Introduction to Differential Equations

1.1 Definition and Terminology

1.2 Initial-Value Problems
1.3 Differential Equations as Mathematical Models

CHAPTER 1 IN REVIEW

The words differential and equations suggest solving some kind of equation that contains
derivatives y ' , y ' ' , …. Analogous to a course in algebra, in which a good amount of time is
spent solving equations such as x 2+ 5 x + 4=0 for the unknow number x , in this course one of
our tasks will be to solve differential equations such as y ' ' +2 y ' + y=0 for an unknow function
y=ϕ ( x ) . As the course unfolds, you will see there is more to the study of differential
equations than just mastering methods that mathematicians over past centuries devised to
solve them. But first things first. In order to read, study, and be conversant in a specialized
subject you have to learn some of the terminology of that discipline. This is the thrust of the
first two sections of this chapter. In the last section we briefly examine the link between
differential equations and the real world.

1.1 Definitions and terminology

INTRODUCTION The derivative dy /dx of a function y=ϕ ( x ) is itself another function ϕ ' ( x )
2
fund by an appropriate rule. The exponential function y=e0.1 x is differentiable on the interval
2 2
(−∞ , ∞ ) and by the Chain Rule its first derivative is dy /dx=0.2 e x 0.1 x . if we replace e 0.1 x on
the right-hand side of the last equation by the symbol y , the derivative becomes

dy
=0.2 xy
dx

(1)

Now imagine that a friend of yours simply hands you equation (1)-you have no idea how it it
was constructed-and asks, what is the function represented by the symbol y ? You are now face
to face with one of the basic problems in this course:

How do you solve an equation such as (1) for the function y=ϕ ( x ) ?

A DEFINITION The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential equation. Before
proceeding any further, let us consider more precise definition of this concept.

DEFINTION 1.1.1 Differential Equation

An equation containing the derivatives of one or more unknow functions (or dependent
variables), with respect to one or more independent variables, is said to be a differential
equation (DE).

To talk about them, we shall classify differential equations according to type, order, and
linearity.
CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE If a differential equation contain only ordinary derivatives of one or
more unknow functions with respect to a single independent variable, it is said to be an
ordinary differential equation (ODE). An equation involving partial derivatives of one or more
unknow function of two or more independent variables is called a partial differential equation
(PDE). Our first example illustrates several of each type of differential equation.

EXAMPLE 1 Types of Differential Equations

(a) The equations

2
dy x d y ,∧dx dy
+5 y =e , 2 =0 + =2 x + y
dx dx dt dt
On ODE can contain more than one unknown function (2)
Are examples of ordinary differential equations.
(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:
∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂ u ∂u −∂ v −∂ v
2
+ 2
=0 , 2
= 2 −2 , = = .
∂x ∂ y ∂x ∂t ∂t ∂ y ∂ y ∂x
(3)

Notice in the third equation that there are two unknown functions and two independent
variables in the PDE. This means u and v must be functions of two or more independent
variables.

NOTATION Throughout this text ordinary derivatives will be written by using either the Leibniz
notation dy /dx , d 2 y /d x 2, d 3 y /d x 3,…. Or the prime notation y ' , y ' ' , y ' ' ' ,…. By using the
latter notation, the first two differential equations in (2) can be written more compactly as
y ' +5 y=e x and y ' ' − y ' + 6 y=0. Actually, the prime notation is used to denote only the first
three derivative is written y ( 4) instead of y ' ' ' ' . In general, the nth derivative of y is written
d n y / d x n or y (n ). Although less convenient to write and to typeset, the Leibniz notation has an
advantage over the prime notation in that it clearly displays both the dependent and
independent variables. For example, in the equation

d2 x
+16 x=0
d t2

unknown function or dependent variable

independent variable

it is immediately seen that the symbol x now represents a dependent variable, whereas the
independent variable is t . You should also be aware that in physical sciences and engineering,
Newton’s dot notation (derogatorily referred to by some as the “flyspeck” notation) is
sometimes used to denote derivatives with respect to time t . Thus the differential equation
d 2 s /d t 2=−32. Partial derivatives are often denoted by a subscript notation indicating the
independent variables. For example, with the subscript notation the second equation in (3)
becomes u xx=utt −2 μ t.

