1120 / Joining
paired and considerable interaction between the
filler metal and the base metal may occur. The
tensile properties of heat treatable titanium alloys
also may be adversely affected by brazing, unless
the assembly can be heat treated after brazing.
Equipment Precautions
When titanium is brazed, precautions must be
taken to ensure that the brazing retort or chamber
is free of contaminants from previous brazing op-
erations. Mechanical properties of titanium may
deteriorate because of gaseous contamination
from the brazing furnace. Also, the choice of ma-
terials to be used in fixtures must be carefully
considered. Nickel or materials containing high
amounts of nickel generally should be avoided;
SOLDERING involves :ating a joint to a suit-
able temperature and using a filler metal (solder)
that melts below 450 "C (840 OF). The solder is
distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of
the joint by capillary action. Heat is required to
raise the joint to a suitable temperature and melt
the solder and to promote the action of a flux
on the metal surface so that the molten solder
will wet and flow into the joint.
Successful soldering involves shaping the parts
to fit closely together, cleaning the surfaces to
be joined, applying a flux, assembling the parts,
and applying the heat and solder. Flux residues
are removed when the joint is cooled.
Solder Alloys
The primary criterion used to select a solder
is its melting properties. Alloy selection is also
determined by the heat sensitivity of the substrate
material, the temperature conditions that are ex-
pected during service, and the pasty range of the
alloy. The melting characteristics of solders are
expressed as the solidus and the liquidus temper-
atures for the alloy. Solders composed of one
metallic element, such as tin or indium, have a
single melting temperature. Alloys with a eutectic
composition have liquidus and solidus tempera-
tures, but they are coincident, and the tempera-
ture value is referred to as the "eutectic tempera-
ture." The temperature spread between the
solidus and liquidus temperatures define the
pasty range of the alloy. Solders are commer-
cially available with liquidus temperatures that
are as low as 11 "C (51 O F ) , for the ternary Ga-
In-Sn alloy, to as high as 425 "C (795 O F ) , for the
germanium-aluminum solder. Metal alloys with
melting temperatures that exceed 450 "C (840 O F )
are categorized as brazing filler metals.
Specifications and standards have established
requirements for certain solder alloys in terms of
composition limits, impurity levels, and a nomen-
clature for referencing particular compositions. In
the United States, the specifications of solder
alloy compositions are found in ASTM B 32 and
Federal Specification QQ-S-57 IE. Users in the
European community prefer the International Or-
ganization for Standardization (KO) specification
ISOiDIS 9453.
nickel and titanium form a low-melting eutectic
at about 942 "C, or 1728 "F (28.4 wt% Ni). If
titanium workpieces come in contact with fix-
tures or a retort made of a nickel-base alloy, the
parts may fuse together if the brazing tempera-
ture is in excess of 942 "C (1728 OF). If a fixture
material, such as stainless steel, which may con-
tain a high nickel content is used, it should be
oxide coated. In most applications, coated graph-
ite or carbon steel fixture materials are used.
Filler Metals
Braze filler metals initially used for brazing
titanium and its alloys were silver with additions
of lithium, copper, aluminum, or tin. Most of
these brazed filler metals were used in low-tem-
Soldering
Tin-Lead Solders
Care should be taken in specifying the correct
solder for the job, because each alloy is unique
with regard to its composition and properties.
When tin-lead solders are referred to, the tin con-
tant is customarily given first-for example,
40%Sn-60%Pb. Table 1 lists compositions of tin-
lead solders as well as those of Sn-Pb-Sb, Sn-
Pb-Ag, and lead-silver solder compositions.
Solders in the tin-lead system are the most
widely used of all joining materials. Industrial
soldering alloys are in use that contain combina-
tions of materials from 100% Pb to 100% Sn, as
demanded by the particular application. The util-
ity of the tin-lead combination is highlighted by
examination of the constitution diagram between
these two materials, shown in Fig. I . Soldering
alloys can be obtained with melting temperatures
