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 AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific. 13

METHODS OF SILVERING MIRRORS.

By Heber D. Curtis.

The different processeswhichhave been discoveredfor

depositing a thinfilmof silveron glass are widelyscattered
in periodicalliteratureand laboratorymanuals. Some of
theseprocessesare now rarelyemployed, and even for the
moremodernmethods whichhaveprovedmostuniformly suc-
the
cessful, experience of those who have had extensive prac-
ticeinsilveringlargemirrors willwithoutdoubtbe ofassistance
to theamateur.The manipulation has beendescribed bysome
as veryuncertain andofconsiderable It
difficulty. willbe found,
that
however, by usingpure chemicalsand carefully following
the directions,successfulcoatscan nearlyalwaysbe secured.
Occasionally a failurewill resultforwhichno reasoncan be
assigned. The writerhas had one suchexperience, withthe
secondary mirror of the Santiago reflector, which was an
absolutefailure,thoughsilveredon the same day, withthe
sameprocess,and as faras was knownwithexactlythesame
manipulation whichgave an excellentcoat on the primary.
I thinkthatmostmanipulators will feela tendency to echo
-
thewordsof Quincke, written halfa century ago, it is true,
whensilvering processesweremuchless reliablethanat pres-
ent: "Uebrigensversagenzuweilenalle dieseMethoden, oder
lieferndochfehlerhafte Spiegel,ohnedass ein rechter Grund
dafüraufzufinden wäre."
Siemens is said to have expressedhis disbeliefthatany
processof depositingsilverfroma solutioncould ever be
discovered.Manyprocesses havebeenevolvedsincethatdate,
practicallyall of themwithan ammoniated solutionof nitrate
of silveras a basis,the differences in
lying the character of
the organic reducingmediumemployed. Glucose, milk
sugar,acidulatedlévulose,thejuicesof berries,formaldehyde,
Rochellesalts,etc.,haveall beenused. Practically all to-day
 14 Publications of the
but someof the
use eitherBrashear's or Lundin's methods,
of the
oldermethodswillbe givenas well. The preparation
mirrorfortheprocessis commonto all methods,and willbe
treatedfirst.

CLEANING THE MIRROR.

The mirror shouldbe carefullyfreedfromdust,and theold
coat removedwithnitricacid,whichis also thebestmedium
forcleaninganyglasssurfaceto be silveredforthefirsttime.
A thickswabof cottonwoolis formed abouttheendof a glass
rod,so thatthereis no dangerof theglass rodscratching the
mirror.Providedtheswabis thickenough,plenty of pressure
may be employed.Swab everypart thoroughly; whenthe
coat is all offadd a littledistilledwaterto the nitricacid
alreadyappliedand go overtheentiresurfaceagain. Do not
let anypartof themirrorbecomedryduringtheprocess; if
any partshouldget dry,swab and clean again. Then rinse
offthe nitricacid, forwhichordinary watermaybe used at
first,followedby distilledwater. Finallyleave the mirror
standingwTith a coveringof distilledwaterover its surface;
no partshouldbe allowedto becomedry.
Small mirrorsmaybe advantageously silveredface down,
resting on threethinwedges of wood cemented to thebottom
ofa shallowpan. Formirrors eightinchesor overin diameter,
however, I generallysilverfaceup. In thecase of themirror
of the Crossleyreflector the preparationis as follows: The
mirror is removed fromitscellandsupported ina ringequipped
withtrunnions, whichallows a freetiltingmotion,as it is
essentialthatthesolutionsbe keptin constant motionduring
the process. A stripof paraffined paper,about eightinches
wide,is drawntightly aroundtheedgeof themirror, leaving
aboutsix inchesabovethe mirror.This is tiedtightlywith
a cord. Then the paper stripis cementedto the glass by
runninga hot soldering-iron severaltimesaroundon the
outsideof thepaper,aboveand belowthecord,and theover-
lappingendsof the paperband are cemented together in the
same way. The Santiagomirrorhas a six-inchhole in the
 AstronomicalSocietyof thePacific, 15
center;thiswas fittedwitha woodenplug providedwitha
centralopeningand glass stopper. The plug was cemented
lightly in theholein themirrorwithRowland's "Universal"
wax (fourpartsbeeswax,one partVenetianturpentine, plus
a littlebestEnglishvermilion).A tightjointwas madewith
a soldering-iron,
as in thecase of thepaperband.
Aftercleaningwithnitricacid,manyadvisefollowing with
a secondswabbingwitha solutionof causticpotash,followed
in turnwithan application of Frenchchalk. I have secured
betterresultswiththenitricacid alone,and havenotusedthe
potashor chalkin recentyears. On thispointCommonstates:
"With the mostcarefulcleaningof a mirror,I have often
foundthatthefirstapplication did notsucceed,butthesecond
on thesurfacejust cleanedofï withnitricacid was all right.
The natureof theliquidotherthandistilledwaterlast in con-
tactwiththesurfaceof themirror seemsto be thedetermining
thing." Dr. Commonalso preferred to silverfacedownwhen
using Brashear's process, and used the Rochellesaltsmethod
whennecessaryto silverface up. He used a rathernovel
methodto supportthe heavymirror(37 inchesin diameter;
weightoverfourhundredpounds)whensilveringfacedown.
The backof thismirrorwas polished. A largecast-iron cell
was made,30 inchesin diameter and about4 inchesdeep; the
edgewas turnedflatandtrueandthengrooved; a largerubber
washerwas interposed between thiscelland themirror.From
thiscell or "sucker"the air was exhaustedwitha smallair
pumpto a pressureof about5 inchesof mercury ; theatmos:
phericpressurewas thensufficient to hold themirrorto the
"sucker"whenfacedownor evenwhenthemirror was placed
in a verticalposition. Considering the greatweightof the
glass, the methodseemsratherdrastic. ProfessorWright
silveredthe Santiagomirror(diameter37*4 inches;weight
562 pounds) face downon severaloccasions,but supported
the mirrorin a ringwithtrunnions.This mirrorand that
of the Crossleyhave a semi-circular grooveabout one-half
inchdeeparoundthemiddleoftheedge,forming a safemethod
forsupport a
by holdingring.
i6 Publications of the
SILVERING FORMULA - COMMON^ PROCESS.*