CLASSIFICATION BY ORDER The order of a differential equation (either ODE or PDE) is the order
of the highest derivative in the question. For example,
d2 y dy 3
dx 2
+5
dx( )−4 y =e
x

is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third equation in
(2) are first-order ODES, whereas in (3) the first two equations are second-order ODEs,
whereas in (3) the first two equations are second-order PDEs. A first-order ordinary differential
equation is sometimes written in the differential form

M ( x , y ) dx+ N ( x , y ) dy=0

EXAMPLE 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

If we assume that y is the dependent variable in a first-order ODE, then recall from calculus
that the differential dy is defined to be dy = y ' dx

(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alterntive form of the equation

( y−x ) dx +4 xdx =0 is given by
dy
y−x + 4 x =0
dx
or equivalently
dy
4x + y =x .
dx
(b) By multiplying the differential equation
dy
6 xy
❑

(c)
Definition of the Laplace Transform
INTRODUCTION
In Elementary calculus you learned that differentiation and integration are transforms; this
means, roughly speaking, that these operations transform a function into another function. For
example, the function f ( x )=x 2 is transformed, in turn, into a linear function and a family of
cubic polynomial functions by the operations of differentiation and integration:

d 2
x =2 x
dx

1
∫ x 2 dx= 3 x 3
Moreover, these two transforms possess the linearity property that the transform of a linear
combination of functions is a linear combination of the transforms. For α and β constants

d
[ αf ( x ) + βg ( x ) ]=α f ' ( x )+ β g ' ( x )
dx

∫ [ αf ( x ) + βg ( x ) ] dx=α ∫ f ( x ) dx + β ∫ g ( x ) dx
Provided that each derivative and integral exists. In this section we will examine a special type
of integral transform called the Laplace transform. In addition to possessing the linearity
property the Laplace transform has many other interesting properties that make it very useful
in solving linear-value problems.

INTEGRAL TRANSFORM
If f ( x , y ) is a function of two variables, then a definite integral of f with respect to one of the
variables leads to a function of the other variable. For example, by holding y constant, we see
2 b
2 2
that ∫ 2 x y dx=3 y . Similarly, a definite integral such as ∫ K ( s , t ) f ( t ) dt transforms a
1 a
function f of the variable t into a function F of the variable s. We are particularly interested in
an integral transform, where the interval of integration is the unbounded interval [ 0 , ∞ ). If
∞
f ( t ) is defined for t ≥ 0, then the improper integral ∫ K ( s , t ) f ( t ) dt is defined as a limit:
0

∞ b

∫ K ( s , t ) f ( t ) dt =lim ∫ K ( s , t ) f ( t ) dt .
b →∞ 0
0

(1)

If the limit in () exists, then we say that integral exists or is convergent; if the limit does not
exist, the integral does not exist and is convergent; if the limit does not exist, the integral does
not exist and is divergent. The limit in (1) will, in general, exist for only certain values of the
variable s.

A DEFINITION The function K ( s ,t )=e−st as the kernel gives us an especially important integral
transform.

DEFINITION 7.1.1 Laplace Transform

Let f be a function defined for t ≥ 0. Then the integral
∞
L { f ( t ) }=∫ e− st f ( t ) dt
0

(2)

Is said to be the Laplace transform of f , provided that the integral converges.

The Laplace transform is named in honor of the French mathematician and astronomer Pierre-
Simon Marquis de Laplace (1749-1827).

When the definition integral (2) converges, the result is a function of s. In general discussion
we shall use a lowercase letter to denote the function being transformed and the
corresponding capital letter to denote its Laplace transform-for example,

L { f ( t ) }=F ( s ) , L { g ( t ) }=G { s } , L { y ( t ) }=Y { s } .

As the next four examples show, the domain of the function F ( s ) depends on the function
f (t ) .

EXAMPLE 1 Applying Definition 7.1.1

Evaluate L { 1 }.

SOLUTION From (2),

∞ b
−st
L { 1 }=∫ e ( 1 ) dt =lim ∫ e−st dt
0 b →∞ 0

lim −e−st +1
−e−st b b → ∞ 1
¿ lim
b→∞ s 0
= |s
=
s

provided that s>0 . In other words, when s>0 , the exponent −sb is negative, and e−sb → 0 as
b → ∞. The integral diverges for s<0 .

The use of the limit sign becomes somewhat tedious, so we shall adopt the notation |∞0 as a

|b0
shorthand for writing lim ( ) . For example,
b→∞
 ∞
−e− st ∞ 1
L { 1 }=∫ e−st ( 1 ) dt=
0 s 0 s |
= , s> 0.