as low as 180 "C (360 "F) and as high as 315
"C (600 "F) within this system. Except for the
pure metals and the eutectic solder at 63%Sn-
37%Pb, all soldering alloys melt within a temper-
ature range that varies according to the alloy
composition. Each alloy has unique characteris-
tics. In general, properties are influenced by the
melting characteristics of the alloys, which in
some measure are related to their load-carrying
and temperature capabilities.
Applications. Soldering alloys containing less
than 5% Sn are used for joining tin-plated con-
tainers and for automobile radiator manufacture.
For automobiles, a small additional amount of
silver is usually added to provide extra joint
strength at automobile radiator operating temper-
atures. Soldering alloys of 10%Sn-90%Pb and
20%Sn-80%Pb are also used in radiator joints.
With compositions between 10%Sn-90%Pb and
25%Sn-75%Pb, care must be taken to avoid any
kind of movement during the solidification phase
to prevent hot tearing in solders with a wide
freezing range, as indicated by the constitution
diagram (Fig. i ) .
Higher-tin-content solders at the 25%Sn-
75%Pb and 30%Sn-70%Pb compositions have
lower liquidus temperatures and can be used for
joining materials with sensitivity to high temper-
ature, or where the wetting characteristics of the
tin are important to providing sound soldered
joints. Soldering alloys i n the composition range
perature applications (540 to 600 "C, or 1000 to
1100 O F ) . Commercial braze filler metals includ-
ing silver-palladium, titanium-nickel, Ti-Ni-Cu,
and Ti-Zr-Be, are now available that can be used
in the 870 to 925 "C (1600 and 1700 "F) range.
Higher strengths and improved resistance to crev-
ice-type corrosion are desirable characteristics
that current braze filler metals enjoy. For joining
applications requiring a high degree of corrosion
resistance, the 48Ti-48Zr-4Be and 43Ti-43Zr-
12Ni-2Be braze filler metals were developed. A
Ag-Pd-Ga braze filler metal (Ag-9Pd-9Ga),
which flows at 900 to 910 "C (1650 to 1675 O F ) ,
is another excellent filler metal with which to
fill large gaps. Table 14 lists filler metals for
brazing titanium alloys.
described above usually are applicable to indus-
trial products and generally are used in conjunc-
tion with inorganic fluxing materials.
The widely used general-purpose soldering al-
loys contain 40 to 50% Sn. These solders are
used for plumbing applications, electrical connec-
tions, and general soldering of domestic items.
The 60%Sn-40%Pb and 63%Sn-37%Pb alloys are
used most extensively in the electronic industries.
Impurities in Tin-lead Solders
Impurities in solders can affect their perfor-
mance and must be kept to a minimum. ASTM
standards for soldering alloys set maximum toler-
able impurities in alloys as provided by the sup-
plier or refinery. Impurities can be inadvertently
picked up during normal usage of the alloys, es-
pecially when solder pots with recirculation sys-
tems and passage of components through the
molten materials are used. The purity of solders
supplied by reputable manufacturers usually is
adequate for most applications. Particular solder-
ing operations may require the use of superpurity
materials that can be supplied upon request. Im-
purities present in sufficient quantities can affect
wetting properties, flow within the joint, melting
temperature of the solder, strength capabilities of
joints, and oxidation characteristics of the solder-
ing alloys. The most common impurity elements
are listed below with their principal levels and
effects.
Aluminum. Traces of aluminum in a tin-lead
solder bath can seriously affect soldering quali-
ties. More than 0.005% of this metal can cause
grittiness, lack of adhesion, and surface oxidation
of the soldering alloy. A deterioration in surface
brightness of a molten bath sometimes is an indi-
cation of the presence of aluminum.
Antimony may be found in solders for any
one of three reasons: as an impurity, that is, not
intentionally added to the material; as a minor
addition of 0.25 wt%, minimum, to try to prevent
the formation of the low-temperature allotrope of
tin (a of tin at 13.2 "C, or 55.8 OF); and as a
principal component, representing 1 to 5 wt%, to
improve monotonic and creep strength of the sol-
der. The levels of added antimony should be less
than 7 wt% of the tin component of the solder
(the solubility limit of antimony in tin) in order
 Soldering / 1121

