models and the conditions when they are used.

DIODE CIRCUITS: DC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

There are methods that are used to analysis DC circuit including
 Iteration and Graphical Analysis Techniques
Iteration means using trial and error to find a solution to a problem. The graphical analysis
technique involves plotting two simultaneous equations and locating their point of intersection,
which is the solution to the two equations. We will use both techniques to solve the circuit
equations, which include the diode equation. These equations are difficult to solve by hand
because they contain both linear and exponential terms. Consider, for example, the circuit shown
in Figure 1.15, with a dc voltage VPS applied across a resistor and a diode. Kirchhoff’s voltage
law applies both to nonlinear and linear circuits, so we can write

Figure 2.15 A simple diode circuit

The diode voltage VD and current ID are related by the ideal diode equation as

The current in the circuit can then be determined by dividing the voltage difference across the
resistor by the resistance, or

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Once the diode voltage is known, the current can also be determined from the ideal diode
equation. However, dividing the voltage difference across a resistor by the resistance is usually
easier, and this approach is used extensively in the analysis of diode and transistor circuits. To
use a graphical approach to analyze the circuit, we go back to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, as
expressed in above Equation, which was VPS = ID R + VD. Solving for the current ID, we have

which was also given that this equation gives a linear relation between the diode current ID and
the diode voltage VD for a given power supply voltage VPS and resistance R. This equation is
referred to as the circuit load line, and is usually plotted on a graph with the current ID as the
vertical axis and the voltage VD as the horizontal axis. From Equation, we see that if ID = 0, then
VD = VPS which is the horizontal axis intercept. Also, from this equation, if VD = 0, then ID =
VPS/R which is the vertical axis intercept. The load line can be drawn between these two points.
We see that the slope of the load line is −1/R. we can plot the straight line shown in Figure 1.16.
The second plot in the figure is that of Equation, which is the ideal diode equation relating the
diode current and voltage. The intersection of the load line and the device characteristics curve
provides the dc current ID ≈ 2.2 mA through the diode and the dc voltage VD ≈ 0.62 V across the
diode. This point is referred to as the quiescent point, or the Q-point. The graphical analysis
method can yield accurate results, but it is somewhat cumbersome. However, the concept of the
load line and the graphical approach are useful for “visualizing” the response of a circuit, and the
load line is used extensively in the evaluation of electronic circuits.

Figure 2.16 The diode and load line characteristics for the circuit

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 Piecewise Linear Model

Another, simpler way to analyze diode circuits is to approximate the diode’s current–voltage
characteristics, using linear relationships or straight lines. Figure 1.17, for example, shows the
ideal current–voltage characteristics and two linear approximations

Figure 2.17 The diode I–V characteristics and two linear approximations. The linear
approximations form the piecewise linear model of the diode.

For VD ≥ Vγ, we assume a straight-line approximation whose slope is 1/rf , where Vγ is the turn-
on, or cut-in, voltage of the diode, and rf is the forward diode resistance. The equivalent circuit
for this linear approximation is a constant-voltage source in series with a resistor (Figure 2.18(a)).
For VD < Vγ, we assume a straight-line.

Figure 2.18 The diode piecewise equivalent circuit (a) in the “on” condition when VD ≥ Vγ , (b)
in the “off’ condition when VD < Vγ , and (c) piecewise linear approximation when rf = 0. When
rf = 0, the voltage across the diode is a constant at VD = Vγ when the diode is conducting.

approximation parallel with the VD axis at the zero-current level. In this case, the equivalent
circuit is an open circuit (Figure 1.18 (b)). This method models the diode with segments of

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straight lines; thus, the name piecewise linear model. If we assume rf = 0, the piecewise linear
diode characteristics are shown in Figure 1.18(c).

DIODE CIRCUITS: AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Sinusoidal Analysis
In the circuit shown in Figure 1.19(a), the voltage source vi is assumed to be a sinusoidal, or
time-varying, signal. The total input voltage vI is composed of a dc component VPS and an ac
component vi superimposed on the dc value. To investigate this circuit, we will look at two types
of analyses: a dc analysis involving only the dc voltages and currents, and an ac analysis
involving only the ac voltages and currents.
Current–Voltage Relationships
Since the input voltage contains a dc component with an ac signal superimposed, the diode
current will also contain a dc component with an ac signal superimposed, as shown in Figure
1.19(b). Here, IDQ is the dc quiescent diode current. In addition, the diode voltage will contain a
dc value with an ac signal superimposed, as shown in Figure 1.19(c). For this analysis, assume
that the ac signal is small compared to the dc component, so that a linear ac model can be
developed from the nonlinear diode.