At the upper limit, it is understood that we mean e−st → 0 as t → ∞ for s>0 .

EXAMPLE 2 Applying Definition 7.1.1

Evaluate L { t }

∞
−st
SOLUTION From Definition 7.1.1 we have L { t } =∫ e tdt . Integrating by parts and using
0

lim t e−st =0. s> 0, along with the result from Example 1, we obtain
t→∞

∞
−t e−st ∞ 1
L {t }=
S 0 S0| 1
+ ∫ e− st dt= L { 1 }=
s
1 1 1
= 2
s s s ()
EXAMPLE 3 Applying Definition 7.1.1
Evaluate (a) L { e−3 t } (b) L { e 5t }

SOLUTION In each case we use Definition 7.1.1.

∞ ∞
−3 t
a) L { e } =∫ e−3 t e−st dt=∫ e−( s+3 )t dt
0 0

−e−(s +3) t ∞
¿
( s+3 ) 0|
1
¿ .
s+ 3
− ( s +3) t
The last result is valid for s>−3 because in order to have lim e =0 we must
t→∞
require that s+3> 0 or s>−3 .
∞ ∞
5t 5 t −st
b) L { e }=∫ e e dt=∫ e−( s−5 )t dt
0 0

−e−(s−5 )t ∞
¿
s−5 0 |
1
¿
s−5
− ( s−5 ) t
In contrast to part (a), this result is valid for s>5 because lim e =0 demands s−5>0 or
t→∞
s>5.

EXAMPLE 4 Applying Definition 7.1.1

Evaluate L { sin 2t }

SOLUTION From Definition 7.1.1 and two applications of integration by part we obtain
 ∞ ∞
e−st sin 2t ∞ 2
L { sin 2t }=∫ e− st sin 2 t dt=
0 s | + ∫ e−st cos 2tdt
0 S0
∞
2
¿ ∫ e−st cos 2 tdt , s> 0
S 0

∞
¿
S [
2 −e−st cos 2 t ∞ 2
S |
−st 2 4
− ∫ e sin 2t dt = 2 − 2 L { sin 2 t } .
0 S 0 S S ]
lim e−st cos 2 t =0 , s> 0
t→∞

Lapplace transform of sin 2 t

At this point we have an equation with L { sin 2t } on both sides of the equality. Solving for that
quantity yields the result

2
L { sin 2t }= 2
, s >0.
s +4

L IS A LINEAR TRANSFORM For a linear combination of function we can write

∞ ∞

∫ e−st [ αf ( t ) + βg ( t ) ] dt =α ∫ e−st g ( t ) dt
0 0

Whenever both integrals converge for s>c . Hence it follows that

L { αf ( t )+ βg ( t ) } =α L { f ( t ) } + β L { g ( t ) } =αF ( s ) + βG ( s ) .

(3)

Because of the property given in (3), L is said to be a linear transform.

EXAMPLE 5 Linearity of the Laplace Transform

In this example we use the result of the preceding examples to illustrate the linearity of the
Laplace transform.

a) From Examples 1 and 2 we have for s>0 ,

1 5
L { 1+5 t }=L { 1 } +5 L { t }= + 2 .
s s
b) From Examples 3 and 4 we have for s>5,
4 20
L { 4 e5 t −10 sin 2t }=4 L { e 5 t }−10 L { sin 2t }= − 2
s−5 s + 4
c) From Examples 1, 2, and 3 we have for s>0 ,
20 7 9
L { 20 e−3 t +7 t−9 } =20 L { e−3t } +7 L {t }−9 L { 1 }= + + .
s +3 s 2 s
We state the generation of some of the preceding examples by means of the next theorem.
From this point on we shall also refrain from stating any restrictions on s; it is understood that
s is sufficiently restricted to guarantee the convergence of the appropriate Laplace transform.

THEOREM 7.1.1 Transforms of Some Basic Functions

1
a) L { 1 }=
s
n n!
b) L { t }= , n=1,2,3 , …
s n+1
1
c) L { e at }=
s−a
k
d) L { sin kt }= 2 2
s +k
s
e) L { cos kt }= 2 2
s +k
k
f) L { sinh kt }= 2 2
s −k
s
g) L { cosh kt }= 2 2
s −k

