Energy-Based Model for Simulating and Control
the Traction System of Electric Bikes
Luis I. Silva† and Javier Solano
† Departamento de Tecnologı́as e Innovación para el Desarrollo, Universidad Nacional de Rafaela, Argentina
∗ Grupo de Investigación en Sistemas de Energı́a Eléctrica, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Colombia
Abstract—The present paper deals with the simulation and
control design of the traction system of an electric pedal assisted
cycle. The traction system is composed of an in wheel DC machine
mounted on the rear wheel. Its armature winding is connected
to a chopper used to control the energy provided by the battery.
Additionally the rear wheel receives the torque provided by the
cyclist on the pedals. The model of the complete traction system is
represented using Energetic Macroscopic Representation. Based
on this model, the control structure is deduced in a straight-
forward manner. Simulation results are provided in order to
illustrate the proposal and to analyze the performance of the
closed-loop system.
Index Terms—Simulation, Electric Pedal Assisted Cycle, Ener-
getic Macroscopic Representation.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Automotive emissions proved to be the most air pollutant
source compared to any other single human activity [1].
World-wide transport accounts for 26% of anthropogenic CO2
emissions, whereas 81% of these emissions come from road
transport [2]. Given this scenario, transportation solutions
have been thoroughly investigated to improve fuel economy
and reduce vehicle emissions in urban areas. In this context,
different alternatives have emerged in the last decades oriented
to reach these challenging targets [3]. Naturally, the optimal
solution for each case depends on several conditions and
constrains such as: fuel price, current road conditions and
urban infrastructure, population and demographic distribution,
electric energy availability, among others.
Nowadays there is a wide spectrum of eco-friendly mobility
alternatives. Many of them are already very well developed and
have been implemented successfully. Electric mobility plays a
fundamental role in these new trends [4]. Nevertheless, some
recent results reveal that the footprint (in kg of equivalent CO2)
of electric and hybrid electric vehicles is not significantly lower
than internal combustion engines if the cradle to grave analysis
is applied [5]. This fact shows the importance of developing
other types of electric mobility such as hybrid electric public
transport and electric pedal assisted cycles (EPAC) [6]–[9].
The present study derives from the MovES Program (Span-
ish acronym for Sustainable Electric Mobility Program) im-
plemented in Universidad Nacional de Rafaela, Argentina. The
population of this thriving industrial city is 110.000 inhabitants
where urban transportation is responsible for almost 50% of the
total CO2 emissions, according to recent studies [10]. Current
trends related to electric mobility are moving from electric
vehicles towards other systems able to comply environmental
and public health requirements [11]. This fact motivated the
∗
Fig. 1. Electric bike under analysis. Courtesy of RODAR ELECTRIC.
implementation of EPACs in the city of Rafaela as a potential
solution to mitigate this impact given that they are superior to
any other mean of motorized transport [12].
The objective of the proposal is to provide a simulation
environment for analyzing the overall behavior of an EPAC
under different driving conditions. These studies are useful to
define the autonomy and the type/size of the energy storage
system thus becoming fundamental in the design stage of an
EPAC. The dynamic model of the system is obtained using
Energetic Macroscopic Representation (EMR) in order to high-
light certain characteristics related to energy distribution [13].
As an additional advantage, this functional approach is suitable
for finding systematically the control schemes for complex
energetic systems.
The rest of the article is organized as follows: Section II
presents the proposed dynamic model of the EPAC under
analysis, see Fig. 1. In Section III the control scheme of
the bicycle is obtained based on its EMR. Simulation results
presented in Section IV illustrate the performance of the
overall system in different driving conditions. Conclusions and
further work are discussed in Section V.
II. M ODEL OF THE S YSTEM
The EPAC traction system is composed of an in wheel DC
machine with armature winding connected to a chopper used
to control the energy provided by the battery. The modulating
signal m is provided by the driver using the accelerator in the
handlebar. This electric assistance provided to the rear wheel
is the particular feature of the EPAC. Additionally the rear
wheel receives the torque (τP ) provided by the cyclist on the
pedals. The model of the complete traction system mounted
on the bike is displayed in Fig. 2.(a).
 mb Fenv
ich uB uch ia em Ftot Vx
uB
ia Battery Env
ich ia ea !R Vx Fenv
uch
rR ea m rF R FR
m
Ra
La !R Vx
Kem P
PW FF br

P ; !P Pedal Brake
!P !R Vx !R
P br
Fx,R Fx,F
(a) (b)

Fig. 2. (a) Model of the complete traction system of the electric bike. (b) Energetic Macroscopic Representation of the electric bike.