Figure 2.19 AC circuit analysis: (a) circuit with combined dc and sinusoidal input voltages, (b)
sinusoidal diode current superimposed on the quiescent current, (c) sinusoidal diode voltage
superimposed on the quiescent value, and (d) forward-biased diode I –V characteristics with a
sinusoidal current and voltage superimposed on the quiescent values.

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The relationship between the diode current and voltage can be written as

where VDQ is the dc quiescent voltage and vd is the ac component. We are neglecting the −1 term
in the diode equation can be rewritten as

If the ac signal is “small,” then vd <<VT, and we can expand the exponential function into a linear
series, as follows:

We may also write the quiescent diode current as

Figure 2.20 Equivalent circuits: (a) dc and (b) ac

The diode current–voltage relationship from Equation (2.20) can then be written as

where id is the ac component of the diode current. The relationship between the ac components
of the diode voltage and current is then

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The parameters gd and rd , respectively, are the diode small-signal incremental conductance
and resistance, also called the diffusion conductance and diffusion resistance. We see from
these two equations that

This equation tells us that the incremental resistance is a function of the dc bias current IDQ and is
inversely proportional to the slope of the I–V characteristics curve, as shown in Figure 1.19(d).

Breakdown Voltage
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to a pn junction, the electric field in the spacecharge
region increases. The electric field may become large enough that covalent bonds are broken and
electron–hole pairs are created. Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are swept into the
p-region by the electric field, generating a large reverse bias current. This phenomenon is called
breakdown. The reverse-bias current created by the breakdown mechanism is limited only by
the external circuit. If the current is not sufficiently limited, a large power can be dissipated in
the junction that may damage the device and cause burnout.The current–voltage characteristic of
a diode in breakdown is shown in Figure 2.21.
The most common breakdown mechanism is called avalanche breakdown, which occurs when
carriers crossing the space charge region gain sufficient kinetic energy from the high electric
field to be able to break covalent bonds during a collision process. The basic avalanche
multiplication process is demonstrated in Figure 2.22. The generated electron–hole pairs can
themselves be involved in a collision process generating additional electron–hole pairs, thus the
avalanche process. The breakdown voltage is a function of the doping concentrations in the

Figure 2.22 The avalanche multiplication process in the

space charge region. Shown are the collisions of electrons
creating additional electron–hole pairs. Holes can also be
involved in collisions creating additional electron–hole pairs.
Figure 2.21 Reverse-biased diode characteristics showing

breakdown for a low-doped pn junction and a high-doped pn junction.

The reverse-bias current increases rapidly once breakdown has occurred.

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n- and p-regions of the junction. Larger doping concentrations result in smaller breakdown
voltages.
A second breakdown mechanism is called Zener breakdown and is a result of tunneling of
carriers across the junction. This effect is prominent at very high doping concentrations and
results in breakdown voltages less than 5 V.
The voltage at which breakdown occurs depends on fabrication parameters of the pn junction,
but is usually in the range of 50 to 200 V for discrete devices, although breakdown voltages
outside this range are possible—in excess of 1000 V, for example. A pn junction is usually rated
in terms of its peak inverse voltage or PIV. The PIV of a diode must never be exceeded in
circuit operation if reverse breakdown is to be avoided.
Diodes can be fabricated with a specifically designed breakdown voltage and are designed to
operate in the breakdown region. These diodes are called Zener diodes.

Application of diode
One application of diodes is in the design of rectifier circuits. A diode rectifier forms the first
stage of a dc power supply. A dc voltage is required to power essentially every electronic device,
including personal computers, televisions, and stereo systems. An electrical cord that is plugged
into a wall socket and attached to a television, for example, is connected to a rectifier circuit
inside the TV. In addition, battery chargers for portable electronic devices such as cell phones
and laptop computers contain rectifier circuits. Figure 2.25 is a diagram of a dc power supply.
The output voltage vO is usually in the range of 3 to 24 V depending on the particular electronics
application.