This result in b) of the Theorem 7.1.1 can be formally justified for n a positive integer using
integration by parts to first show that

n
L { t n }= L {t n−1} .
s

Then for n=1,2 ,∧3, we have, respectively,

1 1 1 1
L { t } = ∙ L {1 }= ∙ = 2
s s s s

2 2 1 2∙1
L { t 2 } = ∙ L { t }= ∙ 2 = 3
s s s s

3 3 2 3 2∙ 1 3 ∙ 2∙ 1
L { t } = ∙ L { t }= ∙ 3 = 4
s s s s

If we carry on in this manner, you should be convinced that

n … 3∙ 2 ∙1 n !
L { t n }= = n+1
s n−1 s
7.2 Inverse Transforms and Transforms of Derivatives
INTRODUCTION
In this section we take a few small steps into an investigation of how the Laplace transform can
be used to solve certain types of equations for an unknown function. we begin the discussion
with the concept of the inverse Laplace transform or, more precisely, the inverse of a Laplace
transform F ( s ) . After some important preliminary background material on the Laplace
transform of derivatives f ' ( t ) , f ' ' ( t ),…, we then illustrate how both the Laplace transform and
the inverse Laplace transform come into play in solving some simple ordinary differential
equations.

7.2.1 INVERSE TRANSFORMS

THE INVERSE PROBLEM
If F ( s ) represents the Laplace transform of a function f ( t ), that is, L { f ( t ) }=F ( s ) , we then say
f ( t ) is the inverse Laplace transform of F ( s ) and write f ( t )=L−1 { F ( s ) } . For example, from
Examples 1, 2, and 3 of Section 7.1 we have, respectively,

Transform Inverse Transform

1
L { 1 }=
s
1=L−1 {1s }
1 1
L {t }= 2
s
t=L−1
{} s2
1
L { e−3 t } =
s+3
e−3 t =L−1 { s+13 }
We shall see shortly that in the application of the Laplace transform to equations we are not
able to determine an unknown function f ( t ) directly; rather, we are able to solve for the
Laplace transform F ( s ) of f ( t ); but from that knowledge we ascertain f by computing
−2 s+6
f ( t )=L−1 { F ( s ) } . The idea is simply this: Suppose F ( s ) = is a Laplace transform; find a
s 2+ 4
function f ( t ) such that º L { f ( t ) }=F ( s ) . We shall show how to solve this problem in Example 2.

For future reference the analogue of Theorem 7.1.1 for the inverse transform is presented as
our next theorem.

THEOREM 7.2.1
Some Inverse Transforms

a) 1=L
−1
{1s }
n!
b) t =L
n −1

s n+1 { }
, n=1,2,3 , …

1
at
c) e = L
−1
s−a { }
 k
d) sin kt=L
−1
{ }
s +k 2
2

s
e) cos kt=L
−1
{ }
s −k 2
2

In evaluating inverse transforms, if often happens that a function of s under consideration

does not match exactly the form of a Laplace transform F ( s ) given in a table. It may be
necessary to “fix up” the function of s by multiplying and dividing by an appropriate constant.

EXAMPLE 1 Applying Theorem 7.2.1

1 1
Evaluate (a) L
−1
{}
s 5 (b)
L−1 2
{ }
s +7

SOLUTION (a) To match the form given in part (b) of Theorem 7.2.1, we identify n+1=5 or
n=4 and then multiply and divide by 4 !:

1 1 4! 1
L−1
{} s 5
4! s { }
= L−1 5 = t 4 .
24

(b) To match the form given in part (b) of Theorem 7.2.1, we identify k 2=7, so K= √ 7 . we fix
up the expression by multiplying and dividing by √ 7:

1 1 −1 √ 7 1
L−1
{ } 2
=
s +7 √7
L 2
s +7 √ 7{ }
= sin √ 7 t .

L−1 IS A LINEAR TRANSFORM

The inverse Laplace transform is also a linear transform; that is, for constants α and β

L−1 { αF ( s ) + βG ( s ) }=α L−1 { F ( s ) }+ β L−1 { G ( s ) } ,

(1)

where F and G are the transforms of some functions f and g. Like (3) of Section 7.1, (1)
extends to any finite linear combination of Laplace transforms.

EXAMPLE 2 Termwise Division and Linearity

−2 s +6
Evaluate L
−1
{s2 +4 }
SOLUTION We first rewrite the given function of s as two expressions by means of termwise
division and then use (1):

−2 s +6
L−1
{s2 +4 }
Termwise division
 −2 s 6
L−1
{ 2
+ 2
s +4 s +4 }
Linearity and fixing up constants

s 6 2
−2 L−1
{ }
2
+ L−1 2
s +4 2 s +4 { }
part(e) and (d) of Theorem 7.2.1 with k =2

¿−2 cos 2t +3 sin 2t .

PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Partial fractions play an important role in finding inverse Laplace transforms. The
decomposition of a rational expression into component fractions can be done quickly by
means of a single command on most computer algebra systems. Indeed, some CASs have
packages that implement Laplace transform and inverse Laplace transform commands. But for
those of you without access to such software, we will review in this and subsequent sections
some of the basic algebra in the important cases in which the denominator of a Laplace
transform F ( s ) contains distinct linear factors, repeated linear factors, and quadratic
polynomials with no real factors. Although we shall examine each of these cases as this
chapters develops, it still might be a good idea for you consult either a calculus text or a
current precalculus text for a more comprehensive review of this theory.

The following example illustrates partial fraction decomposition in the case when denominator
of F ( s ) is factorable into distinct linear factors.

EXAMPLE 3 Partial Fractions: Distinct Linear Factors

s 2+ 6 s +9
Evaluate L
−1
{ ( s−1 ) ( s−2 ) ( s +4 ) }
SOLUTION There exist unique real constants A , B, and C so that

s 2+ 6 s+ 9 A B C
= + +
( s−1 ) ( s−2 ) ( s +4 ) s−1 s−2 s +4

A ( s−2 ) ( s+ 4 )+ B ( s−1 )( s+ 4 ) +C ( s−1 )( s−2 )

¿ .
( s−1 )( s−2 )( s+ 4 )

Since the denominators are identical, the numerators are identical:

s2 +6 s+9= A ( s−2 ) ( s +4 ) + B ( s−2 ) ( s+ 4 )+ C ( s−1 ) ( s−2 ) .

(3)

By comparing coefficients of power of s on both sides of the equality, we know that (3) is
equivalent to a system of three equations in the three unknowns A , B, and C . However, there
is a shortcut for determining these unknowns. If we ser s=1, s=2, and s=−4 in (3), we
obtain, respectively,

16=A (−1 )( 5 ) ,

25=B ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ,

And

1=C (−5 ) (−6 ) ,

−16 25 1
And so A= , B= , and C= . Hence the partial fraction decomposition is
5 6 30

s 2+ 6 s+ 9 16 /5 25/6 1/30
= + + ,
( s−1 ) ( s−2 ) ( s +4 ) s−1 s−2 s+ 4

(4)

And thus, from the linearity of L−1 and part (c) of Theorem 7.2.1,

s 2+ 6 s +9 −16 −1 1 25 1 1 1
L−1 { ( s−1 ) ( s−2 ) ( s +4 )
= }
5
L
s−1
+ L−1
6 { }
+ L−1
s−2 30 s +4 { } { }
16 t 25 2 t 1 −4 t
¿− e+ e + e
5 6 30

(5)

7.2.2 TRANSFORMS OF DERIVATIVES

TRANSFORM A DERIVATIVE
As was pointed out in the introduction to this chapter, our immediate goal is to use the Laplace
transform to solve differential equations. To that end we need to evaluate quantities sch as
L { dy /dt } and L {d 2 y /d t 2 }. For example, if f ' is continuous for t ≥ 0, then integration by parts
gives
∞ ∞
L { f ' ( t ) }=∫ e− st f ' ( t ) dt =e−st f ( t )|∞ +s ∫ e−st f ( t ) dt =−f ( 0 ) + s L { f ( t ) }
0 0 0

or

L { f ' (t ) } =sF ( s )−f ( 0 ) .

(6)

Here we have assumed that e−st f (t ) →0 as t → ∞ . Similarly, with the aid of (6),

∞ ∞
L { f ' ' (t ) }=∫ e− st f ' ' ( t ) dt=e−st f ' ( t )|∞ +∫ e− st f ' (t ) dt
0 0 0
¿−f ' (0 )+ s L { f ' ( t ) }

from (6)

¿ s [ sF ( s )−f ( 0 ) ]−f ' ( 0)

(7)

or

L { f ' ' (t ) }=s2 F ( s )−sf ( 0 ) −f ' (0 ) .

(8)

The recursive nature of the Laplace transform of the derivatives of a function f should be
apparent from the result in (6), (7), and (8). The next theorem gives the Laplace transform of
the n th derivative of f .

