Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dispense Archeologia Dei Media Parte 1
Dispense Archeologia Dei Media Parte 1
O. Grau, Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion, The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts-
London 2003, pp. 52-72.
T. Gunning, Hand and Eye: Excavating a New Technology of the Image in the Victorian Era, in
«Spring», 2012, pp. 495-515.
L. Rabinovitz, More than the Movies: A History of Somatic Visual Culture through Hale’s Tours,
Imax, and Motion Simulation Rides, in L. Rabinovitz, A. Geil (a cura di) Memory Bytes: History,
Technology, and Digital Culture, Duke University Press, Durham 2004, pp. 99-125.
J. Crary, Techniques of the Observer, in «October», Vol. 45, Summer, 1988, pp. 3-35.
A. Griffiths, Sensual Vision: 3-D, Medieval Art, and the Cinematic Imaginary, in «Film Criticism»,
Vol. 37, No. 3, 2013, pp. 60-85.
T. Elsaesser, Il ritorno del 3D: logica e genealogie dell'immagine del XXI Secolo, logica e
genealogie dell'immagine del XXI Secolo, in «Imago: studi di cinema e media», Vol. 1, 2011, 49-
68.
T. Elsaesser, Media Archaeology as Symptom, in «New Review of Film and Television Studies»,
Vol. 14, No. 2, 2016, pp. 181-215.
W. Strauven, Media Archaeology: Where Film History, Media Art and New Media (Can) Meet, in
J. Noordegraaf, V. Hediger, B. Le Maitre, C.G. Saba (a cura di) Preserving and Exhibiting Media
Art: Challenges and Perspectives, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam 2013, pp. 59-79
C. Russell, Archiveology: Walter Benjamin and Archival Film Practices, Duke University Press,
Durham-London 2018, pp. 11-34.
B. Herzogenrath, Decasia, The Matter|Image: Film is Also a Thing, in B. Herzogenrath (a cura di)
The Films of Bill Morrison, Aesthetics of the Archive, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam
2018, pp. 84-96.
L. Koepnick, Herzog's Cave: On Cinema's Unclaimed Pasts and Forgotten Futures, in «The
Germanic Review: Literature, Culture, Theory», Vol. 88, No. 3, pp. 271-285.
FILMOGRAFIA
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Salisbury, is the first example of che modern era to dispense with the
architectonic element of the frame- sixty years before the issue of Barker's
panorama parent.
In the eighteenth century, Italian artists were first and foremost bril-
liant interior designers; masters of stucco work and fresco, who trans-
formed many a castle and monastery hall with scenes of festivity and
ceremony, they were famous throughout Europe. Bernardo Bellocro, a
contemporary of Giambatcista Tiepolo, the lase great figure of illusioniscic
painting in Italy, set out on his travels with a small camera obscura and a
larger portable one with a tent. His work with these drawing aids in the
service of mimesis, which in him bordered on an obsession, perfected a
new fusion of arc and technology for small-format pictures. 106 The brothers
Paul and Thomas Sandby also used the camera obscura, char apparent
mirror of the real. 107 Afrer the Jacobite Rebellion was crushed in 1746,
which ended popular support for the Stuarts, the Sandbys traveled the
Highlands for seve ral months as topog raphical draftsmen in the service of
the Military Survey of Scotland. To control the occupied territories effi-
ciendy and plan future military operations, the army was very interested in
accurate drawings of the terrain, detailed panoramic vistas, and views of
the landscape. 108 O nly derailed cartographic data could be used effectively
to play through questions of tactics, field of fire, positions for advance and
retreat, and che like, so when a new pictorial technique emerged that made
it possible "to be in the picture," it was soon pressed into the service of
the House of H anover's geopolitical aspirations. 109 For five years, 1746 to
1751, the young Paul Sandby worked fo r the Military Survey under Colo-
nel David Warson. It is safe to assume thac Sandby's ability to observe
narure with precision, for which he later becam e famous, owed much, if
not all, to the military training of his artist's eye. 11 0
As a tool of visual perception, the camera obscura was the result of a
long process of scientific discovery and development. Rudimentary ideas
are found in Euclid; the discoveries of Copernicus and Galilei led to a
realization of the physical problem that had already been described by
Leonardo. Building on the findings of Johannes Kepler and Achanasius
Kircher, it became possible to make the apparatus smaller, refine the co-
ordination of the lenses, improve the reflecting mirrors, and optimize rhe
relation of focal length and distance of the image. Finally, Johan Zahn, a
monk from Wi.irzburg, succeeded in producing a portable version.
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Jonathan Crary has shown how, since the seventeenth century, the view
onto reality has been gradually liberated through developments in science.
The camera obscura represented a pioneering achievement in the history of
cinematographic modes of perception because it introduced a restructuring
of possibilities for vis11al experience through optical techniques. It was an
innovation comparable with the discove~y of perspective, and an important
precondition for its development was a further stage in the process of
individualizing the observer. Using it required isolation in a darkened
space. This isolated situation of the observer in the camera obscura, as
Crary expresses it, "provides a vantage point onto the world analogous to
the eye of God." 111
More than forty years later and five years after the first public exhibition
of a circular painting by Robert Barker in London, in 1793 Paul Sandby
created a "room of illusion" in just two months 11 2 for Sir Nigel Bowyer
Gresley at his seat of Drakelowe Hall near Burton-on-Trent in Derbyshire.
Sandby covered three walls with a wild and romantic landscape without
framing elements. Visitors found themselves under the canopy of a blue
sky, painted on the arched ceiling, and mighty trees, several meters high.
Between the t rees, prospects of undulating countryside, crossed by cut-
tings, with wide clearings and grassy banks, stretched into the distance
(fig. 2.15). 1 13 In front of the painting was a variety of fattx terrain, com-
prised of real objects: a chest-high fence was positioned a few centimeters
away from the painted wall; the fireplace was camouflaged as the entrance
to a grotto with pieces of minerals, ore, and a variety of seashells. H ere,
again, the function of the fa11x terrain was co blur the boundary between
the real space and the space of the illusion.
In the painting on the fourth wall, H ermann recognizes a real Welsh
landscape: "a valley; which is very Welsh in feeling and possibly repre-
sents Dolbadarn Castle in its fine setting on Llyn Feris, with Snowdon
beyond." 114 The distant view and the fact that it refers to a real place115
evoke strong associations with scenery as depicted in the panorama. One
may even surmise that this room, with its view of the disrance and directly
immersive properties of the gigantic trees, is a reaction of iliusionistic wall
painting to the "new" medium of the panorama.
As a member of the Royal Academy, Sandby must have been familiar
with Barker's invention. Although he had not painted room-filling frescoes
before Drakelowe Hali, Sandby was well known as a faithful observer of
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Figure 2.15 Landscape Room in Drakelowe Hall, by Paul Sandby, Derbyshire, Burton-on-Trent, 1793.
The Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
nature and his name was firmly liked with landscape paincing. Particularly
his depictions of trees-nonschematic, multifaceted, delicately texrured-
and the face chat he distinguished between kinds of tree, generally held to
be an innovation of the early nineteenth century, made his landscapes
famous and Sandby a pioneer of modern landscape paincing. 116 In view of
Sandby's reputation, tO have a whole room painted by him must have
conferred considerable prestige on the commissioner of the work. In a
letter dated July 25, 1794 to the Reverend T. S. Whalley, Anna Seward
compares Sandby's wall paintings with the new invention of the panorama:
"The perspective [in Drakelowe H all] is so well preserved as to produce a
landscape deception little inferior to the watery delusion of the celebrated
panorama. " 117 Although "watery delusion" may be taken as rather scath-
ing, here a direct comparison is made between the new public panorama
and Sir Nigel's private room of illusion. The similarity of the two con-
ceptions is obvious, although at the time, the potential of the panorama to
produce illusions still left a lot to be desired. The new medium of the
panorama provoked the exponents of its forerunner medium into mobiliz-
ing the maximum potential of illusion that was possible.