Figure 2.25 Diagram of an electronic power supply.

Rectification is the process of converting an alternating (ac) voltage into one that is limited to
one polarity. The diode is useful for this function because of its nonlinear characteristics, that is,
current exists for one voltage polarity, but is essentially zero for the opposite polarity.
Rectification is classified as half-wave or full-wave, with half-wave being the simpler and full-
wave being more efficient.

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Half-Wave Rectification

Figure 2.26 (a) shows a power transformer with a diode and resistor connected to them
secondary of the transformer. We will use the piecewise linear approach in analyzing this circuit,
assuming the diode forward resistance is rf = 0 when the diode is “on.” The input signal, vI , is, in
general, a 120 V (rms), 60 Hz ac signal. Recall that the secondary voltage, vS, and primary
voltage, vI , of an ideal transformer are related by:

Figure 2.26 Half-wave rectifier (a) circuit and (b) voltage transfer characteristics

where N1 and N2 are the number of primary and secondary turns, respectively. The ratio N1/N2 is
called the transformer turns ratio. The transformer turns ratio will be designed to provide a
particular secondary voltage, vS , which in turn will produce a particular output voltage vO. In
using the piecewise linear model of the diode, the first objective is to determine the linear region
(conducting or not conducting) in which the diode is operating.
To do this, we can:
1. Determine the input voltage condition such that a diode is conducting (on). Then find the
output signal for this condition.
2. Determine the input voltage condition such that a diode is not conducting (off). Then find the
output signal for this condition.
Figure 2.26(b) shows the voltage transfer characteristics, vO versus vS , for the circuit. For vS < 0,
the diode is reverse biased, which means that the current is zero and the output voltage is zero.
As long as vS < Vγ , the diode will be nonconducting, so the output voltage will remain zero.
When vS > Vγ , the diode becomes forward biased and a current is induced in the circuit. In this
case, we can write,

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If vS is a sinusoidal signal, as shown in Figure 2.27(a), the output voltage can be found using the
voltage transfer curve in Figure 2.26(b). For vS ≤ Vγ the output voltage is zero; for vS > Vγ , the
output is given by Equation (2.26(b)), or vO = vS – Vγ and is shown in Figure 2.27(b). We can see
that while the input signal vS alternates polarity and has a time-average value of zero, the output
voltage vO is unidirectional and has an average value that is not zero. The input signal is
therefore rectified. Also, since the output voltage appears only during the positive cycle of the
input signal, the circuit is called a half-wave rectifier.

Figure 2.27 Signals of the half-wave rectifier circuit: (a) sinusoidal input voltage, (b) rectified
output voltage, and (c) diode voltage

When the diode is cut off and nonconducting, no voltage drop occurs across the resistor R;
therefore, the entire input signal voltage appears across the diode (Figure 2.27(c)). Consequently,
the diode must be capable of handling the peak current in the forward direction and sustaining
the largest peak inverse voltage (PIV) without breakdown. For the circuit shown in Figure
2.26(a), the value of PIV is equal to the peak value of vS . We can use a half-wave rectifier circuit
to charge a battery as shown in Figure 2.28(a). Charging current exists whenever the
instantaneous ac source voltage is greater than the battery voltage plus the diode cut-in voltage as
shown in Figure 2.28(b). The resistance R in the circuit is to limit the current. When the ac
source voltage is less than VB, the current is zero. Thus, current flows only in the direction to
charge the battery. One disadvantage of the half-wave rectifier is that we “waste” the negative
half-cycles. The current is zero during the negative half-cycles, so there is no energy dissipated,
but at the same time, we are not making use of any possible available energy.

Figure 2.28 (a) Half-wave rectifier used as a battery charger; (b) input voltage and diode current
waveforms

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Full-Wave Rectification
The full-wave rectifier inverts the negative portions of the sine wave so that a unipolar output
signal is generated during both halves of the input sinusoid. One example of a full-wave rectifier
circuit appears in Figure 2.29(a). The input to the rectifier consists of a power transformer, in
which the input is normally a 120 V (rms), 60 Hz ac signal, and the two outputs are from a
center-tapped secondary winding that provides equal voltages vS , with the polarities shown.
When the input line voltage is positive, both output signal voltages vS are also positive.