THEOREM 7.2.2 Transform of a Derivative

If f , f ' , … , f (n−1) are continuous on [ 0 , ∞ ) and are of exponential order and if f ( n ) ( t ) is
piecewise continuous on [ 0 , ∞ ) , then
n−2 ' (0)
f −…−f (n−1) ( 0 ) ,¿
L {f (n) ( t ) }=sn F ( s )−s n−¿f ( 0)−s
where F ( s ) =L { f ( t ) } .

SOLVING LINEAR ODEs

It is apparent from the general result given in Theorem 7.2.2 that L { d n y /d t n } dependes on
Y ( s )=L { y ( t ) } and the n−1 derivatives of y ( t ) evaluated at t=0 . This property makes the
Laplace transform ideally suited for solving linear initial-value problems in which the
differential equation has constant coefficients. Such a differential equation is simply a linear
combination of terms y , y ' , y ' ' , … , y ( n) :
dn y d n−1 y
an −a n−1 +…+ a0 y=g ( t ) ,
d tn d t n−1
y ( 0 )= y 0 , y ' (0)= y 1 , … , y (n−1) ( 0 )= y n−1 ,
where the a i , i=0 , 1,…,n and y 0 , y 1 , … , y n−1 are constants. By the linearity property the
Laplace transform of this linear combination is a linear combination of Laplace transforms:
dn y d n−1 y
an L { }
d tn
+a n−1 L
d t n−1 { }
+…+ a0 L { g ( t ) } .

(9)
From Theorem 7.2.2, (9) becomes
a n [ sn Y ( s )−sn−1 y ( 0 )−…− y (n−1) ( 0 ) ] +a n−1 [ sn−1 Y ( s ) −s n−2 y ( 0 ) ]+ …+ a0 Y ( s )=G ( s ) ,
(10)
Donde L { y ( t ) }=Y ( s ) and L { g (t ) } =G ( s ) . In others words,
The Laplace transformof a linear differential equation withconstant coefficients
becomes an algeraic equation∈Y ( s ) .
If we solve the general transformed equation (10) for the symbol Y ( s ), we first obtain
P ( s ) Y ( s )=Q ( s ) +G ( s ) and then write
Q ( s ) G ( s)
Y ( s )= + ,
P (s) P (s )
(11)
n n−1
Where P ( s )=a n s + an−1 s +…+ a0 ,Q ( s ) is a polynomial in s of degree less than or equal to
n−1 consisting of the various products of the coefficients a i , i=1 , … ,n and the prescribed
initial condition y 0 , y 1 , … , y n−1, and G ( s ) is the Laplace transform of g ( t ) .1 Typically, we put
the two terms in (1) over the least common denominator and then decompose the expression
initial-value problem is y ( t ) =L−1 {Y ( s ) }, where the inverse transform is done by term.
The
n
ti
lu
o
S
iv
y P
IV
trA
e
c
p
a
L T procedure is summarized in the diagram in Figure 7.2.1.
d
F
k
E
D
fi
h
w
sfg
m
b
q

The next example illustrates the foregoing method o solving Des, as well as partial fraction
decomposition in the case when the denominator of Y ( s ) contains a cuadratic polynomial
with no real factors.

EXAMPLE 4 Solving a First-Order IVP

Use the Laplace transform to solve the initial-value problem

1
The polynomial P ( s ) is the same as the n th-degree auxiliary polynomial in (12) in Section 4.3 with the
usual symbol m replaced by s.
dy
+3 y =13 sin2 t , y ( 0 )=6.
dt
SOLUTION We first take the transform of each member of the differential equation:

L {dydt }+3 L { y }=13 L {sin 2 t }.

(12)
From (6), L { dy /dt }=sY ( s )− y ( 0 )=sY ( s )−6 , and from part (d) of Theorem 7.1.1,
L { sin 2t }=2/ ( s2 + 4 ), so (12) is the same as
26
sY ( 6 )−6+ 3Y ( s ) = 2
s +4
or
26
( s+3 ) Y ( s )=6+ 2
.
s +4
Solving the last equation for Y ( s ), we get
6 26 6 s 2+50
Y s=
( ) + = .
s +3 ( s+3 ) ( s2 + 4 ) ( s+3 ) ( s2 +4 )
(13)
2
Since the quadratic polynomial s +4 does not factor using real numbers, its assumed
numerator in the partial fraction decomposition is a linear polynomial in s:
6 s2 +50 A Bs +C
= + 2 .
( s+ 3 ) ( s + 4 ) s+3 s + 4
2

Since the right-hand side of the equality over a common denominator and equating
numerators gives 6 s2 +¿