DISSERTATION

FINAL RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND LITERATURE

REVIEW
NISHANA NASRIN

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TITLE

ORNAMENTATION IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE, ITS EVOLUTION AND TRANSFORMATION IN KERALA

INTRODUCTION

Islamic architecture combines a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of
Islam to the present day .Today’s Islamic architecture is the result of its influences from Roman,
Byzantine and Persian lands which was conquered during the 7th and 8th centuries by Muslims. Apart
from this it also had influences from Chinese and Indian architecture with the spread of Islam to
Southeast Asia. From the principal Islamic architecture like mosques the buildings of less importance
such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture was derived.

Throughout the history one important characteristic identity of the Islamic architecture was its
ornamentation which is used in mosques and other Islamic buildings. Islamic architecture is one of the
most important element that contributes to Islamic art. The study about Islamic architecture was mainly
focused on its formation from pre-existing traditional elements and how these various elements where
brought into a unique synthesis. Islam does not prescribe any particular form of art but it does restrict
certain fields of expression. The ideologies of Islam depend on certain principles that are fixed and could
not be changed from time to time. That is the intellectual vision inherited in Islamic art. The
ornamentation in Islamic architecture repeats the same forms which makes it a traditional heritage art.

Islamic architecture makes use of specific ornamental forms, including mathematically complicated ,
elaborate geometric and interlace patterns , floral motifs like the arabesque and elaborate calligraphic
inscriptions ,which serve to decorate the building ,specify the intention of the building by the selection of
textual program of the inscriptions .The geometric or floral ,interlaced forms ,taken together, constitute
an infinitely repeated patterns that extends beyond the visible world. The ornamentation in Islam was
influenced by its concept of infinite proves of the existence of one eternal God. And because of this non-
figural ornaments are used in mosque and buildings around the Muslim world. Hence they are decorated
using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic art instead of using pictures of human and animals.
This makes it different from other styles.
Over the years, it is interesting to see how the ornamentation in Islamic architecture has shaped across
different countries. Islamic architecture is also widely influenced by these western styles and
contemporary architecture. It is also notable how the highly ornamented style of architecture has
changed over the period of time and how contemporary mosques with minimal ornamentation and clean
edges have been evolved in the present day.
This research analyses the ornamentation in Islamic architecture in Kerala to understand its influences
from various examples. Another important question to be answered in this research is regarding certain
concepts of Islamic architecture influenced by Ideologies of Islam regarding the heavy ornamentation.
Though Islamic architecture is highly ornamented which began with construction of mosques and palaces
by kings there remains a question whether Islam truly promote such ornamentation and luxury in its
religious principles and scholars .This can also help to understand the changing Islamic architecture from
highly ornamented traditional styles to the minimal contemporary styles of architecture.
ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN KERALA
Evolution
Even before or during the time of Prophet Muhammad, Kerala had direct trade relations with Arabian
peninsula which is known as the Cradle of Islam. According to the legends Islam began in Kerala with
Chera King who embraced Islam and made a voyage to Mecca. Though he died on his return trip to Kerala
he had given letters to some of the Islamic religious leaders who accompanied him to proceed to
Kodungalloor. This letter was handed over to the ruling king who agreed on establishing Islam in the land
and extended all the help they required for the same. And thus it is believed that the First mosque in
Kerala was built at Kodungallor in Kerala.
But Islam spread in Kerala with the new groups from Arabian peninsula who migrated to Kerala and the
natives gradually converted to Islam accommodating the Indian cultural ethos and social set up of Kerala.
Then by the 12TH century AD, there were atleast ten major settlements of Muslims distributed from
Kollam in the south to Manglore in the North each centred on Mosque. With the spread of Islam and the
primacy in trade and the experience of the sea, Muslims Became prominent In Kerala. Consequently by
fifteenth century Islamic constructions in Kerala reached considerable heights.

Kerala Islamic architecture is influenced by the Kerala temple architecture since before the influence of
Islamic architecture temples where the only examples of religious construction available and the
craftsmen of the temples of Kerala held the construction of mosques in Kerala. But initially mosque
Architecture of Kerala did not exhibit any of the features of Arabic style or indo-Islamic architecture of the
imperial and provincial school in North India .Hence the intricate ornamentation of Islamic architecture
cannot be seen in the traditional Islamic architecture of south India .During the period of occupation
Hyder Ali and Tipu sultan Arabic style of architecture was introduced to the Malabar area in the
Eighteenth century and a large number of temples where converted to mosques and that is the reason
why these structures reflected traditional Kerala style.
Mosque planning in Kerala had a large prayer hall with the Mihrab on the western wall and covered
verandha on all sides. It also had a tall basement or adisthana similar to the temples and the pillars are
similar to those seen in mandapas. The walls are made of laterites generally. Wood was another material
which was used in roof and ceiling. Some have fenials in the ridges like the temple shikhara. The
traditional techniques of construction and the Arabic tradition of simplicity in planning was combined to
give rise to a unique style of mosque architecture in Kerala not found anywhere else in the world.
The intricate ornamentation of Islamic architecture cannot be seen in the traditional Islamic architecture
of south India. Wood was one of the main materials used in its construction. Hence, the major
ornamentation works seen are the wood carvings. Example, pulpits of the mosques. For example, the
Jama Masjid at beypore and Mishkal mosque at Kozhikode has the pulpit build by the ship masters of
Arabic vessels.

The first influences of Arabic style of Kerala construction in seen in subtle manner in secular architecture
of Muslims. Apart from the intricate wooden and stone carvings, flower motifs with different petals of
varied size are also engraved on the mosques. Inscription of Quranic verses can also be seen on them.

In the present day the Islamic architecture is quite different from the traditional styles. The reason for
this is the influences from the Arabic styles, availability of materials, construction techniques etc. With
contemporary styles influencing architecture all over it had its influences on the Islamic architecture as
well. In Kerala new mosques tend to follow certain contemporary styles with less intricate ornamentation
or other decoration. Different styles of minarets and domes with more angles and clean edges are seen.
The change in the ornamentation elements in Kerala can be analysed by studying the different mosques
and other buildings throughout from the beginning of Islamic Architecture. From this we expect to
understand the different ornamentation techniques, patterns and materials used in Kerala and
understanding its transformation.

