DETERMINATION OF THE COHESIVE STRENGTH OF LOW-CARBON

STEEL (0.03% C) BY MEANS OF HIGH HYDROSTATIC PRESSURES

Marek Brandes*

ABSTRACT

Using an extrapolation of tensile data obtained under varying amounts of hydrostatic compression to positive
hydrostatic pressure (hydrostatic tension), the cohesive strength of a low-carbon steel (0.03% C) has been
determined. These preliminary results indicate a value 9 f 54.6 k g / m m 2. somewhat lower than obtained by
other investigators. Increased strength with decreasing temperature occurs and is consistent with other 9b-
servations.

INTRODUC TION

The t e r m c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h o r b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e s t r e n g t h m e a n s t h e c r i t i -
c a l v a l u e of t h e n o r m a l t e n s i l e s t r e s s c a u s i n g a f r a c t u r e of t h e m a t e r i a l
in the r a n g e of i t s e l a s t i c s t r a i n . D i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e c o h e s i v e
s t r e n g t h of d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l s is h o w e v e r e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t , and f o r s o m e
m e t a l s quite i m p o s s i b l e . The r e a s o n f o r t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s is the o c c u r -
r e n c e of l a r g e s h e a r i n g s t r e s s e s d u r i n g t e n s i l e t e s t s ; t h e s e s t r e s s e s in
t u r n c a u s e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n s and s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g of t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d
materials.
F o r m a n y y e a r s , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d out to d e t e r m i n e the
c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h of d u c t i l e m e t a l s . (1-4) In o r d e r to o b t a i n a b r i t t l e f r a c -
t u r e of d u c t i l e m e t a l s p e c i m e n s w i t h o u t i t s p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n (i. e. in the
r a n g e of i t s e l a s t i c s t r a i n ) , e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e b e e n m a d e by s t r e t c h i n g
n o t c h e d s p e c i m e n s at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , and with s m o o t h c y l i n d r i c a l s p e c -
i m e n s at v e r y low t e m p e r a t u r e s . In s o m e c a s e s n o t c h e d c y l i n d r i c a l s p e c -
i m e n s h a v e b e e n s t r e t c h e d at low t e m p e r a t u r e s . D y n a m i c {explosive)
l o a d i n g s h a v e a l s o b e e n a p p l i e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h of m e t -
a l s . (5)
All t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m e t h o d s g a v e o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e v a l u e s of t h e
i n i t i a l c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h of d u c t i l e m e t a l s . T h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s o b t a i n e d
w e r e c a u s e d b y t h e i n c r e a s e of c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h at f a l l i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s , (6-~)
and b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d e t e r m i n e d v a l u e s of c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h d e p e n d on
the g e o m e t r y of t h e s p e c i m e n n o t c h . (3)
D e t e r m i n i n g c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h b y u s i n g the d y n a m i c a l ( e x p l o s i v e ) l o a d i n g
m e t h o d c r e a t e d g r e a t t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . A c c o r d i n g to e s t i m a t e s of s o m e
i n v e s t i g a t o r s ( s ) a n d r e c e n t l y b y this a u t h o r v a l u e s f o r c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h
o b t a i n e d in s u c h a w a y a r e ' c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h s
w h i c h a r e d e t e r m i n e d s t a t i c a l l y . II ( 9 , p 322)
F o r s o m e m i l d m e t a l s like c o p p e r , n i c k e l , a l u m i n u m , and b r o n z e and
for s o m e steel t y p e s , for example austenitic s t a i n l e s s steels, the d e t e r -
m i n a t i o n of t h e c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h w a s not p o s s i b l e e v e n in a n a p p r o x i m a t e
f o r m . E v e n the s h a r p e s t and d e e p e s t n o t c h e s m a c h i n e d on t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d
s p e c i m e n s , as well a s t h e l o w e s t t e m p e r a t u r e s applied during these tests,
c r e a t e d no p o s s i b l e w a y to o b t a i n a b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e in t h o s e k i n d s of m e t a l s .
F o r e x a m p l e , at l i q u i d h y d r o g e n t e m p e r a t u r e (20°K), s t r e t c h e d c o p p e r
(99.7% Cu) c y l i n d r i c a l s p e c i m e n s s h o w e d , p r i o r t o f r a c t u r e , a c r o s s - s e c -
t i o n r e d u c t i o n of 75%, (6) n i c k e l (99.4% Ni) s h o w e d 64%, (6) c a s t p h o s p h o r -
b r o n z e showed 39.0% - , (6) and t h e a u s t e n i t i c s t a i n l e s s s t e e l (IHI8N9T) s h o w e d
a r e d u c t i o n of 4 8 . 0 % . (~)
A p p l y i n g t h e m e t h o d p r e s e n t e d in r e f . 10 f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t e c h n i c a l
c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h of d u c t i l e m e t a l s b y m e a n s of h i g h h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s ,
it w a s p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e in a r e l a t i v e l y e x a c t w a y (_+ 2.0%) t h e t e c h n i c a l
c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h of l o w - c a r b o n s t e e l (0.03% C).