Quantityused for250 squareinches(1,613cm.2)of mirror

surface:
A. 1 oz. (31 g.f) silvernitrate.
10 oz. (300 cc.) water..
Clear up completely withammonia.
B. 1 oz. (31 g.) causticpotash.
10 oz. (300 cc.) water.
Pour intoA and clear again withammonia.
Add a weak reservesolutionof silvernitrate,drop
by drop,till the appearanceis decidedlyturbidagain.
C. Reducingsolution:
l/2oz. (15 g.) glucose.
10 oz. (300 cc.) water.
Add C to the mixtureof A and B, stirringwell. "At a
temperature of about 56o a finefilmwas got in 43 minutes
on the three-foot mirror. I have used some of the same
solutionsat various times to silver small surfaces,and I
findI can get a good filmin muchless time,particularly if
the temperature is a littlehigher. No doubt,for higher
temperatures somemodifications wouldhave to be made; but
the use of glucose allows a more certaindetermination of
the proportionsproperfor certaintemperatures than any
mixtureof sugar and acid, the active propertiesof which,
as a reducingagent,are uncertainand changeable."

martin's process}
1. 175grains (11.34g.) silvernitrate.
10 oz. (300 cc.) water.
2. 262 grains (16.98 g.) nitrateof ammonia.
10 oz. (300 cc.) water.
3. 1 oz. (31 g.) causticpotash.
10 oz. (300 cc.} water.
4. Dissolve l/2oz. (15.55g.) sugarcandyin 5 oz. (150 cc.)
water; add 52 grains (3.37g.) tartaricacid; boil for ten
minutes;whencool add 1 oz. (30 cc.) alcohol; makeup mix-
ture to 10 oz. (300 cc.) in winterand to 12 oz. (360 cc.)
in summer.
Mix equal partsof 1 and 2; mix equal partsof 3 and 4
in anothervessel; combinewhenreadyto silver; immediate-
ly on changingcolor immersethe mirror.
*
English Mechanic, 34, 464, 1882.
fin changing these formula to the metric system,the quantities have occasionally
been rounded offwhen it seemed evident that no error would arise thereby.
XEnglishMechanic, 30, 416, 1880.
 AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific. 17
ROCHELLE SALTS PROCESS (jAMES).*
1. Silvering solution:
48 grains (3.11g.) silver nitrate.
1 oz. (30 cc.) distilled or rain water.
Add ammonia slowly till brown precipitate is nearly but
not quite re-dissolved. Filter, and add distilled water to
make 12 fluid drachms (45 cc).
2. Reducing solution :
12 grains (078 g.) Rochelle salts.
1 oz. (30 cc.) distilled or very clean rain water.
Boil in flask, and while boiling add 2 grains (0.13 g.)
silver nitratedissolved in one drachm water. Continue boil-
ing five or six minutes; cool, filter,and add distilled water
to make 12 fluid drachms (45 cc).
Take equal parts for silvering; temperature of 1130 to
1220 F. (45o to 50o C.) is best. When solution becomes
clear, process is finished,taking 20 to 80 minutes; if left
in longer, bleaching begins.

METHOD USED BY DRAPER.