Table 1 ASTM B 32 specification for tin-lead, Sn-Pb-Sb, Sn-Pb-Ag, and lead-silver solders
Melting range(b)
Compnsition(a), % Sdidus Liquidus
Alloy
made Sn Pb Sb AZ cu Cd Al Bi As Fe Zn "C "F "C T

Sn70 69.5-71.5 bal 0.50 0.015 0.08 o.nni 0.005 0.25 0.03 0.02 n.nns 183 36 I 193 371
Sn63 62.5-63.5 ha1 0.50 0.015 0.08 0.001 n.nm 0.25 0.03 0.02 0.005 183 361 183 361
Sn62 61S 6 2 . S ha1 0.50 1.15-2.2s 0.08 n.noi 0.005 0.25 0.03 0.02 0.005 179 354 189 372
Sn60 59.5-61.5 ha1 0.50 0.015 0.08 o.oni 0.005 0.25 0.03 0.02 0.005 183 361 I90 374
Sn50 49.5-51.5 bal 0.50 0.0 I5 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.025 0.02 0.005 183 36 1 216 42 1
Sn45 44.5-46.5 bal 0.50 0.0 I 5 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.025 0.02 0.005 183 36 1 221 44 1
Sn40A 39.5-41.5 bal 0.50 0.0 I5 0.08 o.noi 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 183 361 238 460
Sn40B 39.5-41.5 bal 8-2.4 0.015 0.08 o.noi 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 185 365 23 1 448
Sn35A 34.5-36.5 bal 0.50 0.015 0.08 o.oni naos 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 183 361 247 441
Sn35B 34.5-36.5 ha1 6-2.0 0.015 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 185 365 243 470
Sn30A 29.5-31.5 bal 0.50 0.015 0.08 n.oni 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 I83 36 I 255 49 1
Sn30B 29.5-31.5 bal 4- I .8 0.015 0.08 0.00 I 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 185 365 250 482
Sn25A 24.5-26.5 bal 0.50 0.015 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 183 361 266 511
Sn25B 24.5-26.5 ha1 1-1.5 0.015 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 185 365 263 504
Sn20A 19.5-21.5 bal 0.50 0.015 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 I83 361 277 53 1
Sn20B 19.5-21.5 bal 8-1.2 0.0 I5 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 184 363 270 517
Sn15 14.5-16.5 ha1 0.50 0.015 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 225 437 290 554
SnlOA 9.0-11.0 ha1 0.50 0.015 0.08 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 268 514 302 576
SnlOB 9.0-1 1.0 bal 0.20 1.7-2.4 0.08 o.om oms 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.005 268 514 299 570
Sn5 4.5-5.5 ha1 0.50 0.015 0.08 0.001 o.ms 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 308 586 312 594
Sn2 1.5-2.5 ha1 0.50 0.015 0.08 n.om 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 316 60 I 322 61 I
Ag1.5 0.75-1.25 bal 0.40 I .3- I .7 0.30 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 309 588 309 588
Ag2.5 0.25 bal 0.40 2.3-2.7 0.30 n.nni 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 304 580 304 580
Ag5.5 0.25 bal 0.40 5.0-6.0 0.30 0.001 0.005 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.005 304 5x0 380 716

(a) Limits are maximum percentages, unless shown as a range or stated otherwise. For purposes of determining conformance to these limits, an observed value or calculated value obtained
from analysis shall be rounded to the nearest unit in the last right-hand place of figures used in expressing the specified limit, in accordance with the rounding method of ASTM Recommended
Practice E 29. (b) Temperatures given are approximations and are for information only.

