Lecture5soilcompaction 161028162415 PDF

INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
FOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

‫م وا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا و‬ ‫ا‬
CIVIL ENGINEERING AND

Lecture ENVIRONMENTAL DEPARTMENT
303322 - Soil Mechanics
2
5
Soil Compaction
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi

References
Das, B., M. (2014), “ Principles of geotechnical

Engineering ” Eighth Edition, CENGAGE
Learning, ISBN-13: 978-0-495-41130-7.
Knappett, J. A. and Craig R. F. (2012), “ Craig’s Soil
Mechanics” Eighth Edition, Spon Press, ISBN: 978-
0-415-56125-9.
Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 2

Introduction
In the construction of highway embankments,
earth dams, and many other engineering structures,
loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit
weights. To compact a soil, that is, to place it in a
dense state. The dense state is achieved through the
reduction of the air voids in the soil, with little or
no reduction in the water content. This process must
not be confused with consolidation, in which water
is squeezed out under the action of a continuous
static load.
Compaction of Soil
Compaction increases the strength characteristics
of soils, which increase the bearing capacity of
foundations constructed over them.
Compaction also decreases the amount of
undesirable settlement of structures and increases
the stability of slopes of embankments.

Compaction of Soil
Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good

compaction compaction compaction compaction compaction compaction
Increased bearing Higher resistance Increased stability

capacity to deformation Decreased permeability
Increased durability Higher resistance
to frost damage

Purposes of compacting soil
1) Increased Shear Strength
This means that larger loads can be applied to
compacted soils since they are typically
stronger. Increased Shear Strength =>
increased bearing capacity, slope stability, and
pavement system strength
2) Reduced Permeability
This inhibits soils’ ability to absorb water,
and therefore reduces the tendency to
expand/shrink and potentially liquefy

Purposes of compacting soil
3) Reduced Compressibility
This also means that larger loads can be
applied to compacted soils since they
will produce smaller settlements.
4) Control Swelling & Shrinking
5) Reduce Liquefaction Potential

Compaction of Soil
Definition:
Compaction, in general, is the densification of

soil by removal of air, which requires
mechanical energy. Simplistically, compaction
may be defined as the process in which soil
particles are forced closer together with the
resultant reduction in air voids.

Principles of Compaction
Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing the

volume of voids. It is assumed that the compaction
process does not decrease the volume of the solids
or soil grains·
Soil before compacted Soil before compacted

compacted compacted
Compaction Effect
Air Air
Water Water
Solids Solids
Loose soil Compacted soil

The degree of compaction of a soil is measured

by the dry unit weight of the skeleton.
The dry unit weight correlates with the degree
of packing of the soil grains.

=
1+
The more compacted a soil is:
• the smaller its void ratio (e) will be.
• the higher its dry unit weight ( ) will be
Compaction Curve
The compaction curve is relationship between a

soil water content and dry unit weight.
Soil sample was computed at different water
contents in a cylinder of volume 1000 cc and dry
unit weight were obtained.
=
1+
Compaction curve is plotted between the water
content as abscissa and the dry density as ordinate.

Compaction Curve
It is observed that the dry density increases with an

increase in water content till the max. density is
attained. With Further increase in water content,
the dry density decreases.
20
Dry unit weight( γ )
18
16
14
12
Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Compaction Curve
Optimum moisture content (OMC) :
The water content corresponding to maximum dry unit
weight is called optimum moisture content.
Note that the maximum dry unit weight is only a maximum for
a specific compactive effort and method of compaction.
18
16
14
12
OMC Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Compaction Curve
Optimum moisture content (OMC) :
Each compactive effort for a given soil has its own OMC.
As the compactive effort is increased, the maximum
density generally increases and the OMC decreases.
18
16
14
12
OMC1 OMC2 Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
15
Compaction Curve
Zero air voids curve or saturation line

The curve represent the fully saturated condition ( S=
100%). ( It can not be reached by compaction )
Theoretical unit weight is given as =

1+ ∗
18 "Zero Air Voids"

S = 100%
16
14
12
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Compaction Curve
Line of Optimums
A line drawn through the peak points of several
compaction curves at different compactive efforts for the
same soil will be almost parallel to a zero air voids
curve , it is called the line of optimums
Line of Optimums
18 "Zero Air Voids"

S = 100%
16
14
12
Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Factors affecting Compaction
• Water content of the soil

• Amount of compaction
• Type of soil being compacted
• The amount of compactive energy used
• Method of compaction
• Thickness of layer
• Saturation line
• Admixtures
• Stone content

Water content of the soil

As water is added to a soil ( at low moisture content)
it acts as a softening agent on the soil particles
and becomes easier for the particles to move past one
another during the application of the compacting
forces. As the soil compacts the voids are reduced and
this causes the dry unit weight ( or dry density) to
increase.