* Instytut Mechaniki Precyzyjnej, Warsaw, Poland.

420 Marek Brandes

The results of t h e s e investigations are presented in this paper.

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

The experimental equipment used to investigate the mechanical proper-

ties of metals under high hydrostatic p r e s s u r e s Cup to 30,000 k g / c m 2) has
been reported previously in detail. (Ir-13)
T h e determination of the cohesive strength of metals by m e a n s of high
hydrostatic pressures w a s based on an experimental evaluation of the func-
tional dependence existing between the hydrostatic pressure p inside the
pressure c h a m b e r w h e r e the cylindrical s p e c i m e n s have been stretched,
and the natural reduction in area E, of the stretched s p e c i m e n s ~v =,fn So/S u
(where S O is the area of the original cross-section, and S u the smallest
cross-section of the stretched specimen).
As w a s s h o w n by B r i d g m a n (14) and others(15.16) , as well as by the re-
sults presented in this paper, the function p = f (~) is a rectilinear one
beginning f r o m the atmospheric pressure (p = 0) up to a certain pressure
which is characteristic for a given metal.
The first part of the rectilinear function p = f (~v), determined w h e n
using different pressures, has been extrapolated up to such a value of the
positive hydrostatic pressure Po > 0 (hydrostatic tension) at which the nat-
ural reduction in area ~v, b e c o m e s equal to zero, and corresponds with
the vanishing of the neck and with the brittle fracture of the speeimen.
The rectilinear dependenee of the natural reduction in area (~,) upon the
hydrostatic pressure (p < 0) should not change its (rectilinear) character
w h e n the ambient pressure changes its sign to a positive one. (I0)
T h e triaxial tension existing in the center of the cross-section of the
stretched s p e c i m e n at the vanishing of the neck is s h o w n schematically in
Fig. i.

~= Po*Re

P~ ~=0"=po
3
o"3J/
p. I/

Ro=Oi=po* Re; O'1-O'3=Re ;

I~-~ 2.¢~- c%lA~r.~-~12=2 R~

Pig. 1. Stress components acting on the cross-section of stretched specimen at the vanishing of the neck
(Po- hydrostatic tension, Re - yield stress in tension).

According to the results of the analysis of the stress state existing in

the minimum cross-section of a specimen stretched under high pressure, (I0)
the cohesive strength R o of the investigated material is equal to R o = Po + Re
(where Po is the positive hydrostatic pressure value determined experi-
mentally, and R e the yield stress in tension of the material).
T h e pressure existing inside the pressure c h a m b e r w h e r e the test pieces
w e r e stretched w a s constant and s h o w e d m i n i m a l changes during the tensile
tests (_+ 20 kg/cm2). (12) The pressure c h a m b e r w a s connected with a pre-
cise B o u r d o n tube pressure gauge having the required range of pressure, T h e
pressure gauge used for these tests has been verified by m e a n s of a free
piston Basset m o n o m e t e r .
The minimum diameter o f the s p e c i m e n w a s m e a s u r e d using a precise
Zeiss c o m p a r a t o r after taking the s p e c i m e n out of the pressure c h a m b e r .
 Marek Brandes 4 21

The results obtained have been plotted on a d i a g r a m of coordinates (~,,p).

The equation of the initial (first) part of ihe straight line function p
= ~ +/3 ~ , established for the investigated metal, w a s based on the m e a -
sured pressure values p and the natural reduction values ~,, applying the
m e t h o d of least squares.
F r o m this equation, (p = ~ + /3 ~,), the value of the hydrostatic tension
p~ = ~ has been calculated, w h e n the natural reduction in the area of the
sfretched s p e c i m e n should b e c o m e equal to zero (~v = 0).