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castle ac Holyrood served as the studio. It was here that Barker made the
first panorama, a 21-meter-long, 180° view of Edinburgh, which was pre-
sented to the public in the Archers' H all at H olyrood. As a military strat-
egist and committed parliamentarian, Wemyss was obviously interested in
a new technique of perspeccival representation that might be useful for
m ilitary surveys and planning. Thus, the inception of the panorama was
characterized by a combination of media and military history.
The panorama installs the observer in the picture. Although it found its
way into the world partly through m ilitary interest and patronage, the
notion of using the p anorama as a mobile instrument of military planning
was a nonstarter from the begi nning. On arriving in London, it soon
attracted the attention of broad sections of sensation-seeking civil society
and quickly became an agent of popular taste in a society of the spectacle.
On March 14, 1789, Barker exhibited the panorama of Edinburgh by dim
candlelight in the H aymarket. Public response was mediocre but the art
world began to sit up and take notice of the potential of this technique of
visualization. Sir Joshua Reynolds, President of the Royal Academy, had at
first told Barker that it was impracticable but soon changed his mind: "I
find I was in error in supposing your invention could never succeed, for the
present exhibition p roves it ro be capable of producing effects and repre-
senting nature in a manner far superior to the limited scale of pictures in
general." 12 1
This effect, representation of nature in the service of an illusion, was
from the beginning the core idea of the panorama. Thus, it is hig hly likely
that Paul Sandby, who was also a member of the Royal Academy, heard
about Barker's invention in connection with this event and gained valu-
able ideas for his landscape room at Drakelowe H all. At the very latest, he
would have heard of it in June 1791 when, still in its pre-immersive
phase, a semicircular view of London was exhibited with sensational suc-
cess. Not yet housed in a rotunda, Barker presented co the public a view
from the roof of the Albion Mills factory, near Blackfriars Bridge, in
premises in Castle Street. Drakelowe Hall has been made out as a fo re-
runner of the panoramas; 122 however, not only was ic pain ted in 1793,
bur Sandby combined illusionistic landscape with a typical panoramic
and distant view of a recognizable Welsh landscape as a reaction to the
panorama and as a demonstration of the superiority, as yet still intact, of
the older image technique.
Both the illusionistic landscape room and the panorama surround the
observer with pictorial images and both seek to create the effect of actually
being in a real landscape. Oettermann states chat " In the panorama, real
image spaces are created in which the observer moves around." 123 With
its suite of innovations in presenting images, the panorama was able co
heighten the illusion considerably and more lastingly, compared with the
illusionistic landscape room. Boch socially and with regard to location, the
provenance of the panorama is the private houses of the nobility, the same
terrain where illusionistic landscape spaces were located. This is supported
by the later takeover of the faux terrain by the panorama, which had an
important function at Drakelowe Hall, for example, as discussed above. At
the beginning of the nineteenth century, the two media were at the stage
of reciprocal influence.
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hung on the circular walls of the building. The picture was smaller than
later panoramas, covering an area of "only" 930 m 2 . 1 26 The balustrade had
the double function of both preventing visitors from getting tao close t0
the picture and keeping them in a position where the upper and lower
limits of the picture could not be seen. No objects extraneous to the pic-
ture were in the space that might relativize or diminish the illusion.
Overhead lighting, also invisible to the visitor, illuminated the painting so
that it appeared to be the source of light itself, an effect that was later
perfected in cinema, television, and computer-generated images. For the
observer, standing in the dark, this made it even more difficult to distin-
guish between an imitatio nat1trae and real nature.
Illusionistic landscape spaces had used varieties of faux terrain127 since
the Renaissance, but Barker's first panoramas do not appear tO have made
use of this device. It was first integrated into the panorama in 1830, in
particular by Charles Langlois, the French specialist for battle scenes, and
refined continually thereafter. Constructed on a wooden framework be-
tween the painting and the viewing platform, it was almost imperceptibly
joined to the image for the visitor, who was up to fifteen meters away.
The two-dimensional painting then approached the observer with a three-
dimensional zone. The picture changed into an image space where the
observer was physically present and was able to set him- or herself in rela-
tion to it. Apart from the fa11x terrain, Barker's patent covered virtually all
the innovations that still determine panorama construction until the pres-
ent day. Building on the traditions and mechanisms of iliusionistic land-
scape spaces, the panorama developed into a presentation apparatus that
shut out the outside world completely and made the image absolute.
Judged by the postulates of iliusionism, these innovations in depiction
and representation revolutionized the image. The panorama was located in
the public sphere, and this fact, discussed in detail below, linked it to
themes selected according t0 economic criteria and a mode of production
that was industrial and international. Together, these endowed the p he-
nomenon of illusion spaces with a new quality. Notwithstanding, its art
historical origins still remain in 360° spaces of illusion.
The similarity of the concepts of the panorama and 360° spaces of illu-
sion is also attested to by experiences with the panorama being applied
to 360° spaces of illusion. In their book, The Union of Architecture, Smlp-
ture, and Painting of 1827, John Britton and Nathaniel Whitrock made
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recommendations for heightening the effect of illusionistic landscape
spaces that had been developed in conjunction with the panorama: "A
painted landscape, or architectural scene, might also, with property, be
introduced .. . with a railing or balustrade to prevent so close an approach
as to destroy the illusion. I t is almost needless to remark, that such a pic-
ture should be on a semicircular wall, and painted on the principle of a
panorama, strongly lighted from above, while the spot whence it is to be
viewed should be in comparative obscurity." 128
Smaller panoramas for private rooms also made their appearance,
serving educational or scientific and aesthetic or atmospheric purposes.
Goethe, for example, who had visited several of the large-scale panoramas,
instaUed for a time a panorama, affixed to a circular arch, of the moun-
tain scenery near N euchatel in his chambers.129 A further example of
the panorama's influence on private spaces of illusion was the fashion for
panorama wallpaper in the nineteenth century. 131 Confined mainly to the
urban bourgeoisie, they were a relatively inexpensive industrial product.
At this point, the tradition of illusionistic landscape spaces ends in the
marriage of art and industry contracted by the panorama. The p anorama's
themes, a repertoire that targeted broad sections of society, were frequently
individualized in products for the private sphere. 131 Panorama-style wall-
paper was produced in the twentieth century and is still available today
(figs. 2.17 and 2. 18).
In his important study of the panorama, Stephan Oettermann writes:
"As any new invention has its precursors, forms of art bearing some ap-
parent relation to the panorama existed earlier, but in this case they played
no direct role in the panorama's development. " 132 T his statement can be
interpreted as the desire to postulate the position of chis medium as
unique. However, in view of the long and rich prehistory of the panorama
and, indeed, its posthistory in the form of contemporary developments in
computer-aided virtual spaces, Oerrermann's statement must be viewed as
relative and in need of amendment. That said, it must be admitted that
there is a paucity of research on this topic. Earlier studies, which mention
preforms of the panorama by Dolf Sternberger,133 Friedrich Rupp, 134 and
Alfred Auerbach 135 as well as more recent works hy Sune Lundwall, 136
Edward Croft-Murray,137 Gustav Solar, 138 John Sweetmann, 139 Silvia Bor-
dini, 140 and Marcel Roethlisberger141 contain only a few paragraphs on the
subject. The works cited fall into the category of short compilations and do
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figure 2.17 "Hindustan" Panorama WalIpaper, 1807- 1820. In Decors de l'imaginaire, Papiers peints
panoramiques, 1790-1865. Musee des Arts decoi-atifs, under the direction of Od ile Nouvel-l<ammerer,
Paris, 1990; p. 306.
figure 2.18 Panorama wallpaper. Industrial product, mountain scenery, 1970s. In Pro Magazin,
10/1976, p. 13, ill. 5. Author's archive.