Water content below OMC
As the water content increases, the particles develop larger
and larger water films around them, which tend to
“lubricate” the particles and make them easier to be moved
about and reoriented into a denser configuration.
20
18
16
14
12
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water content at OMC
The density is at the maximum, and it
does not increase any further.
20
18
16
14
12
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water content above OMC
Water starts to replace soil particles in the
mold and the dry unit weight starts to
decrease.
20
18
16
14
12
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Soil type
Soil type, grain size, shape of the soil grains,
amount and type of clay minerals present and the
specific gravity of the soil solids, have a great
influence on the dry unit weight and optimum
moisture content
Uniformly graded sand or poorly graded in nature
is difficult to compact them.

Soil type
In poorly graded sands the dry unit weight
initially decreases as the moisture content increases
and then increases to a maximum value with
further increase in moisture content.
At lower moisture content, the capillary tension
inhibits the tendency of the soil particles to move
around and be compacted.

Soil type
At a given moisture content, a clay with low
plasticity will be weaker than a heavy or high
plastic clay so it will be easier to compact.

Structure of Compacted Clay
Intermediate
structure
High Compactive
Dispersed Structure
Dry Unit Weight
Effort
or
Low Compactive Effort parallel
Flocculated Structure, or
Honeycomb Structure, or
Random
Water Content
Effect of Compaction effort
The compaction energy per unit volume used
for the standard Proctor test can be given as
. . !"ℎ$ ℎ !"ℎ$
× × ×
ℎ %% &
=
' (% % &

Effects of increasing compactive effort
Increased compactive effort enables greater dry unit
weight. It can be seen from this figure that the
compaction curve is not a unique soil characteristic.
It depends on the compaction energy.
18 High compactive effort curve
16
Low compactive effort curve
14
12
OMC1 OMC2 Water Content (Wc)
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Effects of increasing compactive effort
For this reason it is important when giving values of
(γdry)max and OMC to also specify the compaction
procedure (for example, standard or modified).
From the preceding observation we can see that
1. As the compaction effort is increased, the maximum dry
unit weight of compaction is also increased.
2. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum
moisture content is decreased to some extent.

General Compaction Methods
Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils

Laboratory
Falling weight and hammers

Vibrating hammer Kneading compactors
Static loading and press
Vibration Kneading
Hand-operated vibration plates Hand-operated tampers
Motorized vibratory rollers
Field
Sheep-foot rollers
Rubber-tired equipment
Free – falling weight Rubber-tired rollers
dynamic compaction

Laboratory Compaction Tests
Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for

determining the percent compaction and molding
water content needed to achieve the required
engineering properties, and for controlling
construction to assure that the required
compaction and water contents are achieved.

The aim of the test is to establish the maximum

dry unit weight that may be attained for a given
soil with a standard amount of compactive
effort.
When a series of samples of a soil are
compacted at different water content the plot
usually shows a distinct peak.

The fundamentals of compaction of fine-

grained soils are relatively new. R.R. Proctor
in the early 1930’s developed the principles of
compaction.
The proctor test is an impact compaction. A
hammer is dropped several times on a soil sample
in a mold. The mass of the hammer, height of
drop, number of drops, number of layers of soil,
and the volume of the mold are specified.

There are several types of test which can be

used to study the compactive properties of soils.
1. Standard Procter Test is not sufficient for
airway and highways,
2. Modified Procter Test was later adopted by
AASHTO and ASTM

Standard Procter Test
Soil is compacted into a mould in 3-5 equal

layers, each layer receiving 25 blows of a hammer
of standard weight. The energy (compactive
effort) supplied in this test is 595 kJ/m3. The
important dimensions are
Volume of mould Hammer mass Drop of hammer
1000 cm^3 2.5 kg 300 mm

Standard Proctor test equipment

Standard Proctor test equipment

Proctor established that compaction is a function of

four variables:
• Dry density (ρd) or dry unit weight γd.
• Water content wc
• Compactive effort (energy E)
• Soil type (gradation, presence of clay minerals,
etc.)

The soil is mixed with varying amounts

of water to achieve different water contents
Several samples of the same soil , but at
different water contents, are compacted
according to the compaction test
specification

•Apply 25 blows from the rammer dropped from a

height of 305 mm above the soil.