The battery model calculates the voltage (uB ) in function pedals (τP W ) is related to the cyclist torque (τP ) via the
of the state of charge (SOC) of the battery that is obtained transmission ratio (KP ) according to:
based on the current (ich ) demanded by the chopper. The
model can be expressed in general form as: τP W = KP τP
(7)
ωP = KP ω R
uB = fN L1 (SOC)
(1)
SOC = fN L2 (ich ) Assuming no slip for rear and front wheels, the velocities
are related as follows:
In this analysis the chopper model considers ideal switches
without losses. The average relation between currents and VR = ω R rR
voltages are given by: VF = ω F rF (8)
Vx = V R = VF
uch = m uB
(2)
ich = m ia
The longitudinal dynamics of the bicycle are given by:
where uch and ia are the output voltage of the chopper and d
the armature current of the DC machine, respectively. The mb dt (Vx ) = Fx,R + Fx,F − Fenv (9)
modulating signal m (with 0 ≤ m ≤ 1) is used to adapt the where the interaction with the environment is given by the
voltage applied to the machine. force Fenv which is composed of the aerodynamic dragging
The armature windings of the machine are modeled in- force (Faero ) and the component of the weight when the
cluding losses where La and Ra are the equivalent inductance bicycle meets a slope (Fgrade ). This is expressed as:
and equivalent resistance, respectively. The relation between
Fenv = Faero + Fgrade
electrical and mechanical variables is given by the constant of
the machine (Kem ) that relates the angular speed (ωR ) with Faero = Ka Vx2 → Ka = 21 ρair Af Cx (10)
the counter-electromotive force (ea ) as well as the produced Fgrade = Kgr mb g → Kgr = sin(ϕ)
torque (τem ) with the armature current. The dynamics of the where ρair , Af and Cx are the air density, the frontal area
DC machine are given by: of the bicycle (including the cyclist) and the aerodynamic
d
La dt (ia ) = uch − ea − Ra ia (3) coefficient, respectively. The angle ϕ represents the slope.

τem = Kem ia A. Energetic Macroscopic Representation

ea = Kem ωR
where (3) and (4) represent the dynamics of the armature
windings and the electromechanical conversion, respectively.
Given that the machine is mounted in wheel, the rotor velocity
of the machine is the same than the rear wheel. For the sake
of simplicity all the braking torque (τbr ) is applied to the front
wheel. Under this hypothesis, the dynamics of both rear and
front wheels are given by:
d be in integral causality. To this end, some additional analysis
JR dt (ωR ) = τP W + τem − rR Fx,R − bR ωR
d
JF dt (ωF ) = τbr − rF Fx,F − bF ωF
where rR /rF , JR /JF and bR /bF are the wheels radius, the
equivalent moment of inertia and friction coefficient, respec-
tively. The tractive forces and angular velocities are expressed
by Fx,R /Fx,F and ωR /ωF , respectively. The torque from the
(4)
This representation makes apparent the power interchange
between sub-systems. It is composed of connected elements
which highlights the energy properties of the system (e.g.
energy source, accumulation, conversion, and distribution). It
gives an overall idea of the energy distribution within the
system.
In order to create the EMR all accumulative elements must
(5) is needed when two different accumulative elements try to
(6) impose the same state variable. This conflict of association is
solved using the permutation and merging rules [14]. First the
accumulative elements in conflict are “moved” together (per-
mutation) and then it is generated an equivalent accumulative
element (merging). In the final EMR (see Fig. 2(b)) the top
right accumulative element accounts for the moment of inertia
of both wheels (JR and JF ) and the mass of the EPAC and A. Inversion of the Bike
the cyclist (mb ) as follows:
In order to invert the longitudinal dynamics, a controller
∗
d
meq dt (Vx ) = Ftot − Fenv − beq Vx (11) is required to yield the reference Ftot using the measured and
∗
reference velocities (Vx and Vx , respectively). Fenv can also
where: be used as compensation as follows:
τP W τem τbr
Ftot = + + (12) ∗
rR rR rF Ftot = CF (t) [Vx∗ − Vx ] + Fenv (17)