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not portray adequately rhe long tradition of enveloping spaces of images
and illusion; moreover, their research focus is different, often unsystematic
and focusing on single phenomena. However, even these findings suffice to
demolish the contention that the development of the panorama is without
a history. To support his argwnent of the singularity of the panorama,
Oettermann cites the changed visual habits of the observer, from a feudal
"construction in strict central perspective," 142 as used in the Baroque
court theaters, ro "a gradual "democratization" of the audience's point of
view," 143 culminating in the panorama. Further, the medium of the pan-
orama is, for Oettermann, firmly tied to the experience of the horizon, a
new aesthetic experience of the eighteenth century. 144 This is a little sur-
prising as there have been countless town- and cityscapes, coastal pan-
oramas, and overview maps since the fourteenth cenrury. 145 The innovation
represented by the panorama does not consist in eitl1t::r ils attempt to create
an illusionary spatial image, an immersive sphere, or in the secular p rove-
nance of its themes. In the sense of an optical illusion, or trompe l'oeH, the
panorama is, instead, the most sophisticated form of a 360° illusion space
created with the means of traditional painting. Of spaces with illusionistic
wall paintings, which surround the observer hermetically with 360° im-
ages and create the impression of being in another space than where one
actually is, that is, that form ulate an artificial world, many striking and
important examples exist from various epochs-long before the advent of
the panorama.
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the panoramas in Paris with his students, is reported co have dispensed rhe
following advice while in a panorama by Prevost: "Si vous voulez voir la
vraie nature, courez aux panoramas! "147 John Constable was also a fan of
the panorama. On May 23, 1803, he wrote to his friend John Dunthome:
"Panoramic painting seems to be all the rage. There are four or five
exhibiting and Mr. Reinagle is coming out with another, a view of Rome,
which l have seen. I should think he has taken his view favourably , and it
is executed with the g reatest care and fidelicy. " 148
William Wordsworth, however, commented with irony on the efforts
of the panorama ro create a second reality and described the effects of its
reception. The panorama of Edinburgh he characterized as "those mimic
sides that ape the absolute presence of reality, expressing as a mirror sea
and land and what earth is, and what she hath to shew ... ". 149
Heinrich von Kleist had high expectations of the illusionistic effect of
the new image medium but was disappointed. He recorded his impres-
sions after a visit co the first German panorama by Johann Adam Breysig,
the Panorama von Rom, exhibited at Gendarmenmarkt, a square in the
center of Berlin: "I say it is the first hint of a panorama, and even the idea
is capable of greater perfection. For as the whole point of the thing is ro
delude the observer into thinking he is in the midst of narure, and nothing
must remind him of the deception, then in the future, quite different
arrangements will have ro be made. " 150
Kleist goes on ro enumerate ways in which the illusionistic effect of the
new m edium can be perfected: "In fact, one should stand on the painting
and be unable co discover a point on any side that is not part of the
painting. "151 Kleisr's notion of the ideal observer's position is in the image
and, fascinated by an image medium that sought co realize a different,
second nature, he made a sketch of his plans, now unfortunately lost.152
A prominent critic of the panorama, J ohann August Eberhard, de-
scribed their effect in his Handbuch der Asthetik (1805) and, regarding the
question whether they were suitable as a medium of art, answered em-
phatically in the negative. He first targets the deceptive character of the
medium: "the similarity of a copy ro true nature cannot be any greater." 153
In particular, the inability of the panorama to transport transitory events
and sounds, that is, a perfect illusion, results for Eberhard in a confusing
conflict between "appearance" and "truth" that can even cause physical
indisposition: "I sway between reality and unreality, between nature and
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and more in its use as a tool for education and instruction. During a visit
to Milan in 1833 he wrote: "I had been partly prepared for this view by
the admirable pre~entment of it in London, a year or two before, in an ex-
hibi cion, of which the vanishing has been in later life a g reatly felt loss to
me-Burford's pa norama in Leicester Square, which was an educational
institution of the highest and purest value, and ought co have been sup-
ported by the government as one of the most beneficial school instruments
in London." 161
The seep from using the panorama as an instrument of education to
sharpening its mass appeal and suggestive power in the direction of mass
propaganda is not a big one, even though it would probably never have
occurred co Ruskin. H owever, it did occur very soon co military leaders in
France and England. Admiral Lord Nelson, whose part in the naval battle
at Aboukir was a theme of one of Barker's panoramas in 1799, was per-
fectly aware of its impact; Barker wrote: "I was introduced ... to Lord
Nelson, who cook me by the hand, saying he was indebted to me for
keeping up the fame of his victory in the Battle of the Nile a year longer
than it would otherwise have lasted in the public estimation." 162 Napoleon
I, who was also a member of the Institut de France, fully appreciated the
potential for effective publicity and propaganda using the battle panorama
as a vehicle: On a visit to Thayer's panorama in 1810, he recognized that
the invention could be exploi red for propaganda if topical events were
presen ted to the public in a suggestive way. H e planned to build eight
rotundas showing representations of his battles in the park at Versailles.
If this plan had been realized, it would have been the first instance of
panoramas being used as permanent monuments co military battles. In
later years, there were many examples, for instance, Anton von W erner's
panorama, The Battle of Sedan. 163 Panoramas of battles fo r public con-
sumption are part of the medium's history from the very beginning. 164
. ":-.. .( - ..
.
..._
..,
...
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:.
*"_ . .,
Figure 2.19 "The Traveling Panoramist." Cartoons In Punch, July 14, 1849 marker/Jackson).
composed and produced is the theme of two cartoons in Punch that ap-
peared in 1849 (fig. 2 .19). Production was speeded up; whereas in the
early years, individual artists had taken years of painstaking work to pro-
duce a panorama, for example, in German-speaking countries, 166 shortly
after Barker's application for his patent, panoramas were being churned
out in Paris and London in just a few months. This was only possible
through technically rationalized processes and de-individualized methods
of painting the canvas- in short, the methods of industrial, profit-oriented
production. As early as 1798, panorama production in London was so well
organized that Robert Barker was able to exhibit several new paintings
each year .1 67
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Figure 2.20 Poole's vehicle for transporting panoramas. Photo by G.A.S. Ramschen, 14 x 27 cm.
In Paris, the second most financially powerful city after London, James
W. Thayer acquired the rights to the patent for France in 1799 and his
rotunda was run along similar business lines to Barker's. In Germany, the
panorama was also a success at first; however, production fell off in the
years 1830 ro 1840. 168 Parallel ro the erection of p ermanent circular
buildings in the cities, simpler wooden rotundas were constructed, which
toured rhe smaller rnwns (see fig. 2.20).
Shrewd logistics and tight business organization, often with foreign
investment in the form of shares traded on the stock exchanges, charac-
terized the economic side of panorama production. Soon, capital invest-
m ent exceeded that of any other visual artistic medium, and, ro minimize
the risk of bad investments and check. up on their competitors, companies
even engaged in industrial espionage. These external economic factors de-
termined the role of the artist. Contracts not only stipulated punctual and
exact realization of the agreed concept, they also included a commitment
not ro create further copies tor a different client. For this reason, prepara-
tory sketches and studies usually remained the property of the company
once the work was completed. Artists had no rights either ro the concept
or to the end product.