SPECIMENS USED

The specimens were machined from steel bars normalized at 930 ° C

for i. 5 hours. The chemical composition of the applied steel and its me-
chanical properties at atmosPheric pressure are given in Table 2. The
grain size of the investigated steel corresponds with ASTM 4.
The specimen size is as follows:
original diameter d o : 4.5 +_0.05 mm
original length L o ~ 1 5 +_ 0.1 mm
The stretching rate was ii rnm/min; the temperature was ~ 20 ° C.

RESULTS OBTAINED

The values obtained by measuring the pressure p in kglcm 2 and the nat-
ural (logarithmical) reduction in area (gv = £n So/S u) are given in Table i.

TABLE 1

Pressure Natural Pressure Natural

p reduction p reduction
kg/cm 2 in area kg/em 2 in area

0 1.31 1600 1.94

0 1.36 1600 1.83
0 1.29 1600 1.82
900 1.62 2000 2.02
900 1.63 2000 2.00
900 1.62 2000 1.97
1300 l.q8 2500 2.13
1300 1.73 2500 2.24
1300 1.75 2500 2.26

Fig. 2 shows in graphical form the function p = f (~)' characterizing

the investigated low-carbon steel. As can be seen, the function is recti-
linear.
Due to the invariability of the pressure during stretching tests, the scat-
tering of the obtained points is relatively small (± 2.0%). The equation of
the straight line found by the method of least squares is as follows:

p = 36.1 - 27.9 ~v

At the value of ~v - 0, p equals Pn = 36. i kg/mm 2. The determined value

p = po>0 for ~v = 0 corresponds ffcith the value of a hydrostatic tension at
which the tested specimens, loaded additionally with an axial tensile stress
equal to the stress yield in tension Re, should break without plastic de-
formation (~v = 0). The value for the investigated material is R e = 18.5
kg/mm 2.
According to the evidence given in ref. i0, the initial cohesive strength
R o of a metal not strain-hardened equals R o = Po + Re"
422 M a r e k Brandes

/.0
36fl
30
%
20
E
I0

0
0,2 0/, 0.6 Q8 1.0 t,2 - " 1 / . ~ - A , i , i i

-tO ~u-mg-j
-20

-30

-40

Fig. 2. Effect of h y d r o s t a t i c pressure on the d u c t i l i t y of l o w - c a r b o n s t e e l ( 0 . 0 3 % C). ( ~ v - true strain,

p - h y d r o s t a t i c pressure k g / m m 2 . )

The Value of the initial cohesive strength or the so-called brittle frac-
ture strength of low-carbon steel (0.03% C) at r o o m temperature, deter-
m i n e d in this w a y is equal to:

R o = 54.6 kg/mm 2

DISCUSSION

Other investigations aimed at measuring directly the cohesive strength

of mild steel types at room temperature have not been successful. Only
at very low temperatures was it possible to bring these steel types to
brittle fracture and to determine their tensile strength. Table 2 contains

TABLE 2

Chemical M e c h a n i c a l Properties
composition at room t e m p e r a t u r e l.nvestiga-
(~ 300°K) tion Cohesive
No. tempera- strength Sources
C Other Rm Re Z tures Ro k g / m m 2
% elements kg/mm 2 kg/mm 2 % oK
%

1 0.03 30 18 76 20 89 (7)

IVin-0.02
2 0. 035 p-0. 003 32.1 73 93 78.7 (17)
S-0. 016

(see stress-
3 0.04 22 temperature (18)
c u r v e , Fig. 4)

Mn-0.08 The pre-

4 0.03 p-0.017 32.3 18.5 73.3 300 54.6 sent
S -0. 015 investi -
gation

Rm - u l t i m a t e stress, (R m = Pro/So); Re - y i e l d stress in t e n s i o n ; Z - r e d u c t i o n in a r e a in %;