i- 337 grains (21.83 g.) nitrate of silver.
10 oz. (300 cc.) water.
2. iy2 oz. (46g.) caustic potash.
25 oz. (750CC.) water.
3. 1y2 oz. (46 g.) milk sugar in powder, pure and fresh.
10 oz. (300 cc) water.
Pour nearly all of 1 into a vessel that will hold 160 oz.
(5 liters),- the quantities given are for a 28-inch (71. 1 cm.)
mirror; add ammonia drop by drop till the gray precipitate
clears; add 20 oz. (600 cc) of 2, and with ammonia just
re-dissolve the brown precipitate that forms. Make up to
75 oz. (2,250 cc) with water, then add some of 1 till a gray
precipitate that does not dissolve in three minutes is left.
Then make up to 150 oz. (4,500 cc) with water. Let it all
settle, and pour off. When ready to immerse the mirror,
add all of 3.
THE CROSSLEY PROCESS.
This was sentto the Lick Observatory by Mr. Gledhill.
It was regardedas a tradesecretat thattime (about 1895).
thattheessentialpartof theprocesswas pat-
I find,however,
entedby Pratt in 1876,and is nowgenerallyknown,forming
a stepin themethodused by Mr. Lundin. Thereseemsno
longer,then,any reasonwhyits publication shouldbe with-
mirror.
are fora three-foot
held. The quantities
♦James,quotedin EnglishMechanic,28, 113,1878.
 18 Publications of the
No. i. The silversolution:
Place 7l/2oz. (233g.) of nitrateof silverin a jug; pour
on it 4l/2oz. (135 cc.) of ammonia(.880) ; stirtilldissolved.
Add 2lApints( 1,200cc.) of distilledwater; stirwell. Filter
into clean glass bottlewithglass stopper. Keep in a dark
place; this will keep.
No. 2. The "salts" solution:
y2 Ib. (250 g.) of Rochellesalt and J/2gallon (2.3 liters)
of distilledwater. Mix and shake till dissolved. Filter.
This will keep.
No. 3. The "wash" solution:
Dissolve y2 Ib. (250 g.) of crystalsof protochlorideof
tin in 1 pint (480 cc.) of distilledwater. A milkysolution
is obtained,with white sediment. Shake up beforeuse.
This will keep.
To preparethesolutionsforsilvering!For thewash take
2 drachms(7cc.) of No. 3 and 12 pints(6 liters) distilled
water. Mix well.
For the silveringsolution: To each pint (liter) of dis-
tilledwateradd 1 oz. (64 cc.) of No. 1 and stir; thenadd
2 drachms(16 cc.) of No. 2 for each pint (liter), and stir.

In theuse of thisprocessall solutionsshouldbe somewhat

warm. The mirror shouldalsobe warmed ; thisis accomplished
byplacing it in a largepan and pouring water intothepan a
numberof times,each timeslightly warmerthanthelast,till
a temperature of ioo° to 1200F. (40o to 50o C.) is reached.
The mirror is nowtiltedand thewaterthrown offitssurface;
whiletiltedthejug of"wash" solution is pouredon thesurface
at the uppermost pointso thata streamof thesolutionruns
downand wetsthe wholeof the surface. The mirror(still
tilted)has nowtwo or threeeight-or ten-pint jugs of warm
waterpouredoverit,no partsbeingmissed. It is then
distilled
quicklylevelledand abouttwelvepints(six liters)of thepre-
pared silversolutionare pouredupon it. If the mirrorbe
warmenoughthesilverwillbe seenon theglasshereand there
in one or twominutes.
Whenthesolutionbecomesdiscolored poursomefreshsolu-
tionon (in themiddle, or whereanybareplaceis seen). Con-
tinuein thiswaytillthecoatingis deemedthickenough. Then
tiltmirror to throwoffthediscolored solution ; throwoverthe
surfacea fewquartsof warm distilled
water; wipesurfaceall
 AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific. 19
overwitha handful ofcottonwool,andtiltintoverticalposition
to drainand dry.
This processis said to give a verygood coat; I have per-
sonallyseenno exampleof a freshcoat obtainedin thisway
fromwhichto judgeas to itsexcellenceand thickness, and the
only trialof the method I have made (on a small mirror)gave
very indifferent doubtless
results, through lack of experience.
Whenthe Crossleymirrorwas shippedto the UnitedStates
in 1895,tnesilvercoatwas foundin excellentcondition when
the box was openedat Mt. Hamilton(silveredby the above
process?). Thisparticular coatwas laterused forall Director
Keeler's nebularphotography, and the mirrorwas not re-
silveredtill about January,1902. It is evidentfromthis
thatthe coat musthave been one of unusualdurability and
excellence.
The function of thechlorideof tinwashin thisprocessand
thatused by Mr. Lundin is obscure. It seemsessentialthat
onlythe meresttraceof the chlorideshall be leftwhenthe
silveringsolutionsare pouredon. Quincke foundthatthe
slightesttraceof chlorinewouldseriously impairthesilvering
process; he states thata millionth
partof commonsaltin the
silvering fluid is to
sufficient make the resultingcoat unfit
forpolishing, and advisesthatwhenonlysmallamountsof
solutionare beingused greatcare shouldbe takento prevent
thenaturalperspiration ofthehandsfrominjuring themixture.
böttger'smethod.*
1. Dissolve 5 gramssilvernitratein distilledwater; add
ammonia till the precipitatealmost entirelydisappears;
filterand diluteto a volumeof 500cc.
2. Dissolve 1 gramof silvernitratein a littlewaterand
pour into 500cc. boiling water. Add to this 0.83 gram
Rochellesalt,and let themixtureboil fora shorttimeuntil
the depositappearsgray. Filterwhilehot. The solutions
will keep forseveralmonthsin a dark place.
Aftercleaningthe glass, pour over it equal volumesof
the two solutions. The processis completeafterone hour,
and may be repeatedto securea greaterthicknessof film.
The operationcan be quickenedby warmingthe second of
the two solutionsgiven above to 70o C. beforemixingthe
two. Best resultssecuredfromsilveringface down.
'Kohlrausch, Leitfadender prakt.Physik,207.
2O Publications of the

BRASHEAR's PROCESS.f
The ReducingSolution:
This should be made up in advance; the older it is the
betterit will work. If necessaryto use a freshlymade
reducingsolution,the actionmaybe improvedby boilingit,
adding the alcohol afterit has cooled. The formulais as
follows:
Rock candy,90 grams.
Strongnitricacid (spec. gr. 1.22), 4cc.
Alcohol,175 cc.
Distilledwater,1,000cc.
The SilveringSolution:
(The quantitiesare as used forthe Crossleymirror.)
A. 3 litersdistilledwater.
250 gramssilvernitrate.
Strongestammonia,as maybe needed.
B. 1 literdistilledwater.
125 grams caustic potash (purifiedby alcohol).
C. 25 gramssilvernitrate.
200 cc. distilledwater. Reservesolution.