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In the interests of profit maximization, the operarors of the rotundas
extended opening times 169 and developed international marketing strat-
egies. When exhibition ar the original location ceased co be lucrative, the
canvas was rolled up and sent on tour to areas where people were affluent
_enough to be able to pay co see it. The paintings traveled thousands of
kilometers and were displayed in so many different places that they were
literally worn out. The Panorama of London, created in 1792, reached
Leipzig after eight years on tour. A newspaper remarked, "The painting is
so worn out and pale and all the sections so indistinct and confused that
the polite Saxons must muster all their tolerance and goodwill to recognize
this sorry sight as being that proclaimed by the pompous advertise-
ments."170 Standardization of canvas size around 1830 led to international
marketing on a large scale. 171 This blatant commercialism was responsible,
at least in part, for the rift that arose berween traditional artists and
panorama painters. The Hmnbm'ger Nachrichte-n newspaper reported from
England that "An academic expert report recently decided that panorama
and diorama painters should be barred from becoming members of the
Academy or professors of painring." 172
In the beginning, the rotundas were built in various forms bur increas-
ing institutionalization-later, buildings only housed panoramas with
standardized measurements-resulted in a typical form of building. A
new building technique utilizing a steel structure became the preferred
one. The buildings concealed an apparatus of remarkable technical sophis-
tication, although the observer inside could not see any of its features. In
the late phase of panorama construction, much attention was lavished on
external decoration. 173
As they targeted a broad international audience, panorama subjects
were selected for their popular appeal co the relevant sections of the public
and advertised extensively in the press and on posters. With these criteria
of selection, the subjects obviously did not include local interest, unknown
places, or individualized, allegorical, or mythological themes. For the most
part, the topic range was not driven by ideological considerations or any
variety of bourgeois democratic consciousness but was shaped by the nor-
mative forces of the market. H owever, to a limited extent panoramas did
reflect what interested the wealthier elements of society, for they were the
ones who were able ro afford the high entrance fees. In brief, panorama
themes can be classified in a few time phases and categories. 174 At first,
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there were many examples of "duplicate" cityscapes-views of the city
where the panorama exhibited, such as the panorama of London from the
top of the Albion Mills that was shown in London-which served to con-
vince the observers of the illusionistic potential of the new medium. These
were followed by topographical representations of national or European
locadons. 175 Often, the reason for choosing these particular subjects was
thar a place was well known or had spectacular scenery: The more exotic,
distant, or remote a location, the hig her the profits of the operacors. 176
The era of tourism was just beginning, and it found in the panorama,
with its longing for faraway places, a versatile ally. 177 However, as pan-
oramas brought the world to the cities of Europe and North America, for
some the panoramas became an "economical surrogate for travel." 178 Many
and detailed accounts appeared comparing "travels with the eye" to real
travels, and quite a few preferred the former, as did this anonymous
author: "What cost a couple of hundred pounds and half a year half a
century ago, now costs a shilling and a quarter of an hour. Throwing out
of the old account the innumerable miseries of travel, the insolence of
public functionaries, the roguery of innkeepers, the visitations of banditti
charged to the muzzle with sabre, pistol, and scapulary, and the rascality
of the custom-house officers, who plunder, passport in hand, the inde-
scribable desagrements of Italian cookery, and the insufferable annoyances of
that epicome of abomination, an Italian bed." 179 Even in the more sober
estimation of Alexander von Humbold t, the new 360° image medium 180
with its huge dimensions could "almost subsrimre for travelling through
different climes. The paintings on all sides evoke more than theatrical sce-
nery is capable of because the spectacor, captivated and transfixed as in a
magic circle and removed from distracting reality, believes himself to be
really surrounded by foreign nature." 181
The panorama was, to use Wolfgang Kemp's expression, "a space of
presence." 182 In addition to journeys through spaces, there were soon
examples of journeys through time. To this category belong rhe long series
depicting the Stations of the Cross (fig. 2.21) at the end of the nineteenth
century and the dozens of panoramas of historical battles. 183 Besides
chronicles of wars, images of the rise of imperialism began to appear.
Where colonial history offered spectacular events, landscapes, or battles,
these were presented to the imperial power's subjects in purportedly real-
istic panorama images. 184
-
Figure 2.21 Panorama of the Crucifixion. View from the visitors' platform. Altiitting 1903, by
Gebhard Fugel and coworkers. Photo: Erika Drave, SPA Stiftung Panorama Al totting. By kind
permission of Dr. Gebhard Streicher.
Chapter 2
-
Figure 2.22 "The Panoramist M. Tynaire Directing the Work." From Encyclopedie du siecle.
L'exposition de Paris, de 1900, Paris, 1900, p. 313.
ularly in connection with the depiction of distant places, this had not been
possible on this scale before. Moreover, these themes had to appeal to an
anonymous audience of hundreds of thousands. 186 If it did not succeed in
appealing to the masses, the panorama had not achieved its goal. Egali-
tarian treatment of the paying public was not the rule; entrance charges
were often high when the panorama first opened, taking advantage of
affluent sections of the marker, and, toward the end of its run, the price
would be reduced to cater to less well-off people. This is still a common
marketing strategy today and was already in place during the enti re hey-
day of the panorama. Whereas at the beginning of the nineteenth century,
panoramas targeted only the better off, between 1840 and 1870, they
addressed increasingly the middle classes. The era of truly egalitarian
panorama-going only began in the 1870s in France. 187 Nevert heless,
exclusivity of access for the well-to-do was still maintained through
pricing policies: Prices differed according to the day of the week and the
panorama. There were price supplements of up to 400 percent, which
segregated the audience effectively, protecting the upper classes from rub-
bing shoulders with the workers. 188
-
Notes
1. "A wall is no longer a tangible boundary of space bm, instead, rhe medium
of an optical idea." Srrocka (1990), p. 213. See also Schefold (1952), p. 158:
"With painted architectural illusions, he [the painter] rakes all plastic character
from the wall and fuses the imaginary space with the real one. Using only pictorial
decoration, the plastic character of che wall is completely negated. The pedestal
finishes wich a protruding ledge, in order ro support the painted columns and
pilascer, and the wall appears to fall back behind chem." Also, Strocka (1990),
p. 214: "The rigid order of the First Sryle period was replaced by hitherro
unavailable possibilities of pictorial representacion that no longer delimited the
boundaries of space bur, inscead, extended space and realiry." See also Borbein
(1975), p. 61: "There is no doubt that the vistas chrough the space are not merely
perspectival figures; they are intended to be views into other spaces." Similarly
Wesenberg (1985), p. 473, and Andreae (1967), p. 202: The "framed view of the
landscape" was "inserted into the illusionistic views through the painted architec-
ture using all possible means of deception in order to create the impression of
looking through an apparent opening inro the outside world."-In Pliny's Natu-
ra/is Historia, there is a description of Apelles's painting of Alexander. Alexander
swings a thunder bolt, which, together with the hand holding it, projects from the
picture and appears to hang in the observer's space.
2. This vii/a s1tblt'rbana was discovered in 1909 and excavated under rhe direc-
tion of de Petra.
4. For details on the cult of Dionysius and its followers, see Merkelbach
(1988).
5. This interpretation was given by both Bieber and Toynbee in the late
1920s: See Bieber (1928); Toynbee (1929). See also che interpretacions of Simon
(1961), pp. 111-172 and Herbig (1958).
Chapter 2
Access Provided by Oberlin College at 08/28/12 7:04AM GMT
Hand and Eye:
Excavating a New Technology of the Image
in the Victorian Era
Tom Gunning
T
he very concept of a Victorian cinema sounds a bit contradic-
tory to most ears, since we primarily think of cinema as “the
art of the 20th century.”1 However, cinema was invented during
the Victorian era and its basic technology—the motion picture camera,
the film projector, even celluloid films, not to mention the infrastruc-
ture of production companies and means of distribution—emerged
shortly before or during the 1890s, preceding the twentieth century by
at least a decade.2 This nineteenth-century cinema hardly evokes an
archaic world, but rather exemplifies the experience of modernity. Yet
confronting the nineteenth-century roots of cinema in some ways
resembles the archaeologist’s excavation of buried artifacts, uncov-
ering forgotten technologies in order to establish the foundations of a
later culture.
The relative oblivion within popular imagination of these initial
years of cinema is partly due to the lack of resemblance between early
cinema and the cinema we know best. There was no Hollywood in the
1890s. Not only was the center of film production not yet found on the
American west coast, but even American dominance of film production
occurred only about two decades into the twentieth century, after World
War I. For the first decade of film history, the cinema production of
A bstract: The possibility of a Victorian cinema extends beyond the first decade of cine-
ma’s innovation at the end of Victoria’s reign if we include the flourishing of optical
devices know as “philosophical toys” in the nineteenth century. This essay focuses on the
device known as the thaumatrope, invented by John Ayrton Paris in the 1820s. The
“wonder-turner” used rapid revolutions of a disk imprinted with matching partial
images (such as a bird on one side and a cage on the other) to create a perceptual image
that fused both sides into a single appearance. I call such optical toys “technological
images” because they manipulate human perception through a mechanical device.
Although the thaumatrope fuses an image rather than animating one, its novelty as an
optical device inaugurates an era of ever more complex technological images.