to prevent the formation of tin-antimony interme- although some discoloration of soldered surfaces rate, easily reaching 0.3% Cu. Copper in liquid
tallic compounds, which can severely impact the occurs at levels above 0.5%. solder does not appear to have any deleterious
fluidity of the molten solder or reduce the ductil- Cadmium. A progressive decrease in wetting effect upon wetting rate or joint formation. Ex-
ity of the solidified joint. capability occurs with additions of cadmium to cess copper settles to the bottom of a solder bath
Arsenic. A progressive deterioration in the tin-lead solders. While there is no significant as an intermetallic compound sludge. Most sol-
quality of the solder is observed with increases change in the molten solder appearance, small dering alloys contain a maximum copper content
in arsenic content. As little as 0.005% As induces amounts of cadmium can increase the risk of of 0.08%.
some dewetting, which becomes more severe as bridging and icicle formation in printed circuits. iron and nickel are not naturally present in
the percentage of arsenic is increased to 0.03%. Copper. The role of copper as a contaminant soldering alloys. The presence of iron-tin com-
Arsenic levels should be kept within this range. in solder appears to be variable and related to pounds in tin-lead solders can be identified by
Bismuth. Low levels of bismuth in the solder- the particular product. A molten tin-lead solder a grittiness. Generally, iron is limited to 0.02%
ing alloy generally do not cause any difficulties, bath is capable of dissolving copper at a high maximum in new solder. There are no specifica-
tion limits for nickel, but levels as low as 0.02%
can somewhat reduce wetting characteristics.
Phosphorus and Sulfur. Phosphorus at a
0.01% level is capable of producing dewetting
Metal composition and some grittiness. At higher levels, surface oxi-
(tin content expressed first) dation occurs, and some identifiable problems
such as grittiness and dewetting become readily
discernible. Sulfur causes grittiness in solders at
a very low level and should be held to 0.001%.
Discrete particles of tin sulfide can be formed.
Both of these elements are detrimental to good
soldering.
Zinc. The ASTM soldering alloy specification
U states that zinc content must be kept to 0.005%
0 maximum in tin-lead solders. At this maximum
ia limit, even with new solders in a molten bath,
c some surface oxidation can be observed and
E oxide skins may form, encouraging icicles and
8 bridging. Up to 0.01% Zn has been identified as
$
I-
the cause of dewetting on copper surfaces.
The combined effects of the above impurity
elements can he significant. Excessive contami-
nation in a solder bath or dip pot generally can
be identified through surface oxidation, changes
in the product quality, and the appearance of grit-
tiness or frostiness in joints made in this bath.
A general sluggishness of the solder also is ob-
served. In addition to analysis, experience with
Fig. 1 Tin-lead phase diagram solder-bath operation is helpful in determining
1122 / Joining

Table 2 Tin-antimony solder compositions per ASTM B 32

Melting range(b)
Composition(a), % Solidus Liquidus
Alloy
grade Sn Ph Sh Ag cu Cd Al Bi As Fe Zn OC "F "C OF

Sh5 94.0min 0.20 4.5-5.5 0.015 0.08 0.03 0.005 0.15 0.05 0.04 0.005 233 450 240 464
HA@) ha1 0.10 0.5-4.0 0.1-3.0 0.1-2.0 0.005 0.005 0.15 0.05 0.02 0.5-4.0 216 420 227 440

(a) Limits are % max, unless shown as a range or stated otherwise. For purposes of determining conformance to these limits, an observed value or calculated value obtained from analysis shall
be rounded to the nearest unit in the last right-hand place of figures used in expressing the specified limit, in accordance with the rounding method of Practice E 29.(b) Temperatures given
are approximations and for information only. (c) Designation for Sn-Sh-Ag-Cu alloy composition

Table 3 Tin-silver solder compositions per ASTM B 32

Melting range(b)
Composition(aJ,% Solidus Liquidus
Alloy
grade Sn Pb Sh Ag cu Cd Al Bi AS Fe Zn *c 'F "C "F

Sn96 ha1 0.10 0.12 max 3.4-3.8 0.08 0.005 0.005 0.15 0.01 max 0.02 0.005 221 430 221 430
Sn95 ha1 0.10 0.12 4.4-4.8 0.08 0.005 0.005 0.15 0.01 0.02 0.005 221 430 245 473
Sn94 bal 0.10 0.12 5.4-5.8 0.08 0,005 0.005 0.15 0.01 0.02 0.005 221 430 280 536
E(c) bdl 0.10 0.05 0.25-0.75 3.0-5.0 0.005 0.005 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.005 225 440 349 660