In solutionA, afterthe silvernitrateis all dissolved,add

ammoniagradually;the solutionat once turnsdark brown.
Keep on addingammonia, in quitesmallquantities towardthe
close tillthe solutionjust clearsup; avoid an excessof am-
m'onia. Then pour in solutionB. The mixturewill again
turndark brownor black. Again slowlyadd ammonia,as
before,tillthesolutionjust clears. The solutionshouldnow
be a lightbrownor strawcoior,buttransparent.
Now add as muchof thereservesolution, C, as themixture
willtakeup withoutturning too dark; add thisreservesolu-
tion ratherslowly,stirringconstantly.If 25 gramsis not
enough,add more,forit is important thatthe nitratebe as
muchin excessas is possible. It is bestto add thisreserve
solutiontill thereis quite a littlebrownsuspendedmatter
whichthesolution refusesto takeup. Filterthrough absorbent
cottonto removethesesuspended particles.
Operationsshouldbe performed at a temperature of 65o to
73o F. (170 to 23o C). If the solutionsare muchwarmer
thanthis,the resulting coat maybe verysoft,and thereis,
moreover, dangerof the formation of somelightgraysilver
tAstrophysical Journal, 1, 252, 1895.
 AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific. 21
fulminate, veryexplosive. Dr. Brashear uses ice to keepthe
temperature below70o F. in warmweather. If thesolutions
are too cold,it will be difficultto securea coat of sufficient
thickness.
Clean severaldrinking glassesor beakerswithnitricacid,
rinsing with distilledwater. Make severaltestsof thecom-
pleted solution, taking of the reducingsolutionone fifthor
one fourthof the quantityof silveringsolutionemployed.
Note approximately thetimerequiredto get a thickcoat and
whatproportions of reducingsolutionworksbest. Too much
reducingsolutiongives a black,dirtycoat. I generallyfind
thatabout800cc. of reducingsolutionis bestfortheamounts
givenabove forthe Crossleymirror, and thatthe processis
in
complete fromfiveto tenminutes.
The mirror, witha bandof paperas described
fitted earlier,
and cleaned,has aboutfourlitersof distilledwaterstanding
uponit. Pour800 ± cc. of reducing solutionintothesilvering
solution, and pourat onceintothewateralreadyon themirror.
Keep thesolutionin motionby rockingthemirror, butavoid
lettingany part of the mirror be exposed to theair forlonger
thana secondor twoto observeprogress.
The greattroublewiththeBrashearprocessis theformation
of muchsediment, and thesolutionshouldbe keptconstantly
in rapidmotionso thatthissediment does notremainlongin
any one spot. For this reason some have preferredto silver
face down. Dr. Commonon one occasionverysuccessfully
silveredhis five-foot mirrorfaceup by thisprocess,omitting
thepotash,whenthesilverwas depositedfroma nearlyclear
liquid,leavingno mudon thesurface. This procedure, how-
ever,has beenveryuncertain, in myhands,and thecoatthin.
For avoidingthe sedimentI findthe followingprocedure
better: Two persons,providedwithrubbergloves,standon
oppositesidesof themirror, and eachhas,on a cleansheetof
paper within easy reach, four or fivegood-sizedhandfulsof
absorbentcotton. About one minuteafterthe solutionis
pouredon,and as soonas a brightcoat beginsto form,each
persontakesa handfulof the cottonand swabs his halfof
the mirrorveryrapidly,but verylightly. No pressureis
exerted, butthewetcottonis allowedto moveoverthesurface
withonlyits own weight. Everypartof themirrormustbe
22 Publicationsof the
touchedby the cotton. By this processthe solutionis kept in
rapid motion,and most of the sedimentis taken up by the
cotton. Every half minuteor so the used cottonis slightly
squeezed,thrownaway, and a freshhandfultaken.
A difficultpointis the decisionas to when theprocessshould
be stopped. If the solutionis thrownoff too soon, the coat
will be thin; if lefton too long, a whitishbleach deposits,and
no amount of burnishingwill make such a bleached coat as
brilliantas one correctlydeposited. One may be guided by
the timetaken for the preliminarytests made on beakers,or
tilt the solution slightlyto one side and look throughfrom
beneathat a windowor otheropening. A thickcoat is better
in every way, particularlyfrom its abilityto stand repeated
burnishings.
When completed,get the spent solution off as quickly as
possible,tear offthe paper strip,dash withordinarywaterand
thenwithdistilled; swab the surfacelightlywithwet absorbent
cottonif there is much "bloom" on the surface (I generally
omit this) ; turn on edge to dry. Afteran hour the coat is
ready forburnishing.
lundin's method.*
The mirroris cleanedin theusual way withnitricacid. After
the nitricacid has been rinsedfromthe mirror,the surfaceis
then ready to receive a thoroughrubbing with a saturated
solutionof tin chloride,which can best be done by making
up a large wad of cotton,and holding the same in the hand
so thatthefingerscannotcomein contactwiththeglass surface.
To testthe surfaceforfreedomfromgrease spots,etc., rinse
offthe tin chloridesolution,rubbingthe surfaceall the time;
firstwith the same wad of cotton,and lastlywith one or two
clean wads. This will preventthe tin chloridefromleaving a
hard, thin film,which mightotherwiseform on the surface
and give a granularappearanceto the silvercoat.
If the cleaning has been properlydone, the surface after
rinsingshould not shed water as does a greasy surface,but
shouldbe able to retaina filmof water over the entiresurface
when slightlyinclined,and care should be taken to keep the
•Extracts froma letter fromMr. C. A. R. Lundi n, Jr., of Alvan Clark & Sons,
to the writer.
 AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific. 23
entiresurfacecoveredwithwater; otherwise thesilverwillnot
depositproperly'on thosepartsthathavebeenexposedto the
air.
A dish is formedwiththe mirroras bottomby wrapping
tightlyaroundtheedge a stripofbandagecloththreeinchesin
widththathas previously beensaturatedwithmeltedbeeswax,
and carefullypulled while hotfromthe beeswax between metal
rodsto removetheexcessof wax whichwouldotherwise pre-
venta water-tight contactwiththeedge of themirror.The
rimof waxedclothcan be heldsufficiently tightto theedge of
the mirrorby a fewturnsof strongstringand, aftertying
securely,wetting thesame.
Havingcompleted attention
the above preparation, maybe
turnedto preparingthe silveringand reducingsolutions,at
thesametimeoccasionally pouringoffthewaterfromthemir-
rorand replacing it witha freshsupply.The totalamountof
solutionrequiredfor silveringcan now be ascertainedby
measuring theamountof rinsingwaterthatit takesto cover
the surfacein its highestpartby aboutthreequartersof an
inch.
Silver solution: Dissolve io grains (2.16g.) of silver
nitrateforeach ounce (ioocc.) of silversolutionused; add
strongammoniaand clear up fully.
Reducingsolution: 20 minims(4cc.) of Merck'sformal-
dehydein fivetimesits volume of water for each ounce
(ioocc.) of silversolutionused.