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France and even Britain surpassed that of the United States: France in
quantity and Britain, I would claim, in quality (British cinema arguably
reached its high point in the era before 1907, especially in the innovative
films of the so-called “Brighton School” of James Williamson, Cecil
Hepworth, and G. A. Smith). Further, while cinema constituted an
important novelty before the end of Victoria’s regime, it did not yet func-
tion, as classical Hollywood did later, as a “dream factory,” the source of
popular narratives and mythical stars. This was an era of short rather
than feature-length films, rarely more than 8 or 9 minutes and in the
1890s generally even less, with nonfiction filmmaking dominating over
fictional narratives. Two culminating events of Victoria’s reign put
cinema firmly in the public eye in Britain: the films taken of her Diamond
Jubilee in 1897, especially the procession through London, which was
covered by dozens of cameramen, and then her 1901 state funeral.3 Films
of these events were shown throughout the empire, marking the moment
when public spectacle became a media event. (Films of the Boer War,
with some documentaries filmed on location and more re-staged in
Britain, also established film’s broad popularity.4) These films mark the
emergence of modern media, a new sense of contemporary history as a
mediated event and a culture conveyed by the technological image,
recordable and transportable.
Rather than a medium of stories and stars, cinema at the point
of its origin functioned primarily as a technical novelty. “Animated
pictures,” to use a phrase frequently applied to the nascent medium of
cinema, offered the latest in a long series of optical devices. I am most
concerned with cinema’s place within this series, rather than with the
brief, if essential, original period of projected films during the Victo-
rian era. Rather than describing and analyzing the short (but often
very rich) films produced during this time, I analyze cinematic and
optical devices—their discourses, practices, and affect. My investiga-
tion begins much earlier in the nineteenth century (even a decade or
so before Victoria’s reign) so as to trace a fundamental change in the
nature of the image: its essential, if somewhat primitive, integration
with technology through optical devices. These devices were commonly
referred to as “philosophical toys,” a complex, nearly oxymoronic term
that richly expresses their dual purposes of enlightenment and enter-
tainment—with the primary purpose of using the entertaining aspect
of toys to instruct children in scientific principles, thereby making
education enjoyable and entertaining. Operated by hand and intended
to produce a visual effect, these toys were both manual and percep-
tual. They not only united amusement with education, but also
employed a mechanical device to manipulate human perception by
coordinating the hand and the eye. In what follows, the examination
of such objects and their uses resembles an archaeology, wherein I
characterize a broad transformation in the nature of imagery, of which
cinema was one development. This transformation is long, gradual,
and still continuing in today’s era of new media. Modes of representa-
tion and narration become radically revised through new interfaces
with the processes of perception and the precision of technology.
Archaeologists traditionally search for origins, attempting to
uncover the arche or foundation on which things are set.5 My focus is
on artifacts that preceded the more technological and industrial
systems of cinema that emerged in the 1890s. Although technological
and even commercial, and decidedly modern, these artifacts are less
tools than toys, yet defining their intended tasks and objects of scru-
tiny is important to understanding their role in the archaeology of the
cinema. Rather than comb the origins of cinema for the inventions
that “started it all”—as if to trace cinema’s genealogy back to a secure
paternity—I describe a period of novelty in which something changed
fundamentally. Rather than try to situate this change in a precise
moment, I want to get a handle on the way media, especially images,
changed in the modern era. During the Victorian era, a new way of
producing and viewing images emerged, a transformation so broad we
still have trouble seeing it. By returning to its early stages, I hope to
glimpse the appearance of a modern image culture, at once profoundly
technological and perceptual: one whose novelty may lie in how deeply
it coordinated the perceptual and the technological.
Academically speaking, the Victorian era is more often associ-
ated with literature and the domain of writing than with the realm of
images, despite the triumphs of painting, photography, and spectacle
that mark that era. But one could more accurately claim that the Victo-
rian era is marked by a peculiar intertwining of word and image that
characterized the great age of the illustrated novel, the art writing and
criticism of Ruskin and others, narrative painting, and the spectacle
stage.6 The technological image I am describing here seemed to justify
itself partly as a means of achieving this integration of word and image
and even a new process of reading and writing, one of whose future
forms would be cinematography, the writing of motion. Even the
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1824. The device was offered for sale in 1825 at Stationer’s Hall in
London (Barnes, Dr. Paris 8). A scientific discussion of it, published in
1826 in the Edinburgh Journal of Science, attributed its invention to Paris
and was most likely written by the distinguished scientist David Brewster
who served as the editor of that journal, and who later also discussed the
device in his Letters on Natural Magic (1832) (Dr. Paris 8).
Paris aggressively promoted the device’s role as an educational
toy, especially through a long, rather novelistic book he wrote and origi-
nally published anonymously in 1827. Explaining how toys and games
could teach young people about the nature of the universe and their
own perceptions, this popular book, which went through eight editions
and revisions, embeds these devices in a revealing discourse of popular
nineteenth-century science and instruction. The book’s title says it all:
Philosophy in Sport Made Science in Earnest: An attempt to illustrate the first
principles of natural philosophy by the aid of popular toys and sports.7 The
chapter Paris devotes to the thaumatrope opens with a clear argument
for the educational use of illusions, an essential move in Enlightenment
philosophy: questioning the human senses and demonstrating their
unreliability. The trick of the thaumatrope, Paris explains, lies not just in
a sleight of hand, like a conjurer’s illusion, but lurks concealed in the eye
itself, whose complex nature the device demonstrates. Mr. Seymour, the
narrator who operates the toy, declares to his young charges, “I will now
show you that the eye also has its source of fallacy.” His adult interlocutor,
the local vicar, exclaims after a demonstration of the toy’s visual illusion,
“If you proceed in this manner, you will make us into Cartesians.” Paris
adds a useful footnote to explain the reference: “The Cartesians main-
tained that the senses were the great sources of deception; that every-
thing with which they present us ought to be suspected as false, or at
least dubious, until our reason has confirmed the report” (337).8 Paris’s
comment reveals how seriously he took the term “philosophical” in
philosophical toys. While the adjective simply denoted the device’s
demonstrative and pedagogical function, key philosophical attitudes
about the nature of perception and the role of the subject are embedded
in the toys and the discourse surrounding them. Paris’s book provides
the clearest extended example, but in almost all cases such toys were
accompanied by written instructions that described the best methods
of handling the top as well as the toy’s significance.
Yet the thaumatrope’s relation to a realm of discourse, its
involvement in a technology of reading, is not limited simply to the
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502 Tom Gunning
Although Paris may not have possessed the philology of Neer, the
visual oscillation at the core of thauma exemplifies the visual play this
toy engenders. As Neer puts it, “wonder derives from the fact that a
single thing can somehow be two things at once” (63). Herein lies the
essence of the thaumatrope: the visual experience of the merging of
two things as one.
As with most philosophical toys, the lessons offered by the thau-
matrope depended on the manipulator not only being in control of the
device, but also being able to examine its elements both in motion and
stillness. Anyone could see that each side of the disk presented only one
element of the composite image produced by spinning. Thus, in contrast
to the traditional magic trick, whose illusion remains mysterious because
the secret is kept close by the prestidigitator, the philosophical toy is a
tool of demonstration and demystification. The illusion could be both
produced and deconstructed by the child who operated the device, once
instructed by a knowledgeable adult.
Exploiting (and explaining) the effect of persistence of vision,
the classic thaumatrope’s composite images (a bird and a cage; a vase
and flowers; a horse and a rider; a bald man [or woman] and a wig)
produced a superimposition, merging two separate pictures into a new
unity, perhaps as Hegelian as it was Cartesian. As visual as its effect
may be, Paris delighted in embedding it in a literary context. He indi-
cates that the composite image might also supply an effect of transfor-
mation. The thaumatrope disks would be perfect, he believed, for
illustrating the changes wrought in Ovid’s Metamorphoses: Daphne’s
transformation into a laurel tree could appear to show leaves sprouting
from her fingers and her arms lengthening into branches (Paris
351–53). Such two-phase transformations recall many earlier devices,
such as blow books, transforming pictures, or magic lantern slipping
slides, which showed two contrasting stages of an action or transforma-
tion and used a rapid transition from one to the other to evoke the
actual movement needed to accomplish the change.