Note: Data in table represent solder alloys containing <0.2% Ph. (a) Applicable only to composition 60-40 m the form of flux-core wire or solder paste. (h) Applicable only to composition
60-40in the form of flux-core wire. (c) Applicable only to flux-core wire and solder paste

the point at which the material should be re- acteristics and superior joint strength compared ing temperature (for example, 40Sn-40Pb-20In
newed for good solder joint production. with conventional solders. and 70Sn-18Pb-12In). Indium also improves duc-
Tin-zinc and zinc-aluminum solders are used tility and oxidation resistance. Indium-containing
primarily in joints composed of aluminum-base alloys have poor corrosion resistance in the pres-
Other Soldering Alloys ence of halide ions. such as those used for some
metals in order to limit galvanic corrosion. The
A wide range of alternate alloys are available. eutectic tin-zinc composition, 9 1Sn-9Zn, has a activators in flux chemistries. The alloys 52111-
At low temperatures, the ternary Ga-In-Sn eutec- melting temperature of 199 "C (390 O F ) , which 48Sn and 97In-3Ag easily wet glass, fused silica,
tic (62.5%Ga- 16%Sn-21.5%In), with a melting makes it suitable for low-temperature applica- and other ceramics for glass-to-metal or glass-to-
point of 10 "C (50 O F ) is useful. Bismuth-base tions that traditionally use the tin-lead solders. glass joints. These alloys also have very low
fusible alloys with melting points ranging from However, oxidation of the zinc constituent of the vapor pressure, which makes them ideal for vac-
45 to 250 "C (110 to 485 "F) are manufactured. solder causes excessive dross formation and slug- uum applications. The 50In-50Pb alloy is used
Alloys based on indium with lead, tin, and silver gish spreading when processed in air. As a pre- in electronic applications to limit the scavenging
additions are available to cover the temperature caution, the potential for galvanic corrosion be- of precious-metal substrates or coatings, which
range from 95 to 315 "C (200 to 600 O F ) . Solders tween the zinc constituent of the solder and the occurs very rapidly with tin-base solders.
available in the temperature range from (600 to base metal(s) should be thoroughly investigated Low-melting fusible alloy solders, which
750 OF) are limited, but combinations available prior to its use. contain bismuth, are used for soldering processes
include cadmiun-zinc and cadmium-silver alloys Zinc-aluminum solders were also developed for that involve temperature-sensitive substrates or
(liquidus temperatures from 265 to 400 "C, or aluminum soldering. The eutectic 95Zn-5A I has devices, as well as the low-temperature part of
510 to 750 O F ) , the zinc-aluminum euteclic, (liq- a melting temperature of 382 "C (720 O F ) and is step soldering procedures. Their ability to melt
uidus 380 "C, or 720 O F ) , and three gold-base used in tube joining for heat-exchanger applica- at low temperatures makes these materials ideal
solders-the gold-tin eutectic at 80%Au-20%Sn, tions. for thermal fuses. A representative group is listed
with a melting point of 280 "C (535 O F ) : the Indium-containing solders listed in Table 4 in Table 5 .
gold-germanium eutectic at 88%Au-I2%Ce, with are used for joining temperature-sensitive sub- Excessive oxidation of bismuth promotes dross
a melting point of 355 "C (675 O F ) ; and the gold- strates or as the low-temperature step in multiple formation and can limit spreading for soldering
silicon eutectic at 96.4%Au-3.6%Si, with a melt- ("step") soldering processes to prevent retlow processes conducted in air. The eutectic 58Bi-
ing point of 355 "C (700 O F ) . The temperature of the preexisting solder joints (typically, tin-lead 42Sn alloy has found some applications in elec-
range from 400 to 450 "C (750 to 840 "F) is eutectic). Good plasticity at cryogenic tempera- tronic assemblies.
limited to the only available alloy, the aluminum- tures make these alloys suitable for applications Alloys with greater than 47 wt% Bi exhibit
germanium eutectic (45%AIL55%Ge), with a such as space vehicles and satellites. varying degrees of expansion upon cooling after
melting point of 425 "C (795 O F ) . The gold- Indium is frequently added to tin-lead solders solidification, because of changes to the lattice
indium composition (82%Au- 18%ln), with a liq- as a ternary addition in order to depress the melt- structure of the alloys. Dimensional changes to
uidus of 485 "C (905 O F ) and a solidus of 450
"C (845 O F ) , is occasionally used.
Tin-Antimony Solder. The tin-antimony solder
listed in Table 2 has excellent soldering and Table 4 Indium-containing solders
strength characteristics. It is used where a
Temperature
slightly higher temperature range is needed and Table 5 Fusible alloy solders
Solidus Liquidus
in applications for joining stainless steels where Temperature
lead contamination must be avoided. This alloy Allov T "F "C "F
also is used in plumbing and refrigeration be- 14Cd
441n-42Sn- 58 136 58 136
-~ Solidus
Liquidus
Alloy "C 'F "C "F
cause of its good creep strength and fatigue resis- 501n-50Sn I17 243 125 257
tance. 521n-48% 118 244 118 244 44.7Bi-22.6Ph-8.3Sn-5.3Cd-19.lIn47 I17 47 I17
Tin-Silver Solders. Because of their compara- 901n- IOAg 141 286 238 460 49Bi-2I In- I8Ph- 12Sn 58 136 58 136
tively high cost, tin-silver solders, shown i n 971n-3Ag 143 289 143 289 50Bi-25Ph-12.5Sn-I2.5Cd 68 154 73 163
IOOln 157 315 157 315 55.5Bi-44.5Ph 124 255 124 255
Table 3, are used in fine instrument work and in 281 138 281
5011i-jOPb IS0 356 209 40X 58Bi-42Sn 138
food applications. They have good wetting char-
 Soldering / 1123