The solutionshavingbeenprepared, thewatercoveringthe

mirror is nowpouredoff,thesilverand thereducingsolutions
are mixedquicklybutthoroughly and pouredintothemirror
as evenlyas possible. Rockthedishslowlyin differentdirec-
tionsand watchfortheappearanceof blackgrainssimilarto
gunpowder.fWhenthesolutionis clearwiththeexception of
theseparticlesandtheyseemto depositon thesilvercoat,pour
offthe solutionand rinsewithrunningwater. Removethe
waxedband,all thetimekeepingthesurfaceflooded withwater.
The remaining particlesand the depositon the
dull-looking
silvermaynowbe removed witha cleanwad of cotton,
trailed
overthewetsurfacewithout pressure.
The advantagesof thisprocessare thepracticallycomplete
freedom fromthetroublesome sedimentof theBrashearproc-
24 Publicationsof the
ess and thepossibility of usingordinary waterinsteadof dis-
tilled. Mr. Lundin statesthat the water fromthe mainsat
Cambridge waterforthepurpose,
is equaltodistilled andwould
advise othersto test theirwatersupplyon a small mirror
beforesecuringdistilledwater. The waterforthe cleaning
shouldbe lukewarm, less forthesolutions
and a trifle ; should
thesilvering solutionturna muddybrowncolorwhenpoured
on themirror, thetemperature of themirror is too high. Dr.
Parkhurst writesthathe findstheLundin processmorecon-
venientand reliablethanthe Brashear or the Rochellesalt
method.In hisopinion, themostimportant stepappearsto be
therinsingoffof thechlorideof tinwithwarmwater,as all
tracesof thechloridemustbe removed to givea good film.
BURNISHING.