As an educational toy, the wonder-turner not only served to
demonstrate the fallible nature of human perception; it could also be
used to interest youths in Classical literature and mythology, as movie
adaptations of Victorian novels are used in high schools today. But
relating the metamorphoses of Ovid to the device did more than just
familiarize children with a standard text. As I indicated earlier, visual
devices in the Victorian era often broached the borders between the
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504 Tom Gunning
verbal and the pictorial. From the end of the eighteenth century to the
beginning of the twentieth, a variety of visual entertainments and
devices—beginning with Robertson’s Phantasmagoria, Philip James de
Loutherberg’s Eidophusikon, and the development of the magic lantern
into the form of dissolving views—provided poets and novelists (and
occasionally philosophers and political thinkers) with new metaphors
for both perceptual and psychological experiences. Such metaphorical
uses of visual technology also opened up less rational analogies of the
psyche and technology, as Terry Castle demonstrates in her work on
the eighteenth century and the emergence of the Gothic (140–67).
While Paris’s rationalist commentary stresses the thau-
matrope’s role in teaching children not to trust the evidence of their
senses, the device also delighted them with a new sort of paradox,
presenting a visual metamorphosis, albeit one produced mechanically
rather than mythologically: a return of thauma in a new mode. A
conception of the image as holding the possibility of transformation, a
labile identity, defines an essential aspect of the new technological/
perceptual image, one whose immateriality transformed the tradi-
tional static ideal of pictorial representation. The shuddering, super-
imposed thaumatrope image seems poised to morph into either
motion or transformation. It embodies the power and uncertainty of
thauma.
This conception of an image that transforms before our very
eyes asserts the power of vision while also maintaining a relation to the
verbal and literary. Paris’s evocation of metamorphosis exceeds the
possibility of illustrating Ovid, as the very name of this device reveals.
Let us switch our focus from thauma to trope. Paris’s original publicity
for his toy doggedly plays on the trope part of his neologism, accenting
its ambiguous translation as “turn.” Trope denotes the motility of the
device, but also references a more common meaning: a turn of phrase,
a linguistic deviation from the norm, a twist in signification. And in
fact the original offering of the thaumatrope at Stationer’s Hall
described the toy in punning terms: “The Thaumatrope being Rounds
of Amusement, or How to please and surprise by turns” (Barnes, Dr.
Paris 22). Paris keeps the pun running and gives it a peculiarly techno-
logical twist when he describes his toy as a sort of literary machine, a
device for the simultaneous creation of puns and visual tropes (and an
uncanny anticipation of computer-generated poetry):
The Quarterly Review has asserted that a certain English poem was fabricated in
Paris by the powers of a steam engine; but the author of the present invention claims
for himself the exclusive merit of having first constructed a hand-mill, by which
puns and epigrams may be turned with as much ease as tunes are played on the
hand-organ, and old jokes so rounded and changed, as to assume all the airs of origi-
nality. . . . He trusts that his discovery may afford the happy means of giving activity
to wit that has long been stationary; of revolutionizing the present system of standing
jokes, and putting into rapid circulation the most approved bon mots. (342)
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506 Tom Gunning
Part of a sentence may be written on one side of a card and the rest on the reverse.
Particular letters may be given on one side and others upon the other or even half
or parts of each letter may be put upon each side, or all these contrivances may be
combined so that the sentiment that they express can be understood only when
the scattered parts are united by the revolution of the card. (35)
There are few machines, indeed, that rise higher above the operation of human
skill. It will create, in a single hour, what a thousand artists could not invent in the
course of a year; and while it works with such unexampled rapidity, it works also
with a corresponding beauty and precision. (Kaleidoscope, 136)
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508 Tom Gunning
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510 Tom Gunning
In the case of the optical toys, the viewer became one with the apparatus; he or she
was in the apparatus, became the apparatus. In the optical theater, the image put
into motion was, on the contrary, completely independent of the viewer. The
viewer was cast beyond the limits of the apparatus and was kept at a distance from
it, no longer having anything to manipulate. (239)
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512 Tom Gunning
NOTES
1
The phrase appears, for instance, in the very useful and reliable reference
work Who’s Who of Victorian Cinema edited by Stephen Herbert and Luke McKernan.
2
For a detailed account of the development of the cinema during this period,
focused especially on Britain, see Barnes, Beginnings. For an account of the industrial
and commercial infrastructure of production, distribution, and exhibition see Brown
and Anthony.
3
See the thorough account of these films in Barnes, Beginnings, volumes 2 and 5.
4
On the Boer War films, see Barnes volume 4 and the contemporary account of
filming in South Africa by William K. L. Dickson, The Biograph in Battle.
5
The term “media archaeology” has been introduced for the investigation of
the foundations of our media culture. This essay certainly forms part of this project.
For a thorough and thoughtful discussion of this term, its history, and its range of
methods see the recent anthology Media Archaeology, edited by Erkki Huhtamo and Jussi
Parikka, especially Huhtamo and Parikka’s excellent introduction (1–21).
6
I will not attempt to reference the extensive work on Victorian visuality, but I
do want to indicate my debt to Martin Meisel’s classic work Realizations: Narrative, Picto-
rial and Theatrical Arts in Nineteenth-Century England, as well as the more recent work of
Rachel Teukolsky, The Literate Eye: Victorian Art Writing and Modern Aesthetics.
7
The book is available in several reprint editions, as well as online from Google
Books.
8
This reference to Cartesians does not appear in the book’s first edition. As
John Barnes points out, the thaumatrope description was greatly revised in the third
edition.
9
Some parts of this section occur in a slightly different version in my discussion
of the thaumatrope in my essay, “The Play between Still and Moving Images: Nine-
teenth-Century ‘Philosophical Toys’ and their Discourse.”
spring 2012
514 Tom Gunning
Doane’s essay has been published in German translation, but I have used a
10
manuscript of the English version kindly provided by the author. Doane is speaking of
the flipbook and therefore of a “moving image” but her keen observation applies to the
thaumatrope images as well.
WORKS CITED
spring 2012
..........“Memory Bytes is an important contribution to
MEMORY BYTES
Digital culture/Media studies
the growing body of scholarship taking the current moment of media change as an LAUREN RABINOVITZ AND
author of Visual Pedagogy: Media Cultures in and beyond the Classroom ........Digital
culture is often characterized as radically breaking with past technologies, practices,
and ideologies rather than as reflecting or incorporating them. Memory Bytes seeks to
counter such ahistoricism, arguing for the need to understand digital culture—and its
social, political, and ethical ramifications—in historical and philosophical context.
Looking at a broad range of technologies, including photography, print and digital
media, heat engines, stereographs, and medical imaging, the contributors present a
number of different perspectives from which to reflect on the nature of media change.
While foregrounding the challenges of drawing comparisons across varied media
and eras, Memory Bytes explores how technologies have been integrated into society
at different moments in time........These essays from scholars in the social sciences
and humanities cover topics related to science and medicine, politics and war, mass
communication, philosophy, film, photography, and art. Whether describing how
the cultural and legal conflicts over player piano rolls prefigured controversies over
the intellectual property status of digital technologies such as mp3 files, comparing
the experiences of watching QuickTime movies to Joseph Cornell’s “boxed relic”
sculptures of the 1930s and 1940s, or calling for a critical history of electricity from
the Enlightenment to the present, Memory Bytes is a lively, enlightening examination Edited by
of the interplay of technology and culture. ......LAUREN RABINOVITZ is Professor
Rabinovitz
of American Studies and Cinema at the University of Iowa. She is the author of For
the Love of Pleasure: Women, Movies, and Culture in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago and Points and Geil
of Resistance: Women, Power, and Politics in the New York Avant-Garde Cinema, 1943–1971
and coeditor of Television, History, and American Culture: Feminist Critical Essays, also
published by Duke University Press. ABRAHAM GEIL is an instructor in media
history at the New School University in New York City. . ......