the alloy also take place during room-temperature
aging. Whether the dimensional change is due to
contraction, expansion, or both, and the magni-
tude of this change, depends on the composition.
These alloys can be used to eliminate solder-joint
cracking during the cooling of two substrates that
have vastly different degrees of thermal contrac-
tion.
Precious-metal solders include the gold-tin,
gold-germanium, and gold-silicon alloys with the
following compositions:
Eutectic melting point
Alloy "C
80Au-20Sn 280 536
80Au- I2Ge 356 673
97Au-3Si 363 685
These solders are used for attaching integrated
circuit chips to packages. They are also used in
the construction and hermetic sealing of packages
that house delicate sensors and instrumentation.
Their high melting temperature also allows them
to be used in the step-soldering process with con-
ventional tin-lead and lead-indium solders.
An attribute of their precious-metal content is
that these alloys exhibit excellent solderability
without the need for a flux (including short-dura-
tion processes in air) when soldering gold-coated
parts. However, spreading is limited by the high
surface tension of the alloys, particularly in the
absence of the flux. Mechanical pressure is fre-
quently used to assist spreading of the molten
solder in the joint. Gold, tin, germanium, and
silicon can be thermally evaporated, making them
suitable for thin-film soldering processes, such as
the assembly of microsensors.
Cadmium-containing solders include special
low-temperature alloys, such as 44In-42Sn-l4Cd,
which has a eutectic temperature of 93 "C (200
OF), as well as higher-temperature solders, such
as the alloy 82.6Cd-17.4Zn, which has a eutectic
temperature of 266 "C (51 1 OF). The corrosion
protection offered by the cadmium permits these
alloys to be used on aluminum or in corrosive
service environments. The relatively high vapor
pressure of cadmium precludes the use of cad-
mium-bearing solders in vacuum equipment.
Generally, the use of cadmium-bearing solders is
declining because of the health hazards associ-
ated with cadmium, particularly in terms of the
vapors released during the soldering process. In
fact, cadmium-bearing solders are now prohibited
in numerous applications.
Table 6 Relative solderability of selected mospheric dirt interfere with the soldering pro-
metals and alloys cess. A clean surface is imperative to ensure a
sound and uniform-quality soldered joint. Fluxing
Easy to solder Dificult to solder alone cannot substitute for adequate precleaning.
Platinum Galvanized iron Therefore, a variety of techniques are used to
Gold Tin-nickel
clean and prepare the surfaces of metals to be
Copper Nickel-iron
Silver Mild steel soldered. The importance of cleanness and sur-
Cadmium plate face preparation cannot be overemphasized.
Tin Very difficult to solder These steps help ensure sound soldered joints, as
Solder plate Chromium well as a rapid production rate. Precleaning can
Nickel-chromium also greatly reduce repair work due to defective
Less easy to solder Nickel-copper soldered joints. Two general methods of cleaning
Lead Stainless steel
are chemical and mechanical. The most common
Nickel plate
"F
Brass Most difficult to solder of these are degreasing, acid cleaning, mechani-
Bronze Aluminum cal cleaning with abrasives, and chemical
Rhodium Aluminum bronze etching.
Beryllium copper Not solderable Precoating. The coating of the base metal sur-
Beryllium faces with a more-solderable metal or alloy prior
Titanium to the soldering operation can facilitate soldering.
Coatings of tin, copper, silver, cadmium, iron,
films readily, but are difficult to solder. The dif- nickel, and the alloys of tin-lead, tin-zinc, tin-
ference is in the extremely adherent, protective copper, and tin-nickel are used for this purpose.
nature of the oxides formed on chromium, nickel, The precoating of metals that have tenacious
and aluminum, compared with the oxides that oxide films (for example, aluminum, aluminum
form on tin and cadmium (Table 6 ) . bronzes, stainless steels, and cast iron) is almost
mandatory. The precoating of steel, brass, and
It should be noted that chromium, nickel, and
aluminum are all soldered regularly with good copper, although not entirely essential, is of great
results, but that special attention must be given value in some applications.
to the selection of fluxes, which must be very
active. In many cases, the use of active fluxes
Fluxes
is either restricted or not allowed. Therefore,
these hard-to-solder metals and alloys always re- A flux promotes solder wetting of the base
metal by:
quire special consideration in order to provide
reproducible soldering.
0 Removing tarnish films from precleaned sur-
faces, thereby permitting the molten solder to
Precleaning and Surface Preparation react with the base metal and to spread
Cleaning. Oil, film, grease, tarnish, paint, pen- 0 Preventing oxidation of the base metal during
cil markings, cutting lubricants, and general at- the heating steps just prior to soldering
Corner Single strap butt
T Lap