•Distribute the blows uniformly over the surface

and ensure that the rammer always falls freely and
is not obstructed. 4 5
4 6
1 2 7
etc.
3 8
The first four blows The successive blows

Rammer Pattern for compaction in 101.6 mm Mold

The soil is in mold will be divided into three lifts
Each Lift is compacted 25 times 2.5 kg (5.5lb)
25 blows per
layer
•Place a second quantity of
moist soil in the mould such that
305 mm
when compacted it occupies a
little over two-thirds of the
height of the mould body.
Soil sample
3 layers

•Repeat procedure once more so

that the amount of soil used is 2.5 kg (5.5lb)
25 blows per
sufficient to fill the mould body, layer
with the surface not more than
6mm proud of the upper edge of
305 mm
the mould body.
Soil sample
3 layers

The unit weight and the actual water content of

each compacted sample are measured
Derive the dry unit weight from the known unit
weight and water content
=
1+

Plot the dry unit weight versus water content for

each compacted sample.
Determine the maximum dry weight and OMC
18 "Zero Air Voids"

S = 100%
16
14
12
OMC
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Water Content (Wc)

Specification of standard Proctor test ( Based on ASTM Test
Designation 698)
Item Method A Method B Method C
Diameter of mold 101.6 mm 101.6 mm 152.4 mm

Volume of mold 943.3 cm^3 943.3 cm^3 2124 cm^3
Weight of hammer 24.4 N 24.4 N 24.4 N
Height of hammer drop 304.8 mm 304.8 mm 304.8 mm
Number of hammer blows
per layer of soil 25 25 56
Number of layers
of compaction 3 3 3
591.3 591.3 591.3
Energy of compaction kN.m/m^3
kN.m/m^3 kN.m/m^3

Designation 698) ( con.)
Portion passing Portion passing Portion passing

Soil to be used
No.4 9.5 mm 19- mm sieve .
( 457mm)sieve . sieve . May be used if
May be used if May be used if more than 20%
20% or less retained on No.4 by weight of
by weight of sieve is more than material is
material is 20% and 20% or retained on 9.5
retained on less by weight of mm sieve and less
No.4 sieve. material is than 30% by
retained on 9.5 weight of
mm sieve. material is
retained on 19-
mm sieve.

Modified Procter Test
• Was developed during World War II

• By the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering
• For a better representation of the
compaction required for airfield to support
heavy aircraft.

Same as the Standard Proctor Test with the

following exceptions:
The soil is compacted in five layers
Hammer weight is 10 Lbs or 4.54 Kg
Drop height h is 18 inches or 45.72cm
Then the amount of Energy is calculated

Uniformly distribution of the
blows over the surface 44.5 N(10 lb)
457.2 mm
6 9
1 5 2
8 7 # 5
3 # 4
# 3
Rammer Pattern for compaction in # 2
152,4 mm Mold # 1

Designation 698)
Diameter of mold 101.6 mm 101.6 mm 152.4 mm

Volume of mold 943.3 cm^3 943.3 cm^3 2124 cm^3
Weight of hammer 44.5 N 44.5 N 44.5 N
Height of hammer drop 457.2 mm 457.2 mm 457.2 mm
Number of hammer blows
per layer of soil 25 25 56
Number of layers
of compaction 5 5 5
2696 2696 2696
Energy of compaction kN.m/m^3
kN.m/m^3 kN.m/m^3

Designation 698) ( con.)
Portion passing Portion passing Portion passing
Soil to be used
No.4 (457mm)sieve 9.5 mm sieve . 19- mm sieve .
May be used if 25% May be used if May be used if
or less by weight of soil retained on more than 20%
material is retained No.4 sieve is by weight of
on No.4 sieve. more than 25% material is
If this gradation and 25% or less retained on 9.5
requirement cannot by weight of mm sieve and less
be met, then Methods material is than 30% by
B or C may be used. retained on 9.5 weight of
mm sieve. material is
retained on 19-
mm sieve.

Comparison-Curves
( * .)
Modified Procter
Dry unit weight (γd)
Test
(,- . .)
Standard Procter
Test
OMC
Water Content (wc)
Comparison-Summary
Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test
Mold size: 943.3cm^3 Mold size: 943.3cm^3

304.8 mm height of drop 457.2 mm height of drop
24.4 N hammer 44.5 N hammer
3 layers 5 layers
25 blows/layer 25 blows/layer
Energy 591.3 kN.m/m^3 Energy 2696 kN.m/m^3

Filed Compaction
Compaction Equipment
Most of the compaction in the field is done
with rollers. The four most common types of
rollers are:
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers

Filed Compaction
Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for proof rolling
subgrades and for finishing operation of fills with
sandy and clayey soils. These rollers provide 100%
coverage under the wheels, with ground contact
pressures as high as 310 to 380 kN/m^2. They are
not suitable for producing high unit weights of
compaction when used on thicker layers.