DUKE History, Technology, and Digital Culture
Duke University Press ...........................
Box 90660, Durham, NC 27708-0660 www.dukeupress.edu
Lauren Rabinovitz
tooted, wheels clattered, and air blew into the travelers’ faces. It
was the first virtual voyage, a multisensory simulation of railway
tourism.
By the end of the 1906 summer season, there were more than five
hundred installations at amusement parks and storefront theaters
in all major U.S. and Canadian cities. Hale’s Tours also opened in
Mexico City, Havana, Melbourne, Paris, London, Berlin, Bremen,
Hamburg, Hong Kong, and Johannesburg.15 They were highly suc-
cessful and often were among a park’s biggest moneymaker conces-
sions.16
MORE THAN THE MOVIES 107
Imitators and variants that capitalized on Hale and Gifford’s im-
mediate success quickly followed. In New York and Chicago there
were Palace Touring Cars, Hurst’s Touring New York, and Cessna’s
Sightseeing Auto Tours. Another, Citron’s Overland Flyer, differenti-
ated itself merely by offering draw-curtains at the side windows that
could be opened and closed in synchronization with the beginning
and end of the motion and sound effects.17 (Hale and Gifford even-
tually bought out Citron’s patents.)18 Other modes of transporta-
tion varied the formula only slightly. Auto Tours of the World and
Sightseeing in the Principal Cities changed the railroad vehicle to an
automobile and added painted moving panoramas to the sides of
the open car. In addition, they ‘‘stopped the car’’ in order to take
their passengers to an adjacent electric theater showing a variety of
moving pictures.19 White & Langever’s Steamboat Tours of the World
applied the Hale’s Tour concept to water travel. They employed an
actual ferry to transport patrons to a ‘‘marine-illusion boat,’’ where
moving pictures were projected in the front of a stationary boat that
seated up to two hundred people. Mechanical apparatuses rocked
and oscillated the mock boat, rotating paddle wheels beneath the
deck ‘‘simulat[ed] the sound of paddle-wheels employed for propul-
sion,’’ and fans blew breezes in the face of the audience to ‘‘give the
impression that they are traveling.’’ 20 The illusion boat included a
steam calliope as well.
Hruby & Plummer’s Tours and Scenes of the World appropriated all
these concepts but made them more generic for traveling carni-
vals so that they could set up a train, boat, or automobile.21 Hruby’s
rocked and oscillated both the seat bases and the upper portions of
the chairs.22 Other movie-illusion rides simulated hot air balloon
travel, including one patented in 1906 by Pittsburgh film manufac-
turer Sigmund Lubin.23
A Trip to California over Land and Sea, however, may have been the
most ingenious of the imitators. It combined railway and marine
illusion travel. It offered first the fantasy of a cross-country rail jour-
ney to California, followed by the sensation of the car being dropped
into the water to turn the vehicle into a boat for travel down the
California coast. Its advertisement proclaimed that the effect was
‘‘the car being instantaneously transformed into a beautiful vessel
which gives you a boat ride along the coast, the performance ending
with a sensational climax (a Naval Battle and Storm at Sea).’’ 24
Hale’s Tours films typically featured the landscape as the train
108 LAUREN RABINOVITZ
picked up speed so that the details accelerating into the foreground
were the featured information. The films employed both editing
and camera movements but usually only after presenting an ex-
tended shot (often one to two minutes or longer in a film seven to
eight minutes in length) organized by the locomotion of the cam-
era. The initial effect then was a continuous flow of objects rushing
toward the camera. The camera, mounted at a slightly tipped angle,
showed the tracks in the foreground as parallel lines that converge
at the horizon, an important indicator of perspectival depth. Tele-
phone poles, bridges, tunnels, and other environmental markers in
the frame also marked continuous flow according to the lines of per-
spective. Passing through tunnels effected a particularly dramatic
difference of darkness/light, no image/moving image, and inter-
ruption/flow. The repetition of all these elements contributed to an
overall impression that the perceptual experience of camera motion
is a re-creation of the flow of the environment.
Hale’s Tours, however, did not have to maintain a strict cowcatcher
point of view to get across its sensations. The emphasis on flow
and perspective of travel was frequently broken in order to display
dramatic incidents and bits of social mingling between men and
women, different classes, farmers and urbanites, train employees
and civilians, ordinary citizens and outlaws. Changes of locale oc-
curred abruptly through editing, moving the camera position, or
abandoning altogether the perspective from the front or rear of the
train. When this happened, the film usually expanded its travel for-
mat to offer views of accompanying tourist attractions or to stretch
the travelogue with comic or dramatic scenes. A 1906 advertisement
in the New York Clipper for Hale’s Tours listed five ‘‘humorous rail-
way scenes’’ that could be included in Hale’s Tours programs.25 Trip
Through the Black Hills (Selig Polyscope, 1907) covered ‘‘the difficul-
ties of trying to dress in a Pullman berth.’’ 26 In addition, the early
film classic The Great Train Robbery (Edison Manufacturing Com-
pany, 1903) played in Hale’s Tours cars.
It was not unusual for the films to cut regularly to the interior of a
railroad car, producing a ‘‘mirror image’’ of the social space in which
the ridefilm patron was seated. These films were thus not purely
travelogues but also addressed the social relations and expectations
connected with the experience of travel. They suggest that what was
fundamental to the ridefilm was not merely the sight of the ‘‘destina-
tion’’ and the sensation of immersion in it, but the experience—both
MORE THAN THE MOVIES 109
Grand Hotel to Big Indian
(American Mutoscope & Biograph, 1906).
physical and social—of being in that place. Thus, Hale’s Tours com-
modified the logic of a new experience—the inscription of being of
the world.
Early accounts of these ridefilms are reminiscent of the reception
of the earliest Lumiere films: ‘‘The illusion was so good that . . .
members of the audience frequently yelled at pedestrians to get out
of the way or be run down.’’ 27 It is noteworthy that in the latter
report spectators do not jump out of the way (as they did in the
reports about Lumiere film showings) because they do not under-
stand things coming at them inasmuch as they understand them-
110 LAUREN RABINOVITZ
selves moving forward; they instead yell at onscreen pedestrians to
get out of the way. As film historian Noel Burch summarized: ‘‘These
spectators . . . were already in another world than those who, ten
years earlier, had jumped up in terror at the filmed arrival of a train
in a station: [they] . . . are masters of the situation, they are ready
to go through the peephole.’’ 28 But Burch makes the mistake of think-
ing that Hale’s Tours depended entirely on its capacity to effect this
visual, out-of-body projection into the diegesis. He fails to see that
these illusion rides were always more than movies; they were about
a physiological and psychological experience associated with travel.
Hale’s Tours riders themselves may have recognized this element.
One reporter describes a rider: ‘‘One demented fellow even kept
coming back to the same show, day after day. Sooner or later, he fig-
ured, the engineer would make a mistake and he would get to see a
train wreck.’’ 29 The ‘‘demented fellow,’’ ostensibly a victim of hyper-
realism, may have actually recognized the delicious terror of Hale’s
Tours better than Burch, because it is precisely the anticipation of
disaster that provides the thrill at the heart of Hale’s Tours and all
other ridefilms. The new mode of railway travel that Hale’s Tours
worked so hard to simulate was not necessarily understood by its
public as the simple, safe technology we assume it to be today. Wolf-
gang Schivelbusch has shown that railroad passengers generally felt
ambivalent about train travel and that, despite their thrill at being
part of a ‘‘projectile shot through space and time,’’ passengers also
had an ‘‘ever-present fear of a potential disaster.’’ 30 The turn-of-the-
century press certainly thrived on stories of streetcar and railway
disasters and death.31 Indeed, Lynne Kirby persuasively argues that
Hale’s Tours best unified ‘‘the perceptual overlap between the rail-
road and the cinema’’ and that the ‘‘imagination of disaster’’ repre-
sented the experience of both railway traveler and moviegoer.32 The
fantasy of seeing technology go out of control and the pleasure in
the resulting terror is integral to the spectatorial process.