Mihrab, minbar, Pulpit, domes minarets, etc are some of the most highly decorated areas in mosques.This
research is done focusing on the ornamentation of Mihrab in Mosques. mihrab, being the western wall
indicating the direction of Qibla/makkah is one most important feature of the mosque architecture.
It is usually with a niche in the wall in the shape of arch. Both the niche and the wall is highly ornamented
with inscriptions, calligraphy, floral motifs, or gold plated decoration. Some of it also has Jali patterns
incorporated. But the early kerala mosque architecture focused more on the ornamentation like wooden
carvings and the mihrab was not much ornamented as we see now. Focussing on the ornamentation
pattern in mihrab along with other areas we can understand the gradual change in the ornamentation
trend in mosque architecture of Kerala.

AIM
The aim of this research is to analyse the Islamic traditional ornamentation in Kerala focusing on mosque
architecture and principles of Islamic Ideology and assess the transformation of ornamentation on the
mihrab of mosques.

OBJECTIVES

1. To examine the rich historical and cultural traditions from which the art of Islamic
ornamentation has emerged.
2. Study about the elements and functions in ornamentation of mosques and its effects
3. Analyse the transformation of ornamentation in Islamic architecture of Kerala and find out the
similar and dissimilar elements of ornamentation in traditional Kerala Islamic architecture and
Arabic styles.
4. To understand the elements, materials and concepts used in the ornamentation of traditional
Islamic architecture different places and Kerala in detail.
5. To assess the transformation of the change in ornamentation of mihrab in Kerala mosque
architecture.
6. Review and compare the transformation of ornamentation in traditional Islamic architecture and
modern Islamic architecture in Kerala.

SCOPE

1. The detailed study of ornamentation in Islamic architecture and its evolution and transformation in
Kerala will help us to establish an understanding of the necessity to preserve them.

2. It will open to wide range of studies regarding the philosophies of Islamic architecture.

3. Creating new elements and patterns in ornamentation using new techniques and materials combining
both traditional Kerala styles and into Islamic styles from the studies carried out.

LIMITATIONS

1. The ornamentation elements in Kerala are limited compared to the vast intricate styles across the
Arabian Peninsula.

2. The ornamentation in Islamic architecture is broad topic that needs to be broken down to analyse its
importance in different context.

. METHODOLOGY

 Understanding the philosophies and elements in Islamic architecture and ornamentation

generally across different regions.
 Analysing the evolution and transformation of ornamentation in Islamic architecture in Kerala
 Listing out the different mosques and palaces in Islamic architecture styles according to their
timeline to understand how it is evolved in its ornamentation and techniques.
 Literature studies and data collection of various elements in relation to the studies of
ornamentation
 Studying the ornamentation of mosques in Kerala by focussing on mihrab and understanding its
transformation.

 Compilation of different Architectural data obtained from different studies.

RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY

Architecture keeps on changing with the changing views, concepts and requirements of the users and the
Architects. But it is important to understand the advantages and disadvantages of such changes. The vast
architecture of the past forms our rich heritage. Conserving them and passing on the elements of such
architectural heritage keeps together the architecture of different eras. Islamic architecture has evolved
through many phases. Though there are changes in the architectural elements in it across different
regions the basic ideologies of it remains the same. Kerala Islamic architecture is part of the rich heritage
of Kerala architecture. Its ornamentation elements are influenced by its climate, availability of materials
and the culture of Muslims here. But it still follows the ideologies that are common in Islam around every
country. The relevance of this study can only be understood by understanding early history and evolution
of the Kerala Islamic architecture. Then by analysing the ornamentation in contemporary Islamic
architecture will help us to understand the need for preserving intricate ornamental details that reflect
the craftsmanship of our ancestors. Kerala has a unique style of architecture be it the temples, mosques or
churches.

Though Kerala had trade relation with the Arabian Peninsula during the spread of Islam in Kerala, the
initial Islamic architecture of Kerala was not influenced by Arabic or indo Islamic styles as seen in other
parts of the country. The typical mosque styles with minarets or domes were absent in any kind of Islamic
architecture. But however the ornamentation was similar though it was different in the medium used. Our
decorations were the carvings detailed out in wood, calligraphic inscriptions etc.

Though Islamic architecture of Kerala in general has been studied many times, the ornamentation
elements are mostly left out or not focussed in detail though it is the defining character of Islamic
architecture. Ornamentation in Islamic architecture is known as the Arabic details, floral embellishments,
inscriptions etc. But beautiful vernacular styles of many places are left out even in those places .People
are more interested in incorporating Persian or Arabic styles in new mosque, residences or Islamic
centres. This is also because of the people of Kerala who live in these GCC countries attempting to
recreate them. Sometimes to show their wealth or luxury. This study might help to create more
importance to our traditional styles and elements of ornamentation .Also protect them. Ornamentation is
that element of Islamic architecture which is generally recreated or replicated in other buildings to show
their religion, culture or wealth than the planning features of Islamic Architecture.

Nowadays many traditional mosques are reconstructed or replaced. They are constructed in RCC, brick
glass etc. They do not have any traditional resemblance. There is also no attempt to create an alternative
modern static expression. But these contemporary styles uses disproportionate elements painted in
garnish colours like marriage halls or shopping complexes. Some of them do not have any features of
Islamic architectural ornamentation. The only feature common would be the minarets and arches which
neither belong to local tradition nor are expression of the possibilities of new construction. The
indigenous architecture is getting formatted in the same loud manner which is contrast to the scale and
structure of traditional low key character.

Our traditional Islamic architecture was more influenced by the Buddhist which is unknown to present
generation. This study would also help us to reveal more about the ancient Buddhist-Islamic architectural
legacy. This is because they were mostly Buddhist before the spread of Islam in 7 th century and they still
are known as Baudhars in some regions. The wooden artwork and ornamentation was influenced by the
Buddhist architecture. For example, in the Vallyath Juma pally the notable apsidal façade facing the east is
which is influenced by Buddhist architecture is now masked by recent concrete and metal constructions.
Such concrete mockeries and shallow imitations must be removed and the ancient Kerala Buddhist style
must be exposed to posterity.