The primary winding connected to the 120 V ac source has N1 windings, and each half of the
secondary winding has N2 windings. The value of the vS output voltage is 120 (N2/N1) volts (rms).
The turns ratio of the transformer, usually designated (N1/N2) can be designed to “step down”
the input line voltage to a value that will produce a particular dc output voltage from the rectifier.
The input power transformer also provides electrical isolation between the powerline circuit and
the electronic circuits to be biased by the rectifier circuit. This isolation reduces the risk of
electrical shock.

Figure 2.29 Full-wave rectifier: (a) circuit with center-tapped transformer, (b) voltage transfer
characteristics, and (c) input and output waveforms

During the positive half of the input voltage cycle, both output voltages vS are positive; therefore,
diode D1 is forward biased and conducting and D2 is reverse biased and cut off. The current
through D1 and the output resistance produce a positive output voltage. During the negative half
cycle, D1 is cut off and D2 is forward biased, or “on,” and the current through the output
resistance again produces a positive output voltage. If we assume that the forward diode
resistance rf of each diode is small and negligible, we obtain the voltage transfer characteristics,
vO versus vS , shown in Figure 2.29(b). For a sinusoidal input voltage, we can determine the
output voltage versus time by using the voltage transfer curve shown in Figure 2.29(b). When vS
> Vγ , D1 is on and the output voltage is vO = vS − Vγ . When vS is negative, then for vS < −Vγ or
−vS > Vγ , D2 is on and the output voltage is vO = −vS − Vγ . The corresponding input and output
voltage signals are shown in Figure 2.29(c). Since a rectified output voltage occurs during both
the positive and negative cycles of the input signal, this circuit is called a full-wave rectifier.
Another example of a full-wave rectifier circuit appears in Figure 2.30(a). This circuit is a
bridge rectifier, which still provides electrical isolation between the input ac powerline and the

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rectifier output, but does not require a center-tapped secondary winding. However, it does use
four diodes, compared to only two in the previous circuit. During the positive half of the input
voltage cycle, vS is positive, D1 and D2 are forward biased, D3 and D4 are reverse biased, and the
direction of the current is as shown in Figure 2.30(a). During the negative half-cycle of the input
voltage, vS is negative, and D3 and D4 are forward biased. The direction of the current, shown in
Figure 2.30(b), produces the same output voltage polarity as before. Figure 2.30 (c) shows the
sinusoidal voltage vS and the rectified output voltage vO. Because two diodes are in series in the
conduction path, the magnitude of vO is two diode drops less than the magnitude of vS . One
difference to be noted in the bridge rectifier circuit in Figure 2.30(a) and the rectifier in Figure
2.29 (a) is the ground connection. Whereas the center tap of the secondary winding of the circuit
in Figure 2.29(a) is at ground potential, the secondary winding of the bridge circuit (Figure
2.30(a)) is not directly grounded. One side of the load R is grounded, but the secondary of the
transformer is not.

Figure 2.30 A full-wave bridge rectifier: (a) circuit showing the current direction for a positive input cycle,
(b) current direction for a negative input cycle, and (c) input and output voltage waveforms

CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS

In this section, we continue our discussion of nonlinear circuit applications of diodes. Diodes can
be used in wave shaping circuits that either limit or “clip” portions of a signal, or shift the dc
voltage level. The circuits are called clippers and clampers, respectively.
Clippers
Clipper circuits, also called limiter circuits, are used to eliminate portions of a signal that are
above or below a specified level. For example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper circuit, since
all voltages below zero are eliminated. A simple application of a clipper is to limit the voltage at
the input to an electronic circuit so as to prevent breakdown of the transistors in the circuit. The
circuit may be used to measure the frequency of the signal, if the amplitude is not an important
part of the signal.

Figure 2.31 shows the general voltage transfer characteristics of a limiter circuit. The limiter is a
linear circuit if the input signal is in the range /Av ≤ vI ≤ /Av , where Av is the slope of the

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transfer curve. If Av ≤ 1, as in diode circuits, the circuit is a passive limiter. If vI > /Av , the
output is limited to a maximum value of . Similarly, if vI < /Av , the output is limited to a
minimum value of . Figure 2.31 shows the general transfer curve of a double limiter, in
which both the positive and negative peak values of the input signal are clipped.