Illusion ride manufacturers understood this fact. Their adver-
tisements privileged the motion effects and the physical sensation
of travel. (Their patent applications, after all, asked to cover the
motion effects and the installation rather than the projectors and
screens, which were already patented to other companies.) They re-
peatedly emphasized the synchronization of visual, kinesthetic, and
sound effects as the unique property of the apparatus. More than
what was viewed out of the window, the cognitive convergence of
MORE THAN THE MOVIES 111
sensory information provided the basis for the illusion that ‘‘you are
really there.’’
The content of Hale’s Tours was important for its contribution to
the overall effect of the spectator made over into a traveler, and it
did not require a visual point-of-view literalism for the realism of
the experience. What was fundamental to the illusion ride was not
merely the sight of the ‘‘destination’’ but the sensation of visual im-
mersion, because vision was linked to the physical and social ex-
perience of being in that place—a place that extended the notion of
the phantasmagoric space of cinema from the screen to the theater
itself.
Imax
Blue Planet
(Graeme Ferguson, producer; 1990).
Modern Motion Simulation Rides
Modern motion simulation rides date from 1986, the year that
Douglas Trumbull installed Tour of the Universe at Toronto’s cn
Tower. His tourist attraction was a simulated space adventure that
featured Trumbull’s high-speed Showscan process of 70mm film
cinematography. It inspired Star Tours, the Disney and Lucasfilm
collaboration the following year. Star Tours (eventually installed at
all Disney theme parks) became the industry model. Like Tour of
the Universe, Star Tours was designed to show only one film and used
the theater’s architecture as well as a lobby ‘‘preshow’’ to activate
and advance the narrative. Since then, Disney has added a second
motion simulation ride at its Epcot Center in Orlando (Body Wars,
1989), a Fantastic Voyage-like journey inside a human body where
something goes wrong and the body becomes a cosmic force that
wreaks havoc on the little ship. A handful of other companies supply
motion simulation rides to Disney’s park competitors, to shopping
mall theaters, to hotels, and to other entertainment zones, and the
largest companies use their own integrated systems: Imax Corpo-
ration, Iwerks Entertainment, and Showscan.44
In 1993, Trumbull’s In Search of the Obelisk (part of a theatrical
trilogy titled Secrets of the Luxor Pyramid ) at the Hotel Luxor in Las
Vegas marked the maturation of modern ridefilms. Designed and
installed as part of the hotel’s overall conception, it demonstrates
the degree to which a motion simulation theater has become a stan-
dard feature for Las Vegas hotels and entertainment complexes. In
Search of the Obelisk relies on the surrounding narrative associations
of the hotel’s pyramid structure and a video preshow to launch a fic-
tional rescue mission through time into a lost civilization. The film
itself is a combination of live action, computer-generated imagery,
matte models, and other cinematic special effects: it results in a ver-
tiginous diegesis that spins around and upside down so much that
it eludes any references to north, east, west, or southerly directions.
The only onscreen spatial anchor is the narrative’s ‘‘pilot,’’ who ap-
pears in the center onscreen and speaks over his shoulder to the
audience/passengers ‘‘behind him.’’
While some ridefilms—like those at Disney parks, the Hotel Luxor,
Universal Studios, or Busch Gardens—are fixed (one film only) so
that they can coordinate the setting and the film, most motion simu-
lation rides change films on a regular basis and are thus housed in
116 LAUREN RABINOVITZ
more generic movie theaters, such as Iwerks’s Turbo Ride Theaters.
These ridefilms depend on computer technologies not simply for
the movies’ special effects but for software-driven movie products
that can simultaneously control and synchronize the hydraulics of
the seats. This, in turn, allows theater owners to change the bill of
fare regularly and without the expense of continuously adapting the
moviehouse for each new attraction.
Each of the major companies that builds such generic ridefilm the-
aters also produces films, but each also relies for a regular supply of
films from independent production companies. These theaters offer
a ‘‘preshow’’ only to the extent that video monitors displayed in the
lobby and halls outside plain, boxlike auditoriums repetitively loop
narrative prologues while the audience waits to enter the theater.
Just a small sample of titles includes: Alpine Race (Showscan, 1991),
Space Race (Showscan, 1991), Sub-Oceanic Shuttle (Iwerks Enter-
tainment, 1991), Devil’s Mine Ride (Showscan, 1993), Asteroid Adven-
ture (Imax Corporation, 1993), River Runners (Omni Films Inter-
national, 1993), Robo Cop: The Ride (Iwerks Entertainment, 1993),
Seafari (Rhythm and Hues, Inc., 1994), Dino Island (Iwerks Enter-
tainment, 1995), Funhouse Express (Imax Ridefilm, 1995), Red Rock
Run (Iwerks Entertainment, 1996), Smash Factory (Midland Produc-
tions, 1996), Days of Thunder (Iwerks Entertainment, 1996), Secrets
of the Lost Temple (Iwerks Entertainment, 1997), and Aliens: Ride at
the Speed of Fright (Iwerks Entertainment, 1997).
Unlike Hales Tours, which emphasized picturesque travel, topo-
graphical landmarks, and tourist travel experiences, the indepen-
dent ridefilms are dominated by fantasy travel that features the
scenery of outer space, futuristic cities, and lost civilizations (espe-
cially inside mountains, pyramids, or mines), (although there are
also representations of present-day automobile races, train pano-
ramas, and amusement park views). Ridefilms rely on the same
cinematic conventions as Hale’s Tours and Imax, in effect persuad-
ing spectators to perceive their bodies as hurtling forward through
time and space because they visually perceive a flow of environmen-
tal motion toward them. Most often, these visual cues consist of
passing vehicles or features of the landscape represented in fore-
shortened animation and of colors rendered by computer-generated
imagery that swirl and change. These cinematic light shows are
not only indirect successors to Cinerama and other widescreen spe-
cial effects but also are direct heirs to Douglas Trumbull’s famous
MORE THAN THE MOVIES 117
‘‘Stargate Corridor’’ sequence in 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and
owe their signification of moving forward in interplanetary space
as much to the precedent of that film’s representation of strobo-
scopic colored lights as to more conventional graphic indicators of
perspectival foreshortening and depth.
Modern motion simulation rides not only offer physically jolting
movements synchronized to the onscreen action, but they repeat-
edly inscribe technology run amuck. Vehicles that are out of con-
trol motivate the wild ride and dominate the field. The vehicles
might be racecars, airplanes, spaceships, submarines, or mine carts
and trains. Two producers of animated ridefilms say that prac-
tically all of the narratives of dangerous adventure depend on a
small number of technological and mechanical crises—a bad land-
ing, ‘‘something’s wrong with our ship,’’ ‘‘Oops! Wrong direction!’’
or an encounter with an evil creature—which may occur singly or
in combination.45 For example, Star Tours (1987) features an inter-
planetary shuttle trip with Star Wars androids who head the wrong
way, then try to hide from and avoid enemy ships, and finally crash
land the vehicle. The popular Back to the Future—The Ride (Douglas
Trumbull, Berkshire Ridefilm, 1991), which plays at the Universal
Studios theme parks in California and Florida, takes its inspiration
from the Hollywood film after which it is named. It advances a
simple plot using the movie’s characters and narrative premise in
order to combine outer space flight, time travel, the reckless pursuit
of a villain, problems with the ship’s mechanical systems, and the
requisite bumpy ride that frequently and narrowly averts disaster.
Narrativization is an equally important marker of realism in the
modern simulation rides, although it is employed differently than
in Hale’s Tours. This is interesting in light of the fact that the shift
effected by the films in Hale’s Tours was a novel one, a way of intro-
ducing narrative strategies to the cinema, whereas narrativization in
today’s ridefilms relies on a conservation of Hollywood’s dominant
strategy.
For example, Secrets of the Lost Temple (Iwerks Entertainment,
1997) offers a cinematically conventional exposition—all in third-
person point of view—of a teenage boy finding a book on the floor of
a mausoleumlike library. Opening the mysterious book, he is trans-
ported to another dimension in a blinding flash of light and demate-
rialization. Certainly, the prologue’s purpose is not only to explain
Conclusion
Notes