Base-Metal Selection Corner Flanged butt

Angle T Double lap
A sound soldered joint is achieved by selecting
and using the proper materials and processes.
Base metals are usually selected to achieve the
specific property requirements of a component.
These properties can include strength, ductility,
electrical conductivity, weight, corrosion resis-
tance, and others. When soldering is required, the
Flush lap Flanged corner Line contact
solderability of the base materials should also be Flanged T
a selection factor. Both flux selection and surface
preparation will be affected by the solderability
of the base materials to be joined.
The solderability of metals and alloys is not
simply a matter of chemical nobility, as might
be supposed when regarding the good solderabil-
ity of the noble metals, which do not readily
form oxide or tarnish films. Although cadmium
and tin both form oxides readily, they are consid- Flat lock seam Flanged bottom Flanged bottom
Flanged edge
ered easy to solder. On the other hand, chro-
mium, nickel, and aluminum also form oxide Fig. 2 Joint designs frequently used in soldering
1124 / Joining
0 Lowering the surface tension of the solder, al-
lowing it to more readily fill gaps and holes
by capillary action
Fluxes contain three principal ingredients: an
active chemical compound, such as a halide, for
oxide removal; wetting agents to improve surface
coverage; and a vehicle to dilute and mix the
cleaning compound and wetting agents together.
The vehicle, which is removed by evaporation
during the soldering process, is typically water,
isopropyl alcohol, glycerin, glycol (for liquid
fluxes), or petroleum jelly (for flux pastes or
creams). Fluxes are characterized by their clean-
ing agent and are assigned to one of these cate-
gories of increasing activity: rosin-base fluxes,
organic-acid fluxes (also called “intermediate”
or “water-soluble” fluxes), and inorganic-acid
fluxes. Following the soldering operation, any
residue left by these fluxes should be removed
to avoid corrosion damage to the joint.
Rosin-base fluxes contain “water-white’’
rosin, a distillation product from pine tree sap.
When used alone, rosin-base fluxes are referred
to as a “nonactivated,” or type R, grade. The
addition of an activator to rosin fluxes increases
their chemical activity. Activators can be organic
halogenated compounds, such as amine hydroha-
lides that contain chloride, fluoride, or bromide
ion groups or “halide-free” activators, such as
oleic, stearic, or lactic acids. Halide-free fluxes
are recommended for materials that are sensitive
to stress-corrosion cracking. The concentration of
activators, which defines the corrosivity of the
flux, determines the flux category as being one
of the following: rosin-base, mildly activated
(RMA), fully activated (RA), and superactivated
(SA).
The R and RMA fluxes are used on electronic
assemblies and systems. The RA and SA fluxes
are used on base metals such as nickel (and
nickel plate), lightly tarnished low-carbon steels,
copper, iron-base alloys, and copper-base alloys
(brasses, bronzes, and beryllium copper).
Organic-acid fluxes contain one or more or-
ganic acids, such as lactic, oleic, or stearic acid.