Various combinations of and are possible. Both parameters may be positive, both negative,
or one may be positive while the other negative, as indicated in the figure. If either
approaches minus infinity or approaches plus infinity, then the circuit reverts to a single
limiter.

Figure 2.32(a) is a single-diode clipper circuit. The diode D1 is off as long as vI < VB + Vγ . With
D1 off, the current is approximately zero, the voltage drop across R is essentially zero, and the
output voltage follows the input voltage. When vI > VB + Vγ , the diode turns on, the output
voltage is clipped, and vO equals VB + Vγ . The output signal is shown in Figure 2.32(b). In this
circuit, the output is clipped above VB + Vγ .

Figure 2.31 General voltage transfer characteristics of a limiter circuit

Figure 2.32 Single-diode clipper: (a) circuit and (b) output response

The resistor R in Figure 2.32 is selected to be large enough so that the forward diode current is
limited to be within reasonable values (usually in the milliampere range), but small enough so
that the reverse diode current produces a negligible voltage drop. Normally, a wide range of
resistor values will result in satisfactory performance of a given circuit.
Other clipping circuits can be constructed by reversing the diode, the polarity of the voltage
source, or both. Positive and negative clipping can be performed simultaneously by using a
double limiter or a parallel-based clipper, such as the circuit shown in Figure 2.33. The input

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and output signals are also shown in the figure. The parallel-based clipper is designed with two
diodes and two voltage sources oriented in opposite directions.

Figure 2.33 A parallel-based diode clipper circuit and its output response

The resistor R in Figure 2.32 is selected to be large enough so that the forward diode current is
limited to be within reasonable values (usually in the milliampere range), but small enough so
that the reverse diode current produces a negligible voltage drop. Normally, a wide range of
resistor values will result in satisfactory performance of a given circuit.

Other clipping circuits can be constructed by reversing the diode, the polarity of the voltage
source, or both. Positive and negative clipping can be performed simultaneously by using a
double limiter or a parallel-based clipper, such as the circuit shown in Figure 2.33. The input
and output signals are also shown in the figure. The parallel-based clipper is designed with two
diodes and two voltage sources oriented in opposite directions.
Clampers
Clamping shifts the entire signal voltage by a dc level. In steady state, the output waveform is an
exact replica of the input waveform, but the output signal is shifted by a dc value that depends on
the circuit. The distinguishing feature of a clamper is that it adjusts the dc level without needing
to know the exact waveform.

An example of clamping is shown in Figure 2.34(a). The sinusoidal input voltage signal is shown
in Figure 2.34(b). Assume that the capacitor is initially uncharged. During the first 90 degrees of
the input waveform, the voltage across the capacitor follows the input, and vC = vI (assuming that
rf = 0 and Vγ = 0). After vI and vC reach their peak values, vI begins to decrease and the diode
becomes reverse biased. Ideally, the capacitor cannot discharge, so the voltage across the
capacitor remains constant at vC = VM. By Kirchhoff’s voltage law

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Figure 2.34 Action of a diode clamper circuit: (a) a typical diode clamper circuit, (b) the sinusoidal input
signal, (c) the capacitor voltage, and (d) the output voltage

The capacitor and output voltages are shown in Figures 2.34(c) and (d). The output voltage is
“clamped” at zero volts, that is, vO ≤ 0. In steady state, the wave shapes of the input and output
signals are the same, and the output signal is shifted by a certain dc level compared to the input
signal.

A clamping circuit that includes an independent voltage source VB is shown in Figure 2.35(a). In
this circuit, the RLC time constant is assumed to be large, where RL is the load resistance
connected to the output. If we assume, for simplicity, that rf = 0 and Vγ = 0, then the output is
clamped at VB. Figure 2.35(b) shows an example of a sinusoidal input signal and the resulting
output voltage signal. When the polarity of VB is as shown, the output is shifted in a negative
voltage direction. Similarly, Figure 2.35(c) shows a square-wave input signal and the resulting
output voltage signal. For the square-wave signal, we have neglected the diode capacitance
effects and assume the voltage can change instantaneously.

Figure 2.35 Action of a diode clamper circuit with a voltage source assuming an ideal diode (Vr = 0): (a)
the circuit, (b) steady-state sinusoidal input and output signals, and (c) steady state square-wave input and
output signals.

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