The guidelines to such restoration can be proposed on the basis of the conclusion derived from this
research. There is lot other hidden information regarding Islamic ornamentation and other styles which
influenced them. In present era where all such works are neglected the study will help to instill a kind of
awareness and responsibility in people to preserving such works.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

ORNAMENTATION OF MOSQUES

We know that mosque is a place where Muslim people can perform prayer and other activities of prayer
like learning Quran or conducting religious talks. Prayer hall is the most important space in Mosque
known as the sacred spaces. Ornamentation of mosques is still a topic that is disputed between many
scholars. Some consider the high decoration in mosque as a symbol of luxury and wastefulness while
some considered these ornamentations where to enlighten the spaces in Mosque. The ornamentation
should be considered as a part of mosque components and not as mere decorations done afterthought
and filling in the gaps.

Before analysing the ornamentation in Kerala mosques it is therefore important to know about the
elements in ornamentation, Its functions and its effect on the people.

The ornamentation or decorations will enhance the special attributes of an architectural composition
which is known to all. But the early constructions of mosques was very simple and focused on the
functions of serving the Muslims at that time as a space to perform their prayers. During The time of
Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) the ornamentations where not encouraged rather it was made to keep
simple. The first Mosque was built by Prophet in Madina. It consisted of an enclosure made with a wall
made of mud bricks and orchard on Qiblah side(Mihrab) made of palm trunks used as colums to support
the roof of palm leaves. No ornamentation was done within or outside it. However when more Mosque
where built the decorations in mosques where concentrated in the prayer hall especially on the Mihrab
wall. Hence the Mihrab wall is most important element that was ornamented across the mosques in any
country.

ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENTATION IN ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

The elements of ornamentation found in mosques are Geometric, arabesque pattern and calligraphy.
Structural elements such as arches and columns are transformed on one plane as motifs for surface
decorations. Some of the basic types of mosques and palaces destined to recur repeatedly in later
generations, which established the importance of applied ornament-geometric, floral and epigraphic in
Islamic Art and finally showed that a distinct new style could be welded together from the most disparate
elements.

Geometric patterns, calligraphy and botanical images, three types of Islamic art that adorns
mosques,palaces,and private homes dating from the 18th century. All of thses have one thing in
common .they are not figurative.Islam discards allm of their dieties and devoids the depiction of realistic
humans and animals.That’s why craftsmen used geometric patterns as a part of decoration.Inspired by
the art of ancient greeks,romans and irans,craftsmen in the Islamic world took thses classical tradition
and created an alternative form of decoration using only a compass to draw circles and a ruler to make
lines.patterns especially found in patterns of worshipare used as amedium to glorify god .They are
characterised by symmetry,and their freedom in repetition and complexity.They offer the possibility of
infinite expansion Not only are they pleasing to the eye.but the delicate motifs and vibrant colours also
draw you into a harmonious infinity and to inspire contemplation and unity.Master pieces of these
artforms stretch from spain to Uzbekistan.A variety of patterns interlaced to form intricate combinations
of triangles,squares,hexogons and stars.These repeat in interlocking designs can extend endlessly.This
feature was also the ispiration behind much of Mc eschers work.The dutch artist came into a turning
point in his life after his visitto the ahandra palace in spain.He was captivated by the wall patterns of the
spain’s Alhambra palace.
GEOMETRIC

The geometric art in Islamic architecture grew during the 7 th and 8th centuries and became the standard
feature of Islamic ornament in the 9th century. It includes simple polygons and rectangles used as framing
devices and highly complex interlaces of stars and irregular polygons, geometry functions as an
organising principles on the surface of a whole range of media. Apart from two dimentional decorative
patterns there are also inscriptions and vegetal designs organised according to the rules of regular
geometry. The fascination of Islamic artists with the visual principles like repetition, symmetry and
continuous generation of patterns can be seen in the mosque ornamentations. They are interpreted as
oneness of god and his presence everywhere. This is ‘multiplicity in unity’ and ‘unity in multiplicity’.

Geometry in Mughal Architecture

Mughal buildings reflect the use of geometric patterns inspired from Islamic architecture. For example
Sher Shah Mausoleum. It is decorated with paintings and tiles of floral motifs.They have patterns of 6
point and 8 point geometry on marble flooring, window grills and balcony railings as found in mausoleum
of Humayun in delhi.10 point geometric patterns were used frequently in the 16 th century throughout
Mughal Architecture. Geometric elements became an important decorative feature in Mughal
architecture. Vegetative motifs and filler decoratives were also used subsidiarly. Though Mughal
architects avoided complex geometric patterns of 12 – 16 point patterns they put great effort in
perfecting their shapes and proportions. Mughal architects used geometric ornamentation in floor
finishing designs and carved window railings even more than any other Islamic architectural styles.

: Humayun Tomb in Delhi; Red Fort in Agra; Friday Mosque of Fatehpur-Sikri; Etimad-ud-Daulah tomb;
Lahore Fort in Pakistan.

DECORATIONS AS SYMBOLS
Islamic decorations have deep symbolic meanings behind them. The complex geometric patterns create
the impression of unending patterns showing the infinite nature of Allah. The use of circle is very
common in Islamic ornamentation because it is an infinite shape with no end or beginning so they remind
that god is infinite. Similarly the centre of the circle depicts the oneness of god. It also represents notions
of totality , original perfection, the self ,the infinite, the eternity, the timelessness all in one cyclic
movement. Octagon symbolises heaven according to the Quran and some ancient beliefs.it is found in
Islamic buildings, elements and patterns. The Star symbolises the spread of Islam. Star is chosen as one of
the most common or important motif for Islamic decoration because this regular geometric shape
symbolised radiation in all direction from a central point. The star shape is originated from circle by
dividing the circle into equal parts. Thus the centre of the circle is the centre of the stars which represent
the centre of Islam.

ARABESQUE

A continuous stem splits regularly and produce a series of counterpoised, leafy secondary stems which
can again split into or reintegrate into the main stem creating arabesque pattern. The arabesque design is
balanced and free from tension because of its limitlessness and reciprocal repetition of curved lines. Like
geometric ornament arabesque elements also serve as a framing and filler device in Islamic art. The
infinite pattern of arabesque is contributed by the growth of leaves, flowers or other motifs from one
another rather from a single stem.