Make tworubbers of bestchamoisskin,stretchedoverballs

of absorbentcotton. Go over the entiresurfacein circular
strokes, first
witha plainrubbertohardenthefilm.Thengrind
a littlebestopticalrougeintothechamoisof theotherrubber,
and repeat. Dust mirrorfrequently duringpolishing,and oc-
casionallyrunthe edge of a knifeoverthe pads to "scruff"
themup; thendustthepadswitha camel'shairbrushtoprevent
the solid particlesof rougefrommakingscratches.Witha
perfectly depositedcoat onlya fewtoucheswiththe rouged
pad willbe necessary.
Of the methodsgivenabove,Brashear's is probablythe
mostused. The writerhas alwaysused thismethodin silver-
ing the mirrorsof the Mills reflector at Santiagoand the
Crossley reflector. it
Properlyapplied, gives a verythick,
bright, and toughfilm,whichwill standmanyburnishings.
Dr. Ritchey,of MountWilsonSolar Observatory, prefersit
also to anyoftheotherprocesseswhichhe has tried,and states
thatfilmsdeposited bythismethodon thesmallmirrors of the
6o-inchreflector haveremained in perfectcondition
as longas
eighteenmonthswithoccasionalreburnishing. A good coat
at MountHamiltonshouldlastat leastninemonths.
Dr. Schlesinger uses Brashear's processat Allegheny,
essentially as givenabove. The mirroris not removedfrom
the telescope,and the solutionis keptin motionby rocking
thetelescopeback and forthin rightascension. He findsit
 Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 2Ç
essentialto drythe mirrorquicklyafterthe silverhas been
deposited; forthispurposehe employs an electricfan,anddoes
not attempt to silverunlessthe atmosphere is tolerablydry.
He writes: -
"For burnishing we use chamoisand rougeor a goodgrade
of absorbent cottonand rouge. Occasionally we have secured
coatsthatare beautifully brightwithout burnishing, buteven
in tTiese
caseswe havefoundit desirableto burnish at once,as
thelifeof thecoatis thusprolonged.
"In our situation we silverthe30-inchmirror oncea month
and the secondary(hyperboloidal) mirroreverytwo weeks.
In the violetand ultra-violet portionsof the spectrumthe
mirrors decreaseconsiderably onlya fewdays
in effectiveness
aftertheyhavebeenrenewed.
"Whenthemirrors arenotin use theyare protected bymetal
coverslinedwithabsorbent cotton. The latteris pressedinto
contactwiththesilveredsurfacesand effectually prevents the
oxidationthatwouldotherwise rapidlyspoilthe silver.
"Although thetubeof thetelescopeis entirelyopenand the
mirrorsare thusdirectly exposed to the heavydew thatwe
occasionally havehere,we havenevernoticedtheleastdeposit
of moisture on themirror.Care mustbe taken,however, not
to exposethemirrors whentheyare colderthantheair,as in
thatcase themoisture immediately condenses on thesilverand
seemsto getbetweenit and theglass."
The air at MountHamiltonis of coursealmostabsolutely
freefromdeleterious vaporswhichwouldinjurethe film,so
suchfrequent havenotbeenfoundnecessary.The
silverings
flap which covers the mirror of the.Crossleyis aboutthree
feetabovethemirror, butis neverclosedin thesummer time;
themirror is occasionally dustedwitha verysoft,finefeather
dusterto cleanoffthelightdustwhichgraduallycollectson
thesurface.
In somelocalitiesthe deterioration, of the silvercoat is so
rapidthatconsiderable thought has beengivento methodsfor
protecting thefilm. A methoddue to M. Izarn* consisted in
coatingthemirrorwitha thinfilmof bichromatized gelatine,
andwas triedwithsomesuccessat theobservatory ofToulouse.
*
Comptes Rendus, 118, 1314, 1898.
2Ó Publicationsof the
Perot* describesthe methodof forminga very thin filmof
celluloidover the silverfilm: -
"After having thoroughlywashed, dried, and polished the
mirror,and having very carefullyremovedall dust, a dilute
solutionof celluloidin amylacetate is poured over the surface.
The operationcan be performedat ordinarytemperatures, and
the commercialsolution,knownas Japan varnish,dilutedwith
about its volumeof amylacetate,servesverywell. The mirror
is tiltedso as to let the excess drain offand is dry in half an
hour. Broad, stronglycolored interference bands (colors of
the thirdorder) should then be seen on the surface,showing
thatthe uniformthicknessof thecelluloidis about0.5 p.. Under
theseconditionsthe imagesare bright,sharp,and show no dif-
fusionif the filmof celluloidis thin. The resultsobtainedat
the observatoryof Meudon fromthe use of this varnishare
veryfavorable. Among others,a plane mirror60 cm. in diam-
eter, which formerlyhad to be silveredevery monthin the
year, lasted nearlysix months,and withoutdoubt could have
been used longerif the washingaftersilveringhad been made
with greater care. The protectingcoat is rather soft, and
care shouldbe takento avoid scratches. The dust whichgrad-
ually collects on the surface should be removed by a very
gentledusting."
All silvering processes appear to be very wasteful. Dr.
Common removeda finecoat fromhis five-foot mirroraftera
year's use. On weighing, the thicknessof the silver filmwas
foundto be 1/280,000of an inch= 907 tenth-meters.Of the
400 grams of nitrateof silverused in depositingthe filmonly
1.7 grams was laid down as silver.
Chlorideof silvercan be depositedfromthe spentsolutions
by the additionof commonsalt, and the silverthus ultimately
recovered.
A thickfilmwill have a much longer life than a very thin
one. Quincke states that he silvereda small mirrorwith a
verythickcoat (Petitjean's process,employingtartaricacid
as reducer) which stood one hundredand fiftyreburnishings.
A convenientway of determiningthe thicknessof a silver
filmis due to FizEAU.f "To determinethe thicknessof the
*
Comptes Rendus, November 2, 1909.
Ì Comptes Rendus, 52, 274, 1861.
 AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific. 27
depositof silvera bit of iodinewas placed on its surface,
and allowedto developabout it, underthe influence of its
emanation, coloredringsof silveriodidetill'thespotoccupied
by the iodinebecameentirely transparent,the silvercoat at
thatpointbeingtransformed intoyellowiodidethroughits
entirethickness*Fromthepointwherethevaporsof iodine
had not touchedthe silverup to thatwherethe metalwas
entirelytransformed intoiodide,therewas a seriesof colored
ringsbeginning with whiteandwhich, countedwitha redglass,
werefoundtonumber nine. The seriesceasedaboutthemiddle
of the ninthbrightring. The indexof refraction of silver
iodidebeing2.246 . . . , the ninthbrightringgave forthe
thicknessof the silveriodide0.001193mm. Thencewas de-
rived0.000294mm.forthethickness of thesilvercoat."
Fizeau describes thisfilmas "verythin,butnevertheless of
perfectopacity." It was a
certainly very thickfilm and more
"massive"thanis ordinarily secured. Anotherfilm,whichhe
describesas opaqueto lightof moderate intensityonly(silver
foil) gave Nobili's ringsto the fourthbrightring,corre-
spondingto a silverthickness of 1,102tenth-meters; the Sun
couldbe seenthroughthisfilm,coloreda veryrichblue. A
filmofa greaterdegreeoftransparence
stillthinner showedthe
iodideringsto thesecondbrightring,corresponding to a thick-
nessforthesilverfilmof 367 tenth-meters.
For theuse ofthismethod, thefollowing -
table'willsuffice:

THICKNESS OF THE ORIGINAL SILVER FILM AS DETERMINED

FROM NOBILI^ RINGS IN SILVER IODIDE.
To firstdark ring 180 tenth-meters
" secondbrightring " "
370
" third " "
740
" fourth " " " "
1,100
" fifth " "
1,470
" sixth " " " "
1,840
" seventh " "
2,200
" " "
eighth 2,570
" ninth " " " "
2,940
" tenth " "
3,300
•For the symmetricalproduction of these rings (known as Nobili's rings) it is
well to avoid the effectof air drafts by placing a funnel or beaker, which should
not fittoo closely to the surface, over the crystal of iodine.
28 Publications of the
The color of the silvertransformedto silveriodidemay
insteadbe determined light. If e is thethickness
by reflected
of the air filmwhichwouldshowthe same Newtoniancolor
as thatgivenbythesilveriodidefilm,thenfrom
The atomicweightof silver = 107.9 = Ag
The atomicweightof silveriodide = 234.9 = IAg
The specificgravityof silver = 10.55= d
The specificgravityof silveriodide =1 5.6 = d'
The refractiveindex of silveriodide = 2.15= n
thethickness
ofthesilverfilmfromwhichthesilveriodidewas
formedis-
D = -^£-- - - i =0.114 e
IAg d n
Thencêwe havethefollowing table,adaptedfromDrude's
tablein Wied.Ann.,50,607,1893; thecolorsare Quincke's:-

TABLE FOR DETERMINING THICKNESS OF SILVER FILMS.

Thickness oí
original silver film Colors of silver iodide filmin perpendicularly
in tenth-meters. reflectedwhite light.
o Black
38 Iron gray
56 Lavendergray
94 Bluishgray
112 Clear gray
146 Greenishwhite I
^ Or<fer
107 Straw color
186 Brightyellow
223 Sorrel
261 Reddishorange
279 Warm red
298 Deeper red
317 Purple
336 Indigo
373 Sky blue
410 Greenishblue
429 Green
467 Clearergreen L Second Order
484 Yellowishgreen
503 Greenishyellow
521 Pure yellow
540 Orange
577 Reddishorange
615 Dark violetred
 AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific. 29
TABLE FOR DETERMINING THICKNESS OF SILVER FILMS (Continued).
Thicknessof
originalsilverfilm Colorsof silveriodidefilmin perpendicularly
in tenth-meters. whitelight
reflected
652 Clear bluish violet
671 Indigo
708 Blue (greenish)
746 Sea green
'783 Brilliant green T, . , A ,
r • 1 11 Vlhird Order
821 Greenish yellow
840 Flesh color
877 Carmine red
914 Dull purple
933 Violet gray

952 Grayish blue

971 Dull sea-green
989 Bluish green
1026 Fine pure green ►Fourth Order
hoi Clear gray-green
1139 Gray, almost white
1157 Flesh red

A istillmore accurate methodof determiningthe thickness

of the silverfilmwas employedby Drude in the paper quoted,
but requiressome subsidiaryapparatusand would be verydiffi-
cult of applicationto a surfacenot plane. The filmis trans-
formedinto iodide by Fizeau's methodand a narrowstripof
the iodide is then scratchedoff. A plane glass plate is then
placed over the filmso as to make a very thin prism of air
whose refractingedge is perpendicularto the directionof the
strip. The interference fringesthusproducedby homogeneous
light show a shiftwhere they pass over the strip freed from
iodide,and fromthemagnitudeof thisshiftthethicknessof the
originalsilverfilmcan be veryaccuratelydetermined.
CoNROY,with a film845 tenth-meters thick,states: "The
filmappeared opaque by ordinarydaylight,but when examined
with sunlightwas seen to be slightlytransparentand of a
deep blue color." Double silveringgave a film 1737 tenth-
metersthick. "This filmwas not absolutelyopaque as the disk
of the Sun on a clear day could be just seen throughit, but it
transmitted much less lightthan the filmpreviouslyused."
The amount of light reflectedfrom silver filmshas been
determinedby a numberof investigators, thoughthereis some
3O Publications of the
differencein the resultssecured. As is well known,silver is
more or less transparentto the ultra-violetrays, as may be
illustratedby the followingdata as to the percentageof light
reflectedat perpendicularincidence,taken fromLandolt und
Börnstein's Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen:-
Wavelengths. Per centreflected.
^3050 91
3160 4.2
3260 I4.6
3380 555
3570 745
3850 81.4
4200 86.6
4500 90.5
5000 91.3
6000 92.6
7000 94.6
8000 96.3