JR JF where CF (t) may be any controller. In our application, a PI-

meq = mb + 2
+ Controller is used.
(rR ) (rF )2
(13) ∗
bR bF After obtaining Ftot , the inversion of the mechanical cou-
beq = 2
+ pling needs a supplementary input (ktot ) in order to determine
(rR ) (rF )2
the contribution of each wheel to the total force:
FR∗ = ∗
ktot Ftot
After the permutation and merging operations the set of (18)
equations (5)-(8) can be expressed using static relations as FF∗ = ∗
(1 − ktot ) Ftot
follows: Under the hypothesis of applying the brake only on the front
FR = (τP W + τem )/rR ; ωR = Vx /rR (14) wheel, the positive force is provided only by the rear wheel and
the front wheel is responsible for the negative force. It means
∗ ∗
FF = τbr /rF ; ωF = Vx /rF (15) that for Ftot ≥ 0 → ktot = 1 and for Ftot < 0 → ktot = 0.
This criteria can be expressed as follows:
Ftot = FR + FF (16) 1 ∗
ktot = [1 + sgn(Ftot )] (19)
2
The new set of equations (14)-(16) are used to obtain the
final EMR of the EPAC presented in Fig. 2.(b). B. Inversion of the Wheels
The reference torque applied to each wheel can be obtained
III. I NVERSION BASED C ONTROL by inverting the first term of (14) and (15) as follows:
The control scheme of the bicycle traction system is de- ∗
τR∗ = τP∗ W + τem = rR FR∗ (20)
duced by inverting the EMR [13]. The tuning path presented in
Fig. 3.(a) is defined according to the objective and constraints
of the system. It shows that the aim is to control the velocity
∗
τF∗ = τbr = rF FF∗ (21)
of the bike using the input of the chopper (modulating signal
m), the cyclist torque (τP ) and the braking torque (τbr ) as the After obtaining τR∗ , another supplementary input (kR ) is
tuning variables. The control path is then deduced by inverting used to determine the contribution of the cyclist (τP∗ W ) and
the tuning path as shown in Fig. 3.(b). Elements along the ∗
the DC machine (τem ) as follows:
control path are inverted as follows: accumulation elements are
inverted using a closed-loop control; distribution elements are τP∗ W = kR τR∗
∗
(22)
inverted using criteria or compensation; conversion elements τem = (1 − kR ) τR∗
are inverted directly.
The torque applied by the cyclist can be obtained by
uch ia em Vx inverting (7) as follows:
m
FR Ftot τP∗ W
R τP∗ = (23)
kP
P PW FF br

P
(a)
br C. Inversion of the DC Machine
By analyzing the EM conversion given in the first term
of (4) it is possible to determine the reference for the armature
current as follows:
* * FF* *
P PW br
τ∗
i∗a = em (24)
m* *
R FR* *
Ftot kem
*
uch ia* *
em kR ktot Vx* Another controller is required to set the reference voltage
(b)
for the chopper. For the armature circuit it is required the mea-
sured (ia ) and reference (i∗a ) armature currents. Additionally
Fig. 3. (a) Tuning paths of the traction system, (b) Control paths. the electromotive forces of the armature (ea ) can also be used
as compensation, as can be seen from:
Next, the equations of each control block are deduced based
on the inversion of the EMR obtained in Section II-A. u∗ch = Ci (t) [i∗a − ia ] + ea (25)
 uB uch ia !em Ftot Vx
Battery Env
ich ia ea R Vx Fenv
!R FR

!PW R Vx
!P FF !br
Pedal Brake
P R Vx R
!P !br

*
!PW FF*

m !R* FR*

Driving Cycle
* kR ktot
!em *
Ftot

*
uch ia* Vx*

Strategy

Fig. 4. Close loop system of the electric bike and its control using Energetic Macroscopic Representation.