Smooth-wheel rollers
o one steel drum and
rubber tired drive
wheels
o two steel drums one of
which is the driver
o effective for gravel,
sand, silt soils

Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are better in many
respects than the smooth-wheel rollers. The former
are heavily loaded with several rows of tires.
These tires are closely spaced—four to six in a row.
Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and clayey
soil compaction.
Compaction is achieved by a combination of
pressure and kneading action.
Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

Sheepsfoot rollers
Sheepsfoot rollers are drums with a large number
of projections. The area of each projection may
range from 25 to 85 cm2. These rollers are most
effective in compacting clayey soils. The contact
pressure under the projections can range from
1400 to 7000 kN/m2.

Sheepsfoot rollers
During compaction in the field, the initial passes
compact the lower portion of a lift.
Compaction at the top and middle of a lift is
done at a later stage.

Sheepsfoot rollers

Vibratory rollers
Vibratory rollers are extremely efficient in
compacting granular soils. Vibrators can be
attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber-
tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory
effects to the soil. The vibration is produced by
rotating off-center weights.

Factors Affecting Field Compaction
For field compaction, soil is spread in layers

and a predetermined amount of water is
sprayed on each layer (lift) of soil, after which
compaction is initiated by a desired roller.
In addition to soil type and moisture content,
other factors must be considered to achieve the
desired unit weight of compaction in the field.

These factors include the thickness of lift, the

intensity of pressure applied by the
compacting equipment, and the area over
which the pressure is applied.
These factors are important because the
pressure applied at the surface decreases with
depth, which results in a decrease in the degree
of soil compaction.
During compaction, the dry unit weight of

soil also is affected by the number of roller
passes.
The dry unit weight of a soil at a given
moisture content increases to a certain point
with the number of roller passes.

Specifications for Field Compaction
In most specifications for earthwork, the

contractor is instructed to achieve a
compacted field dry unit weight of 90 to
95% of the maximum dry unit weight
determined in the laboratory by either the
standard or modified Proctor test.

This is a specification for relative

compaction, which can be expressed as
& ! &
/= × 100 %
& 012
where R = relative compaction

For the compaction of granular soils, specifications
sometimes are written in terms of the required relative
density Dr or the required relative compaction.

Relative density should not be confused

with relative compaction.
Correlation between relative compaction (R) and
the relative density Dr
/
/=
where : 1−6 1−/
&(%!7)
/ =
& 012

Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
When the compaction work is progressing in

the field, knowing whether the specified unit
weight has been achieved is useful.
The standard procedures for determining the
field unit weight of compaction include
1. Sand cone method
2. Rubber balloon method
3. Nuclear method

Sand Cone Method
Sand Cone Method (ASTM Designation D-1556)

The sand cone device consists of a glass or plastic jar
with a metal cone attached at its top

Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction
Nuclear Method Rubber Balloon

method
Worked Examples
Example 1
The results of a standard Proctor test are given in the
following table.
Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction
and the optimum moisture content Also, determine the
moisture content required to achieve 95% of (γdry)max .
Volume of Proctor 944 944 944 944 944 944 944 944
Mold (cm^3 )
Mass of wet soil in the 1.68 1.71 1.77 1.83 1.86 1.88 1.87 1.85
mold ( kg)
Water content ( % ) 9.9 10.6 12.1 13.8 15.1 17.4 19.4 21.2

Worked Examples
Example 2
Given
1) The in situ void ratio of a borrow pit’s soil is 0.72.
2) The borrow pit soil is to be excavated and transported to
fill a construction site where it will be compacted to a void
ratio of 0.42.
3) The construction project required 10000 m^3 of
compacted soil fill
Required
Volume of soil that must be excavated from the borrow pit
to provide the required volume of fill.

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INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

FOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL ENGINEERING AND

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi

Das, B., M. (2014), “ Principles of geotechnical

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 2

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 4

Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good

Increased bearing Higher resistance Increased stability

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 5

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 6

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 7

Compaction, in general, is the densification of

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 8

Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing the

Soil before compacted Soil before compacted

Loose soil Compacted soil

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 10

The degree of compaction of a soil is measured

The compaction curve is relationship between a

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 12

It is observed that the dry density increases with an

Zero air voids curve or saturation line

18 "Zero Air Voids"

18 "Zero Air Voids"

• Water content of the soil

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 18

Water content of the soil

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 19

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 23

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 24

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 25

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 27

18 High compactive effort curve

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 29

Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils

Falling weight and hammers

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 30

Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 31

The aim of the test is to establish the maximum

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 32

The fundamentals of compaction of fine-

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 33

There are several types of test which can be

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 34

Soil is compacted into a mould in 3-5 equal

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 35

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 36

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 37

Proctor established that compaction is a function of

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 38

The soil is mixed with varying amounts

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 39

•Apply 25 blows from the rammer dropped from a

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 40

•Distribute the blows uniformly over the surface

The first four blows The successive blows

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 41

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 42

•Repeat procedure once more so

Dr. Abdulmannan Orabi IUST 43