CALLIGRAPHY

The most common ornamentation found in mosques during the early periods where the verses from
Quran written on the interiors. They were written in beautiful styles. Calligraphy is a message conveying
a precise meaning and it is decorative. Apart from verses from the holy Quran quotes from hadith and
other pious phrases are also found inscribed on specific locations. The styles of Arabic scripts like
thuluth, naskh, muhaqqaq, raihan etc where used to match the beauty of Quranic calligraphy. Khufic
styles are those with square and highly stylized letter shapes which were employed in early Quran and
coins. The word god is made visible through religious inscriptions. They not only act as powerful visual
sign with specific religious message but also act as an object upon which they are inscribed. It also act as
focus point and meditation for the people. Though they are decorative or ornamental they are readable.
But in some places its position becomes difficult for the people as sometimes it is too high or too far,
interwined or even convulated.

Now for architects it is important to understand the functions of these ornamentations in mosques.

FUNCTIONS OF ORNAMENTATION IN MOSQUES.

TAWHID

Tawhid means a feeling of remembrance of God. One of the primary functions of ornamentation in such
religious places is to accentuate this feeling or tawhid. Ornamentation is a way of expressing Islamic
message. This helps in making mosques to function as a manmade visible sign of God’s will and goodness.
That is the reason why Muslim builders apply heavy calligraphic inscriptions or other pious elements. The
ornamentation in Islam embraces both aesthetic and utilitarian ends like other artistic expressions in
Islam. Its contents and forms are always infused with the Islamic message of Tawhid to generate intuition
of the real essence of transcendent. These ornamentation creates a feeling of existence of ALLAH the
Almighty. There would be no Islamic art which do not reflect these two functions. Islamic art and Islamic
spirituality is always related because they mould the mind and soul of the Muslims including the artists or
artisants. Islamic art opens way to the Islamic traditions. These ornamentation creates an ambience
where God is remembered whenever one enters.

STRUCTURAL

The ornamentations help to create non-tectonic values ,and to dissolve all other elements which
emphasize the structure in other architectural traditions. It helps to create a balance and counter balance
of loads and stress by which the effect of weightlessness ,unlimited space or non-sustainability of walls
and pillars are a created. One important thing about the ornamentation in Islamic architecture is that it is
created not just as beautification elements but as an adjunct of structure, a constitutive element. It sews
the architecture and religion creating a serene ,intelligible, structured and highly spiritual of Islamic art
and architecture.

AESTHETIC

This helps to attract people to the mosque and gives them a welcoming ambience. People enjoy the
majestic physical look of buildings. The geometric elements has the ability to communicate with people in
an intellectual manner. For example geometric patterns like mandalas can have strong emotional and
symbolic significance and they can also help people to concentrate on their faith and prayer with a great
focus. Like we know the calligraphy being aesthetic also tells tales, which is to be understood and
remembered.

The aesthetic values of Islamic ornamentation

-The Islamic ornamentation is inspired by nature but it do not depict the nature as it is in detail but the
abstracts the live scenes from nature as geometric lines.

-Since there is no concern in imitating the nature in detail, the Muslim artists created new forms that have
no equivalent in nature also.

-Since Islam prohibits the extravangant ornamentation and luxury the Muslim artists created the new
ways to change even the cheapest materials available to beautiful decorations.

-The Muslim artist has used reliefs and embodiments as a way to grab the attention of the people from the
building material to the beautiful ornamentation to create a lightness of space and mass.

Though the Ornamentation has many intricate geometric pattern and other elements there is a smooth
transition from one element to another. This creates a unity in the detailed ornamentations.

TRANSFORM

Another important function of ornamentation is to transform spaces. It helps to create a transition from
one plane to another and also transform a decorative element as a contour of a form.

EFFECTS OF ORNAMENTATION

As we know the functions and elements of the ornamentation in Mosques , it is also important to
understand its effects. They can be positive as well as negative. Positive effects as we know is that its
creates a feeling of remembrance of God but however the extravagant decoration in mosques can be
wasteful, wealth misappropriation, haughtiness and flashiness which is not recommended in Islam. Such
things should be avoided keeping the ornamentation moderate and not to flashy.

MIHRAB AND ITS ORNAMENTATION

Mihrab is the wall that marks the direction of Qiblah or prayer in Mosque. It is the western wall for the
prayer hall in Kerala. It usually has a concave niche that magnifies and also bounces the sound back. This
arch shaped niche thus makes the wall attractive also act as an acoustic device and a focal point for
submission in prayer.

Mihrabs have great history in Islam. It is said that during early years it was found in palaces to mark the
position of the ruling party. But it became part of the mosques as a symbol of locating the position where
the prophet would lead the prayer. Though Initial mihrabs where simple, later on intricate and dynamic
designs where added on to the mihrab wall. Geometric patterns, arabesque and calligraphy are also used
in ornamenting the mihrab. The concave niche in mihrab sometimes were decorated with glazed tiles as
seen in the 14th century. The mihrabs also contain lamp motifs which represent the the mosque’s lamp
associated with prayer and has the light of god. The calligraphy on mihrab includes quranic verses or
hadiths.
Mihrab ornamentation in different mosques across the world

DECORATING THE MIHRAB WALL

The decoration on mihrab (carved inside or immediately next to it) wall are usually recommended in
Islam to be above the eye level as one looks down in prayer as it should not interfere with people’s
concentration in prayers. But however this is not widespread custom.one should fix their sight on the
prostration in prayers ,so in most mosques decoration on the lower portion of the mihrab is non-existent
or greatly minimized so that its potentially negative impact during prayer is thwarted. The upper section
of the mihrab or Qibla wall can have high decoration with rich Islamic artistic vocabulary. Mihrab area
gets the more attention than other areas of a Mosque. In its decoration it is noted that intricate geometric
patterns and highly stylized and denaturalised floral elements dominate the aesthetic expressions than
the instructive elements in the form of letter , pictures or symbols. This is because the latter can disturb
the concentration since it is informative and sometimes instructive. However such ornamentation in
other parts can help in experiencing the success of worshipping act.