where Ci (t) is the controller for the armature current. In order specific EMR library has been developed in order to describe
to apply the reference voltage to the chopper, the inversion of the system and its control using EMR [16], [17].
(2) is performed as follows:
u∗ch IV. S IMULATION R ESULTS
m= (26)
uB The first purpose of this Section is to show the capability
of the control scheme to track a velocity profile. To this end,
D. Global Strategy a 200 s long urban driving cycle is set (Vx∗ ) based on the
The final step is to determine the overall control strategy. SAE J227a Schedule C. The maximum speed is limited to
This block is used to determine the influence of the three tuning 25km/h. In order to emulate the full-electric condition with
variables (m, τP and τbr ) into the total driving force of the mechanical brake the control strategy is set as:
bike (Ftot ). 1 ∗
ktot = 2 [1 + sgn(Ftot )]
(29)
For non-regenerative mode, the brake is applied only on the kR = 1 → f ull − electric
front wheel and the tractive force comes from the rear wheel.
It is possible to rewrite (18) as follows: The reference and actual velocities are depicted in Fig. 6
∗ operating the bike under this condition. This figure shows that
(
1 if Ftot ≥0
ktot = (27) the control complies the velocity requirement.
∗
0 if Ftot <0
The control scheme contains an internal loop in order
The model also allows to consider regenerative braking. For to control the armature current of the machine ia which
this analysis the value remains always the same ktot = 1 thus determines the torque. It worth mentioning that the reference
traction and braking is performed with the rear wheel. torque demanded to the cyclist (τP∗ ) is always zero given
The second supplementary input kR needed in (22) is set that the bike operates in full-electric mode. The satisfactory
to determine the influence of the DC machine and the pedal performance of this control loop is depicted in Fig. 7.
into the rear torque. In the following equation three typical As expected, the braking torque applied on the front wheel
values are shown: is always negative (τbr ≤ 0). The utilization of the brake along
kR = 0 → non − electric the driving cycle can be seen in Fig. 8. The combination of the
positive torque provided by the DC machine and the negative
kR = 0.5 → half − electric (28) torque applied on the mechanical brake is used to ensure the
velocity tracking.
kR = 1 → f ull − electric
The close-loop simulation for regenerative braking and full-
In the following Section the close loop performance of the electric mode can be performed by setting:
traction system is evaluated. The scheme used to obtain the ktot = 1 → reg − braking
simulation results is based on Fig. 4 which is implemented (30)
in a commercial software 20SIM R
[15]. To this purpose, a kR = 1 → f ull − electric
Fig. 5. EMR-based representation of the close-loop traction system in the 20SIM
R
environment.

4.6
0
7 Vx
Braking torque (N m)

4.4
6 Vx,ref
4.2
Velocity ( ms )

−5
5 60 65

4
−10
3

2
−15
1

0 −20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
time (s) time (s)

Fig. 6. Velocity of the bike and reference (solid and dotted). Fig. 8. Evolution of the braking torque (τbr ).

15
13 15
Armature Current (A)

ia
Armature Current (A)

12 ia
ia,ref 10
10
ia,ref
11
57 58 59
5

5 0
−8

−5
−10
0 26 27 28
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 −10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
time (s)
time (s)
Fig. 7. Armature current and reference (solid and dotted). Fig. 9. Armature current/reference (solid/dotted) for regenerative mode.

In this operation mode all the torque (positive and negative)

bike for this 10.000 s duration cycle is depicted in Fig. 10.(a).
is performed by the DC machine. The resulting velocities show
The aim of simulating the close-loop system during such a long
the same evolution than non-regenerative mode (see Fig. 6).
period in full-electric mode is to reduce significantly the state
In this case the current also takes negative values along the
of charge (SOC) of the battery. According to the manufacturer
cycle as shown in Fig. 9.
the lower limit for the SOC is 40 % and beyond that limit the
The second part of the analysis is performed again in full- battery does not longer provide energy. Fig. 10.(b) depicts the
electric mode (kR = 1). In this case the driving cycle is re- SOC for mechanical and regenerative braking. It can be seen
peated during 10.000 s and the maximum speed for each cycle that the autonomy for mechanical braking is 28.841 km and
is set into the range [20km/h to 30km/h]. The velocity of the for regenerative braking is extended to 32.617 km.
 8
Velocity ( ms )
6
0
100
State of Charge (%)
80
60
40
Mechanical brake
20 Regenerative brake
0
0 1000 2000 3000
Fig. 10. (a) Velocity of the bike during a long term driving cycle. (b) State of charge for mechanical braking (solid) and regenerative braking (dotted).
V. C ONCLUSION
The presented article addresses the simulation of the trac-
tion system of an Electric Pedal Assisted Cycles (EPAC). The
model of the system is represented using Energetic Macro-
scopic Representation (EMR) that makes apparent the power
interchange between components and sub-systems. The final
representation gives an overall idea of the energy distribution
within the system. An additional advantageous feature of
EMR is that it allows us to determine in a systematic way
an inversion-based control scheme. In order to couple the
representation of the bike and its control it is developed a
specific EMR library in the 20SIM
R
software.
The first set of simulation results are aimed to verify that
the variables evolves according to the design requirements thus
validating the proposal. Then the potentiality and versatility
of the model is used to analyze the performance in different
driving conditions. The proposed model is used to estimate the
autonomy (in km) when the bike is used with the traditional
mechanical brakes and regenerative brake. The additional
autonomy of 3.776 km (represents extra 13 %) gives a good
base to analyze the application of this technology.
Further work will be focused on validating the model
using experimental data obtained from the real prototype. This
validated model will be crucial to determine the solar chargers
location within the city that will be implemented in the frame
of the same electric mobility MovES program.
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