Langley foundthe followingvalues:-

Wave lengths. Per cent reflected.
* 35OO 6l
38OO 73
4OOO 79
45OO 85
5OOO 89
55OO 91
6OOO 93
Much naturallydepends upon the freshnessand condition
of the film. Schlesinger states that a good coat will reflect
about 85 per cent of the incidentlightat A4860, and about 70
per cent at A3934.
The amountof reflectivity as dependingupon the thickness
of thefilmhas neverbeenadequatelyinvestigated, thoughmuch
work has been done on the otheroptical constantsof silverin
filmsof differentthickness.
Sir J. CoNROYhas made some relatedinvestigationson this
point.*He used Martin's processfordepositingthefilms."The
room in which the silveringwas carried on being very cold,
the action was slow, and till at least fiveminuteshad elapsed
there was hardly any deposit; the slips were removed suc-
cessivelyafter 8, 11, 14, and 18 minutes,well washed with
• Proceedings
RoyalSociety,31, 486, 1881.
 AstronomicalSociety of the Pacific. 31
waterand placedon edge to dry." By weighingthe glasses
werecalculatedas
withand withoutthefilmsthethicknesses
:-
follows
Film I, removedafter8 minutes,thickness404 tenth-meters
" " "11 " " "
II, 685
" " " " " " "
III, 14 772
" " " 18 " " "
IV, 900

His resultsindicated thattheopticalconstants of a polished

silverplatedependedto a certainextentupon the substance
withwhichithadbeenpolished, andthatthissurfacecondition
was a fairlypermanent one, not beingdestroyed by contact
withliquidsorbya considerable amountofrubbing witha clean
chamoisleather. He foundin particular thata filmpolished
withrougehad a slightly reddishtinge;usingputtypowder
instead,theprincipal azimuthsof thereflected rayswerecon-
siderablyhigherand differed but littlefor red,yellow,and
blue light,whereaswhenpolishedwithrougetheseincreased
withthe refrangibility of the light. He foundalso thatthe
principalincidence and principalazimuthbothincreasedwith
thethickness ofthefilm, andthattherefore it seemedthatmore
thanone layerof molecules was concerned in theact of reflec-
tion. This wouldindicatethatlightpolarizedperpendicularly
to theplaneof incidence penetrates to a greaterdepthin the
filmthanthatpolarizedin theplaneof incidence.
The observations of Wiener and Drude showalso thatfor
thinfilmsthe opticalconstants are verydifferent fromthose
of "massive"silver,forthe refractive indexof silverin very
thinfilms(0.02A= 120± tenth-meters) is greaterthanunity,
whileit is lessthanunityfor"massive"films, i. e. thosenearly
or entirely opaque (0.1 A= 600 tenth-meters).
As is wellknown, silverappearsundera number ofallotropie
forms,threeof whichhave long been recognized, - namely,
crystalline silver(tree-formed crystals),"mirror"silver,and
or
granular powdered silver. In additionto thesethereare a
numberof otherinteresting allotropiemodifications produced
by specialmethods, - silver possessingthe yellowcolor and
lusterof gold, anotherlike copper,and othersbrownand
green. Theseallotropie modifications possessthecuriousprop-
erty that the powdered moist mass maybe spreadupona sur-
32 Publications of the
facewitha brushand whendrytheypossessthecharacteristic
metallicreflecting powerand are apparently as coherentand
unbroken as a filmdepositedin theordinary way. All these
formsare somewhat unstable, and thegold-colored silverand
the copper-colored varietysoon changeintoordinarymirror
silverundertheactionoflightor ofa moderate degreeof heat.
I havehad testfilmson beakerswhichwereso goldenin ap-
pearancethatit seemscertainthata portion of thecoatat least
was thegold-colored allotropievariety. Considerable workhas
beendoneon theseallotropie forms.*
Oberbeckfoundthattheelectricalresistance of chemically
deposited silver filmsdecreased greatly with time. Thischange
was quiterapidforthefirstfewdays,becomingslowerlater,
and was stilldecreasing slowlyafter641 days,whentheelec-
tricalresistance averagedonlyabout15 per centof thatof a
freshlydeposited film.He usedBöttger'smethod, and it was
hisopinionthata considerable portion of the freshly deposited
filmwas an allotropie modification of ordinary "mirror" silver.
LÜDTKEcorroborated theseresultsformirrors silveredby the
sameprocess,and also formirrors silveredby Drayton'sand
Petitjean's methods.MirrorssilveredbyLiebig'sand Mar-
tin's processes,however,showedno suchdecreasein resist-
ance withthetime. All theseinvestigators statethattheout-
wardappearanceof themirrorsremainedthesame,but it is
unfortunate thatnoneof themappearto havecarriedon tests
of reflectivityat thesametimewiththeelectrical tests. The
decrease was quickenedby the directaction of sunlight,
just as in the experiments made withallotropieformsthe
to
change ordinary mirror silverwas similarly hastened.The
suggestion has been made that the bleachseen on a mirror left
toolonginthesilvering solutionis thegranularpowderedform
of silver.
*Vogel, Pogg Ann., 117, 316, 1862; Oberbeck,Wied. Ann.,
46, 265, 47, 353,
1892; LÜDTKE,Ueber die Eigenschaften verschiedenerSilbermodificationen,Inaug-
uraldissertation,
Greifswald,1893,and Wied. Ann., 50, 678, 1893; Carey Lea,
Amer.Jour,of Science,37, 476, 38, 47, 237, 1889,Phil. Mag., 31, 238, 321, 497,
32, 337, 1891.