Thus we can say that geometric or arabesque elements of ornamentation are generally preferred in the
mihrab Area because it needs more than one normal gaze to experience it, thus not interfering with the
concentration in prayer also it radiate some kind of universal principles which is the core of each and
every religious act while the instructive and denaturalized elements like letters or pictures or symbols
because the values they tend to emanate are revealing and rather explicit. But however it is said that
people stay oblivious to the presence of decorations and its significant role. Some say that they neither
benefit from it nor does anyone’s focus in prayer seem vulnerable by it. People should always delve into
the positives of decoration and benefit from it.

So as to conclude about the ornamentation in Mosque ,Islam is a rational and natural religion, it neither
opposes artistic creativity nor the enjoyment of the beauty. This applies to all the facades of existence,
whether it is religious or mundane. Moderate, judicious and meaningful mosque decoration is not directly
forbidden or authorized. Excessive and meaningless embellishment elements and styles that promote
extravagance, conceit, haughtiness rivalry, wastage of people money and time are not encouraged.

Why human figures are restricted or prohibited in Islamic Ornamentation across the world?

Before Islam, people used to worship the idols and they had a strong belief in them. This was seen in their
customs and traditions as well. They also used to worship human figures. But After the spread of Islam
and the Holy Quran this was stopped because the quranic verses pointed out how it was not allowed in
the religion to worship idols. It is said that the Prophet destroyed the idols in Mecca and ordered to
destroy them wherever it is seen.
It is also said in Hadiths that Allah said angels will not enter those spaces which have images or idols of
animals and humans. This is because of the faith that believe in ‘oneness of god’. But again this topic is
debated on for some people who put forward evidences from quran and try to prove that the use of
human or animal figures is not prohibited. However Islamic figurative arts exists in secular places only
and not in religious buildings.

Techniques used in ornamentation of Islamic Architecture.

Stone work

The stone carving ornamentation is mainly seen in places where stone is the most easily available
material. The Islamic monuments of Roman and Byzantine tradition commonly uses dressed and carved
stone. The carvings include geometric patterns, arabesque motifs and calligraphies. This intricate
carvings created a contrast to the vast undecorated areas. The Indian subcontinent is said to have
developed a separate tradition for stone carving derived from pre Islamic sources. In Indian the Turkish
rulers have introduced new architectural decorative concept by combining both Islamic and Hindu
traditions. Example, beautiful marble stone decorations in Taj Mahal.

Brick work

Though brick work ornamentation is not much prominent in India, It has is the most common decorative
works seen during the spread of Islam and mosque constructions in many Arab countries. The brick
bonds itself created relief patterns of light and shade to great effect. Carved ornamental inserts where
introduced in order to break the monotonous brick bonding.

Ceramic tiles and Ceramic mosaic.

These coloured decoration where most common in Middle east countries. Colour glazed ceramic tiles that
transmitted light through them created a whole new perception of the space. Ceramic tiles are now
common in every Muslim country. New techniques are developed to join the cut piece ceramic tiles,
bonded with plaster and form multi-coloured mosaic panels

Stucco or Plaster works

Plaster is a material which was readily available during the early periods in most Mediterranean
countries. Plaster can be moulded into variety shapes and can be carved out to intricate details. It could
also be painted or gilded. Hence it was used for geometric decorations and arabesque patterns. It is one of
the best material in transforming surfaces.

Wood works

Wood is comparatively available in plenty in many parts of Islamic world hence it was a common material
used in ornamentation.it is also much easy to work with. Though traditionally it is used for windows and
doors, the finest works of wood are seen in pulpits. In Kerala wood is the common material used in
construction as well as decoration of Mosques. Other than pulpits wood is used in decoration of mihrab in
many Mosques. Sometimes the whole mihrab wall is covered with wood. The wooden carvings are
concentrated in details of decoration. The intricate carving techniques used in temples where used in
mosque architecture of Kerala.

Influence of different cultures on Islamic Ornamentention

Influence of Mughal Culture in Islamic ornamentation

The ornamentation that developed under Mughal dynasty from one of the most detailed, magnificent and
elegantly developed styles. Islamic ornamentation during Mughal period was greatly influenced by its
rich adornament. Here, the artists try to maintain a variety of decorative styles and local ornamentation.
Marble and mirror mosaic where commonly used in the Mughal style of Islamic ornamentation. Apart
from the traditional method of ornamentation of stones using coloured marbles a new technique of inlay
was developed in which a slab of marbles where embedded with hard and rare stones. This technique
helped artists to create more intricate patterns in decoration.

Tajmahal,Agra

Influence of Safvid culture.

Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque,Iran

Safvid culture developed in Iran and with the spread of Islam The influence of these cultures on
ornamentation spread from Iran to other places. Colour, delicacy and Beauty are the hallmarks of Safvid
culture. Use of coloured mosaics and tiles are extensively seen in both religious and secular buildings.
Arabesque patterns are the most dominant element in Safvid Islamic Ornamentation.

Influence of Ottoman culture.

Suleimaniye mosque ,Turkey

Islamic ornamentation in ottoman era was characterised by Naturalistic character and variation of colour.
Arabic calligraphy was the prominent feature of ottoman era. New ornate styles of Arabic calligraphy was
developed. Like the Nakshi writing. One important feature of ottoman decoration is its play on the
contrast between tectonic qualities and the dissolution of materials between realistic forms with minute
details and abstraction in colouristic effects.

ISLAMIC ORNAMENTATION IN KERALA

The evolution of Islamic architecture in Kerala is already discussed. We know that Early mosques in
Kerala was all timber constructions and they were a lot similar to the temple architecture as it was
constructed by the local Hindu craftsmen with wood available .The first mosque in Kerala ,The cheraman
mosque in Kerala constructed of wood is said to be constructed even before the first mosque in Delhi –
The Qutub Mosque, which was constructed in 12th century. The population of Muslims were high in the
Malabar region of Kerala and many wooden mosques are seen here. The ceilings of these mosques are
decorated with wooden carvings and walls are latticed in order to avoid direct sunlight. The craftsmen of
Kerala were highly skilled. They have made creative and innovative use of wood within severe constraints
laid down by the rules of building science.