Chemical activity can be enhanced by adding or-
ganic halogen compounds (amine hydrohalide,
which may contain chloride and bromide deriva-
tives) or nonhalogenated substances, such as one
of the amines or amides (urea or thylene di-
amine). Typical vehicles include water, isopropyl
alcohol, polyglycols, or petroleum jelly for
pastes.
The organic-acid fluxes are used in many elec-
tronic applications involving machine processes
and hand assembly, as well as the hot tin or
solder dipping of nickel and iron-base alloy leads
and devices. These fluxes are also used on struc-
tural applications with copper and copper alloy
workpieces that have light to moderate tarnishes.
Inorganic-acid fluxes have the highest levels
of chemical activity. There are two categories of
these fluxes:
0 Pure acids, such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric,
or phosphoric acids, which have surfactants
added to enhance coverage
0 Inorganic salt mixtures or solutions, which
may also contain surfactants
The inorganic-acid fluxes are limited to struc-
tural applications, such as plumbing or mechani-
cal assemblies. Their corrosive activity is unac-
ceptable for electronic devices or substrates, or
for their assembly. These fluxes are effective on
nickel and nickel alloys, stainless steels, chro-
mium, and heavily tarnished copper and copper
alloys.
Solder-Joint Design
Soldering alloys generally have lower-strength
properties than the materials to which they will
be joined. Overall design of a product involving
soldered joints must therefore be evaluated to en-
sure that the joints are capable of carrying the
supplied loads for the expected life of the prod-
uct. Stress-rupture and creep properties are there-
fore important to solder joints under load in ser-
vice. Care must be taken also not to use bulk
solder properties for this evaluation because these
do not take into account the effect of joint forma-
tion, interfacial solder-joint reactions, and stress-
transfer capabilities across soldered joints. In de-
signing a product, several solder/base metal se-
lections can be made that will adequately perform
the task. In addition to design aspects, overall
costs of materials and of manufacturing the prod-
uct are usually taken into account. The lap joint
provides a capability for conservative design by
allowing larger areas of joints to be utilized at
lower unit stress (see various joint designs in
Fig. 2).
Most data available in the literature on joint
strengths are not directly applicable to the design
of a soldered joint. It is often necessary to fabri-
cate sample parts and test the joints to ensure
their producibility.
Heating Methods
In addition to surface preparation, solder selec-
tion, and fluxing, another important part of the
soldering process is the choice of heating
method. Available methods include:
0 Soldering iron or bit
0 Flame or torch soldering
0 Hot dip soldering
0 Induction soldering
0 Resistance soldering
0 Furnace soldering
0 Infrared soldering
0 Ultrasonic soldering
Wave soldering
0 Laser soldering
0 Hot gas soldering
0 Vapor-phase soldering
Each of the methods is described in Welding,
Brazing, and Soldering, Volume 6 of the ASM
Handbook (see pages 349 to 370).