Z = ( S o- Su)/S o . ioo.
 Marek Brandes 423

a comparison of the brittle fracture strength values of low-carbon steel

obtained by other investigations (7,17,1s) by stretching the specimens at
very low temperatures, with the values of the cohesive strength determined
in the present investigations. The chemical compositions and mechanical
properties of the c o m p a r e d low-carbon steels are similar.
As shown in Table 2, the value of the cohesive strength of low-carbon
steel at r o o m temperature determined in the present investigation is lower
than the corresponding values of the brittle fracture strength obtained by
stretching test pieces at very low temperatures. Sueh a relation was not
difficult to provide because the results of m a n y investigators (6.7,1s,19)
have shown that the brittle fracture strength rises w h e n the temperature
decreases.
The value of the cohesive strength oflow-carbonsteel (R o = 54.6 kg/mm2)0
obtained in the present investigation, was a confirmation of the inerease
mentioned above. This value created the possibility to establish in a quan-
titative f o r m the inerease rate (Ro/T) of the cohesive strength Ro, w h e n
the temperature decreases f r o m the r o o m temperature to a very low value
(20°K). (Ro - eohesive strength, T - temperature.) The inerease of the
eohesive strength R o in the case of the investigated steel type (0.03% C),
amounts to about i. 25 k g / m m 2 for every 10°K of temperature deerease,
i.e. about 2.3% of the cohesive strength value at r o o m temperature. Elding
and Collins(19) have shown that the dependence of the brittle fracture
strength of steel AISI-1020 (0.2% C) upon the temperature forms a straight
line in the range of temperatures lower than the ductile brittle transition
temperature. The results of these investigations (19) are shown in Fig. 3.

200
Ro KG/mrn2
=.~. 125

lSO
100
°
m \ Re
'"
aa I00 4 75

5O

S00 50 100 150 200

TEMPERATURE°K

Fig.3. Variation of brittle strength Ro, and yield stress Re at low temperature of 1020 steel.(19)

It was interesting to check the position of the determined value of the

cohesive strength R o at r o o m temperature in comparison with the cor-
responding values of brittle fracture stress found by other investigators
at low temperatures. As shown in Fig. 4, the determined value of the
cohesive strength at r o o m temperature finds its place almost on a straight
line (dotted lines) which is characteristic for the brittle fracture strength
at low temperatures.
The cohesive strength of sueh low-carbon steel (0.03%) has not yet been
determined at temperatures higher than the ductile-brittle transition t e m -
perature (about 80°K) where the yield stress is lower than the brittle
fracture stress.
S o m e experiments have been carried out attempting to determine the
cohesive strength of low-carbon steel (0.03% C) at r o o m temperature w h e n
using notched specimens. (7) The author concluded that the value of the
cohesive strength should be approximately higher than 56 k g / m m 2
 424 Matek Brandes

AFTER UZHIK '7) -150

100
.3RITTLE STRENGTH R0
90 0_
o
8O

E
-~. 70
¢D I00
bE
60.
LIJ 5~,6"
i--
50
t/)

4o
MAC GILLIW RAY,MANNING (17) \ I 50
30

20

I0

I00 200 300

TEMPERATURE

Fig. 4. Comparison of the cohesive strength (brittle strength) Ro of low-carbon steel (0.03% C) determined
at room temperature with the brittle strength of similar steels (0.03 - 0.04% C) at low tempera-
tures. (R o - brittle strength, Re - yield stress,)

C ONC LUSIONS

1 . ) T h e i n i t i a l c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h of a n o n s t r a i n - h a r d e n e d low-carbon
s t e e l ( 0 . 0 3 % C) at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , has been determined by high hy-
drostatic pressures t o be R o = 5 4 . 6 k g / m m 2
2 . ) T h i s v a l u e i s l o w e r t h a n t h e v a l u e s of b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e s t r e n g t h d e -
t e r m i n e d b y o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s by m e a n s of s t r e t c h i n g s p e c z m e n s at v e r y
low temperatures.
3.) A comparison of t h e o b t a i n e d v a l u e s of b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e s t r e n g t h at
different temperatures shows a linear increase as the temperature de-
creases. T h i s i s in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e b y E l d i n g a n d
C o l l i n s in t h e c a s e of s t e e l 0 . 2 % C.
4, ) T h e i n c r e a s e of t h e c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h f o r t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d l o w - c a r b o n
s t e e l ( 0 . 0 3 % C) a m o u n t s t o a b o u t 1 . 2 5 k g / m m 2 f o r e v e r y 1 0 ° K of t h e t e m -
perature decrease.

Received November 16, 1965.

REFERENCES

i. W. Kunze "Mitteilungen der deutschen Materialprufungsanstalten, " Sonderheft 20, 1-61

(1932).
2. D.l. McAdam, Jr. Trans.ASM, 3~, 538-566 (1946).