The locally available timber like aini, jack and teakwood were generally used in ornamentation as well as
construction of the mosques in Kerala. Timber used as a structural member also acted as a decorative
element in these temples. The timber acts as posts to carry vertical loads and beams to span spaces. The
walls made of wood had rich carvings on them as found in Thazhathangadi Juma Masjid. The heavy uthara
on top of the wall usually had stepped projections and ornamentations. Pierced carvings are made on the
wooden panels of the wall which let in dim light and ventilation to the interiors. Wooden trellis were also
added to let in light and ventilation. The local artisants of these mosques also knew how to make the
structure look light and give an aesthetic appeal. The wooden brackets used to support the eaves of the
roof act as a structural as well as decorative element. In some cases the pillars of the mosques are
ornamented and they have wooden brackets on top. The ceilings and gable roofs are another decorative
feature of the mosques in Kerala. The wooden planks of the roofs are covered with copper tiles and they
add vigour and elegance to the structure. Our traditional craftsmen have tried to satisfy the dual needs of
integrating utility and beauty in these structures.

WOOD CARVING TECHNIQUES

The wood carving basically required understanding of the material and artistic skills. Proper selection of
wood for ornamentation of a particular element, felling and seasoning of wood, knowledge of tools,
techniques and finishing and the proper execution was necessary for getting desired product. Teak was
most common wood used because of its easy availability and workability. The knowledge of wood
carvings are usually acquired from the science of carpentry in Kerala. These techniques have been
inherited and transmitted through traditions. After the wood is cut and sized for the purpose the design is
drawn on to the wood and then its is carved out and polished. The wood carving techniques in Kerala are
classified into relief carving, under cutting, sculpturesque carving, Incised carving and pierced carving.

Relief carvings

This is basically carving pictures in wood. In this process the wood from a flat wood panel is removed in
such a way that the object appears to rise out of the wood. The design put to paper is transferred to the
wooden surface and the wood is removed from the panel around the objects traced on it from the pattern.
Once the enough background is removed and the objects edges have been trimmed to the pattern lines
modelling can be done. Chisel and gauges along with mallet is used as tools in this technique of wood
carving. There are high and low relief carvings. While high relief carving produces the effect of light and
shade, producing bold forms, Low relief carving is done on thin wooden planks and doors.

Under cutting carvings

In this technique you angle the knife and cut behind the elements to hide the joint line where the element
meets the surrounding background elements in the design. In this the solid portions of projections in such
a manner to make them invisible. This makes the carved surface to detach from its background. The tools
used in this technique are knife and gouges. Bench knife is used to cut under the high area and gauges are
used to create a trough effect. Teakwood is usually used for this kind of carvings.

Sculpturesque carving

In this technique three dimensional object is carved out. This makes the object to be detached from the
surface except on one of its side. Brackets, beams and other architectural elements are usually carved
using this technique with concave and convex projections .This carving is done without drawing the
design on the wood surface. Teak wood is again good for these techniques.

Incised Carving

The outline of the required design is carved into the wood surface. The patterns are carved either as v-
shaped cut using a bench knife or a trench using a small Gouge tool. The background of the design usually
remains at the surface level of the original wood. This creates two dimensional effects. Geometric patterns
are usually carved out using this technique.

Pierced Carving

Since ancient times pierced carving technique is used to create attractive designs with less labour. Usually
jail screens on walls windows and doors are created from this technique. These Jalis give light and
ventilation to the mosque interiors. The wood is chiselled out of the design and it is then filed.

A timeline of some of the famous mosques in Kerala is prepared to study the evolution of Islamic
ornamentation in them during various periods.

TIMELINE OF MOSQUES IN KERALA

NAME PLACE YEAR
Cheraman Juma Masjid Kodungallur 629 AD
Jonakappuram Juma
Masjid Kollam 642 AD
Malik Dinar Masjid Kasargod 648 AD
Thazhathangadi Juma 1020
Masjid Kottayam AD
1020
Kuttichira Juma Masjid Kozhikode AD
1020
Edapally Juma Masjid Ernakulam AD
1124
Madayi mosque Kannur AD
Muchundi Mosque Kozhikode 1200s
Ichlangod Mosque Kozhikode 1200s
1200-
Mishkal Mosque Kozhikode 1299
1384
Calvathy Juma Masjid Kochi AD
1418
Valiya palli Juma Masjid Ponnani AD
1420
Jamaath Mosque Malappuram AD
 Kannur City Juma 1420
MasjidKannur Kannur AD
1500
Kunjali Marakkar Mosque Vadakara AD
1510
Ponnani Juma Masjid Ponnani AD
1520
Pazhayangadi Masjid Malappuram AD
Arakkal Mosque Kannur 1617
Valiyangadi Valiya Palli
Shuhada Masjid Malappuram 1700s
1718
Korome Mosque Korome AD
1806
Odathil Palli Thalassery AD
1813
Palayam Juma Masjid Trivandrum AD
1813
Kovalam Juma Masjid Kovalam AD
Thirurangad 1919
Mampuram Mosque i AD
1920
Pullancheri Juma masjid Manjery AD
Central Mahallu Jamaat Muvatupuzh 1927
Masjid a AD
1970
Thampanoor Juma Masjid Trivandrum AD
1972
Kakkulangara Mosque Kannur AD
1979
Nainar Masjid Idukki AD
1986
Oliyankara juma Masjid Kannur AD
2010
Grand Masjid Malappuram AD
Manakad Valiyapalli Juma 2017
Masjid Trivandrum AD
Nattika Muhyuddin Juma 2019
Masjid Thrissur AD

CHERAMAN JUMA MASJID-629AD

Cheraman Juma Masjid is believed to be the first mosque in India. It has a typical tradition Kerala style
structure. Ornamentation on exterior is not given. The mosque was first renovated or reconstructed in
the 1th century and later again 300 years ago. The last renovation was done in 1974. Another extension
was made in 1994.last reconstruction was done in 2001.
Mihrab of cheraman mosque.

The only ornamentation you can see on the mihrab is the arched niche. It has some floral patterns and
inscriptions. A combination of green ,white and golden colour is used to highlight the mihrab. But the
mimbar is highly carved wooden struction. It has detailed arabesque carvings on them. The ceiling is
made of typical wooden beams

THAZHATHANGADY JUMA MASJID-1020AD

Thazhathangadi juma masjid is one of the architectural marvels in Kerala. It is an eight pillar supported
structure which is over 1000 years old. It is located on the banks of Meenachillar river and is believed to
be built by thekkumkoor king for the believers in the area. Wooden decoration and structure is the
highlight of this mosque which is over 6000sq.ft in area. Similar to entrances of palace it has got highly
decorated mukhappu and also a mattupaavu. Initially it is believed to have stone pillars. It has two prayer
halls, puram palli and akam palli. Four of the eight pillars are in puram palli. Three of the walls puram
palli have wooden decorations while the fourth wall is built entirely of wood. Calligraphic Inscriptions are
seen on wall between purampalli and akam palli. The wooden doors of these rooms are also known for
their ornamentation and special features like mukutti saksha(three locks).Another door has highly
decorated manichithra thaazhu.

The upper roof is held by kazhukol ,utharam and beams. The roof has floral motifs with petals of different
sizes which might be inspired by the decorations in the Arab countries. The upper floor or maalikapuram
is a big hall where the eight pillars extend to the top of the roof. The mosque also has pond for ablution
and the stairs extend till the bottom of the pond.
Mihrab of Thazhathangadi Juma Masjid

The Mihrab of Thazhathangaadi Juma Masjid is quite similar to the mihrab of mishkal mosque since it is
quite simple. An arched niche is given and carving on the plaster or stucco work is given on either side.
Though the mihrab wall is simple the pitched roof having detailed wooden works extend to the wall
making it appear to be the part of the mihrab wall. This gives a rich decorative look to the space .Next to
the niche the wooden mimbar is given which has wooden carvings as ornamentation on them.
MISHKAL MOSQUE-1200s

It was with the arrival of nakhuda mithqala Yemeni merchant for trading that this Mishkal mosque was
constructed with the help of the Hindu king then. This mosque reminds how Islam arrived in Kerala
through peaceful embacies. Mishkal was firm in its commitment to Islam. Since 1343 there has been a
qasi in this mosque. The mosque represent simple traditional Kerala style ornamentation. It is painted in
turquoise blue. No dome or minarets. But it has multi tiered gables and tiled roof typical of Kerala
buildings. It has 47 door and 24 carved pillars that display the workmanship of the guilds that
constructed zamorin palaces. Mimbar has exquisite motifs where the message of god is preached though
similar to the carvings in Hindu temples. The front porch of Mishkal palli has heavily carved gable.it has
exquisite timber ceiling, with floral, geometric and calligraphic motifs.

Mihrab of Mishkal Mosque

The Mihrab of mishal mosque is quite simple. It do not have any intricate wooden carvings or decoration.
The mihrab is characterised by an arched niche with floral stucco works on the side. The rest of the
mihrab wall unlike other mosques have 2 doors on either side of the niche.

KOROME MOSQUE-1718AD
Korome mosque is one of the oldest mosques in wayanad. It is located in an area with earliest Muslim
migration.

This mosque is built in traditional style using wood the mosque still maintains its original structure.
There are several steps leading to the inner area of the mosque.It has several pillar made of solid wood.
The roof is covered by artworks. Ancient lamps are hung from the beams. An intricately carved pulpit is
given in the interior of the mosque. It still retain the colour of the paint that was given initially. The details
regarding the mihrab of the mosque is not available.

PALAYAM JUMA MASJID-1813 AD

This is the principal mosque of Trivandrum. It is constructed in 1813 AD. Unlike the traditional mosques
in Kerala this mosque is built in a indo Islamic style, drawing influences from the Arabic mosques.

It was constructed as a small mosque with an open space for Eid. In later years it was extended and
renovated. The tall minarets and domes are main features of this mosque. Most of the elements of
ornamentation like geometry, floral patterns calligraphy are found in the ornamentation of Palayam Palli.

However the Prayer hall is not having any rich ornamentation. The mihrab is quite simple and minimal. It
has a brown arched niche. Half of the mihrab is covered by an off white tile.
Comparing mihrab across middle east countries,other parts of India and Kerala

There is a clear difference between the ornamentation that we see in the mihrab of kerala mosques and
the ones in other parts of the world.This difference can be in the type of ornamentation and its
complexity.

SULAIMANIYE MOSQUE,Turkey(1550)

The sulaimaniye mosque was constructed in 1550 by the imperial architect Mimar sinan. The mihrab wall
in this mosque has stained glass windows. Iznik tile reventments are used in the Mihrab. These tiles have
stencil like floral patterns on the white background.Turquoise red and black flowers patterns are
seen.Another feature seen on the mihrab are the large Iznik tile calligraphic roundels with verses from
Quran.The mihrab and mimbar is made of white marble.Wood work is restrained on this.

BLUE MOSQUE(1616)

Sultan Ahmed mosque is known as Blue Mosque.Located in turkey,it is also one of its famous tourist
spots.The interior of the mosque is beautifully adorned with hand painted blue tiles.Its next to Hagia
Sophia.The mosque have five main domes, six minarets and eight secondary domes.

The interior of the mosques is lined with more than 20,000 iznik ceramic tiles with fifty different tulip
designs. The most important element in the interior of the mosque is Mihrab, which is made of finely
carved and sculptured marble,with a stalactite niche and a double inscriptive panel above. The mihrab is
surrounded by many windows on either side. The highly decorated +mimbar or pulpit is located to the
right of mihrab.

SHEIKH ZAYED MOSQUE(2007)

This beautiful mosque is located in Abudhabi,UAE.It is the largest mosque in the country. It was
constructed between 1996 and 2007.It has many unique and special elements. The interior and exterior
of the mosque is beautifully decorated.

One important feature of the mosque is its Mihrab.It features 99 names od GOD in traditional kulfic
calligraphy,designed by the prominent UAE calligrapher-Muhammed Mandi al Tamimi.The mihrab also
has subtle fibre-optic lighting,which is integrates as a part of the organic design.