See also: D.J. McAdam, AIMS Tech. Publ. No. 2318, i-Ii (January 1948).
Jr., G . W . G e i l , D.H.
Woodard, W.D.lenkins

3. G.W. Uzhik The Cohesive Strength and the Strength of Metals, (in Russian), AN SSSR,
Moscow (1950).
4. T.Pelczynski "Determination of the Cohesive Strength of Materials, " (in Polish), Obrobka
plastyczna. T. II, 3 (1962).
 Marek Brandes 425

5. J.S.Rinehart; J.Pearson Explosive Working of Metals, New York (1952).

6. P.L.Teed
. G.W. Uzhik
8. Ja. M. Potak
9. J.S. Rinehart
10. M.Brandes
ii. M.Brandes
12. M.Brandes; S.Dukaj
13. M.Brandes; H.Szlachcic
14. P.W.Bridgman
15. B.I.Beres~ew; L.F.
Vereshehagin; Y.N.
Ry abinin; L.D.Livshits
16. H.Li. D.Pugh
lq. E.W.Colbeck; W.E.
Mac-Gilliwray; Manning
18. I.S.Ericson; I.R.Low
19. A.S.Elding; S.C.Collins
The Properties of Metallic Materials at Low Temperatures, London (1952).
The Strength and Plasticity of Metals at Low Temperatures, (in Russian),
A'N SSSR, Moscow (195q).
The Brittle Fracture of Steel and Steelpieces, (in Russian), Oborongiz,
Moscow (1955).
"Fracturing by Spalling," Wear, q, 4, 315-329 (1964).
"Determination of the Cohesive Strength of Ductile Materials by Means of
High Hydrostatic Pressures (up to 30,000 kg/cm2)," (in Polish), Prace In-
stytutu Mechaniki Precyzyjnej, 1, 1-13 (1964).
"Technique of Testing the Strength of Materials under High Hydrostatic
Pressures," (in Polish), Prace Instytutu Mechaniki Precyzyjnej, 10, 4, 1-22
(1962). English translation, NEL 1294, National Engineering Laboratory,
E. Kilbride, Glasgow.
"A Method for Insuring the Pressure Stability while Investigating Mechanical
Properties of Metals under High Hydrostatic Pressures up to 10,000 kg/cm 2, "
(in Polish), Prace Iastytutu Mechaniki Precyzyjnej, 1, 22-24 (1965).
Rev-Sci. Instr., 3.66, 7, 991-993 (1965).
Studies in Large Plastic Flow and Fracture, New York (1952).
Some. Problems of Large Plastic Deformation in Metals under High Pres-
sure, (in Russian), AN SSSR, Moscow (1960). English translation, ASTIA
Doc. AD-259-251, Office of Technical Services U. S. Dept. of Com-
merce, Washington, D. C. (1961).
"The Mechanical Properties and Deformation Characteristics of MetalS and
Alloys under Pressure," N-EL Report No. 142, March 1964. Presented at
Intl.Conf. on Materials, ASTM, Phila., Pa. (February 1964).
Trans.Inst.Chem.Engrs., 11, 89-106 (1933).
Acta Met., 5 . q, 4 0 5 - 4 0 6 (195q).
LAppl.Phys., 22, 10, 1296 (1951).

RI~SUME - La force de cohesion d'un acier ~ faible carbone (0,03% C) a ~tg d~termin~e par extrapolation
des donn~es de traction, obtenues pour diverses valeurs de la compression hydrostatique ] u n e pression hy-
drostatique positive (tension hydrostatique). Ces r~sultats pr~liminaires indiquent une valeur de 54,6 kg/mm 2,
valeur quelque peu inf~riettre ~ celles obtenues par d'autres chercheurs. On eonstate un accroissement de la
force pour une diminution de la temperature et ceci est conforme ~ d'autres observations.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG - Dutch Extrapolation vonZugspannungsdaten, welche unter verschiedenen hydrostarischen

Drffeken erhalten wurden, auf den Positivwert des hydrostatischen Druekes Ihydrostatische Dehnung), wurde die
Kohgsionsfestigkeit yon kohlenstoffarmen Stahl (0,03% C) bestimmt. Die vorl~'ufig erhaltenen Ergebnisse er-
geben einen Wert yon 54, 6 kg/mm 2, der etwas niedriger liegt, als die bisher yon anderen Forschern erhaltenen
Werte.
In Uebereinsth-nmtmg mit anderen Beobachtungen mmmt mit fallender Temperarur die Festigkeit zu.