JAMA MOSQUE ,Fatehpur sikhri(1571)

This was built by AKBAR in A.D 1571.This is one of the largest Mosque in the country. This mosque
marks the transition in Islamic art,as indigenous architectural elements were blended with Persian
elements. The interiors of the liwan are adorned with watercolour paintings which depict the stylized
floral designs. The mihrab wall has three arched niches. They are beautifully ornamented with a mix of
geometric and floral patterns. Calligraphic depiction of verses from Quran can also be seen .The central
Mihrab is adorned with an inlaid mosaic of stones that are borded by glazed tiles. Golden inscriptions on a
royal blue background is a tribute to this fusion of Persian elements.

JAMA MASJID,DELHI(1656 AD)

This was built by the Mughal emperor shah Jahan between 1650 and 1656.This majestic mosque is
considered to be the ‘National Mosque of India’. The mosque is considered to be the best among all the
mosques built during the Mughal Empire .It has a mixture of marble and limestone .Calligraphy ,floral
patterns are the main decorative elements seen in this mosque. The mihrab is a central niched arch
covered with smooth white marble. Above this arch we find a beautiful white organic pattern on the red
sandstone.

CHERAMAN JUMA MASJID,Kodungallur.(629 AD)

The mihrab in the first mosque of India is quite simple,compared to the highly ornamented Mihrabs
which later came in in kerala as well as across other parts of India. It is a simple arched niche with an
organic pattern above lining the arch. On either side of the arch there is a calligraphic inscription and a
flower pattern. The mihrab is built in such a way that it appears to be like an arch supported by two
columns on either side.

MISHKAL MOSQUE,KUTTICHIRA(1020)

The mihrab of the mishkal mosques is one of the most simplest mihrab in Kerala mosques.It is just a
white niched arch.It is not additionally decorated with any features but it is built in the shape of a petal
like features on top.

NATIKA MUHYUDDHIN JUMA MASJID(2019)

This mosque is one of the latest mosques in kerala built by M.A yusuf ali.Though the mosque has jali’s in
the geometric pattern and calligraphic verses from Quran, This mosque has contemporary features like
the use of plain glass and arficial lighting. The Mihrab wall has a large rectangular niche lined by
calligraphy.The mihrab is like a separate arched wooden structure with geometric jali patterns that is
seen throught the mosque.The mimbar is also very similar to this.The names of God are written above the
arch on the wooden mimbar.The mihrab is highlighted by the artificial interior lightings.The false ceiling
above the prayer hall also has the same geometric patterns.

Inferences

The study about the ornamentation in Mihrab of mosque in different mosques shows the evolution of
mihrab ornamentation in different countries. When we compare them we can see that in countries like
Iran, Turkey mosques are of immense luxury and ornamentation. The mihrab has floral or vegetal
patterns, some are decorated with stained glasses and they are also tall structures. In most of the Arab
countries the mosque were not so luxurious and ornamented as we see now. Before they were made of
stone and were of dull colours. With the Influence from Persian and other Islamic countries they
gradually evolved. The sheikh Zayed Mosque is one of the most famous mosques now. The mihrab is one
important feature that highlights it.

Though the mosques in Kerala now are mostly influenced by these indo Islamic cultures the initial Mihrab
walls were so simple. Geometric patterns were the main feature of the mosques during Mughal period in
other parts of India.

Now interior of the mosques in Kerala are like the contemporary residence interiors, with wooden panel
works ,artificial interior lighting etc. These do not give the calmness and the spiritual feeling that we get
from a natural lighting setting.Earlier ,even in the wooden construction, the craftsmen employed many
ways to ensure natural lighting to the interiors of the mosque.The functions of ornamentation are now
mostly ignored and they merely focus on its aesthetics. As a result we lose our traditional craftsmanship
also.

CONCLUSION

The ornamentation of Islamic architecture are not mere aesthetic elements. They carry a history behind
them. They have different elements and wide variety of types in ornamentation. The ornamentation of
mosques in Islamic architecture has different functions for which they are created. There are also certain
principle of the religion regarding the decoration of mosques that one needs to follow. The ornamentation
of mosques merges the religion and architecture. The calligraphy Inscription of quranic verses convey
messages and stories. The ornamentation in Kerala Islamic Architecture of the mosques can be analysed
in a traditional architectural context as well as the modern era. The intricate wooden decorative skills of
the Kerala artists are seen in ornamentation of many of the mosques in Kerala. They focused mostly on
detailing the roof ceilings, gables and doors. Certain mosques also contain wooden jali with geometric
ornamentation elements in them. Though the mosques where decorated in detailed wooden carving and
floral motifs ,the mihrabs of the Kerala mosque are simple compared to the mosques in Arab countries or
other places. The modern mosques are totally different from the tradition style of Kerala mosque. They
are inspired by the Mosques in Arab countries. Arabesque patterns, calligraphy and geometric patterns
are seen in the interiors as well as exteriors on the minarets ,domes etc. This influence is also because of
the people from Kerala living in Arab countries who wanted to follow those styles. In these mosques the
mihrab is adorned with luxurious decorations. some even are gold plated.

BIBILIOGRAPHY

REFERENCES

Books

• Muslim architecture of south India.

• Ornamentation and decoration in Islamic architecture.

Architectural Elements in Islamic Ornamentation: New Vision in Contemporary Islamic Art-Research.

Online references

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http://www.kamit.jp/05_wooden/7_palace/pal_eng.htm

http://lasttraintopanvel.blogspot.com/2013/12/mosques-of-malabar-tradition-in-timber.html

https://islamreigns.wordpress.com/2017/05/19/cheraman-juma-masjid-the-first-masjid-in-india/

https://travel.manoramaonline.com/travel/essential-kerala/2018/06/21/korome-mosque-wayanad-
destinations.html

https://travel.manoramaonline.com/travel/essential-kerala/2018/06/21/korome-mosque-wayanad-
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https://omrania.com/inspiration/evolution-mosque-architecture/

https://www.jstor.org/stable/44629922?read-now=1&seq=1

http://www.keralawindow.net/famous_mosques.html

https://openmoodle.conted.ox.ac.uk/mod/book/view.php?id=545&chapterid=25

file:///C:/Users/Dell-Inspiron15/Documents/Downloads/Mosque_Architecture_in_Kerala-Role_of_T.pdf