8 Critical Analysis (1)

About this resource

The University of Huddersfield has worked on a Catalyst Project 'Addressing Barriers to Success'
(2017-19), sharing resources across institutions. This is the University of Lincoln's contribution to the
project created by Ben Walker and Alison Raby.

For more information on the project, please click here or contact:

Ben Walker – bewalker@lincoln.ac.uk 01522 837195

Alison Raby – araby@lincoln.ac.uk 01522 835625

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Aims
• Identify what critical thinking is

• Identify characteristics of critical, analytical writing

• Find flaws in an argument

Typical comments
Have you ever had any of these comments in your feedback?
• More analysis needed

• Less description, more evaluation

• Too descriptive

• Descriptive rather than analytical

• You have used theories but have not evaluated them

Using higher level skills should lead to higher marks!

(https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8231/29428436431_c12484fd8c_b.jpg)

What is critical thinking?

• Evaluating evidence and arguments for and against

• Considering an issue carefully

• Considering where the viewpoint leads – what the conclusions are and if they are logical

• Examining in detail

• Identifying how arguments relate to each other

 • Checking for accuracy

• Looking for flaws in reasoning, evidence or conclusions

• Comparing the same issue from different authors’ opinions

• Explaining why different authors arrived at different conclusions

• Being able to argue why one set of opinions is preferable to another

• Looking for hidden assumptions

Characteristics of critical, analytical writing

• Aim should be to present a case through:

- providing reasons,

- relevant evidence,

- comparing and evaluating arguments,

- evaluating evidence,

- assessing conflicting evidence

• Background information and description should be minimal

Some tips for critical writing

• Be aware of your audience: how will others interpret your message? How will you persuade
them?

• Be clear: make sure writing is not ambiguous

• Analysis: look at evidence in detailed and critical way, evaluate strengths and weaknesses

• Don’t present too many points: better to have more detail about fewer points, so your
argument doesn’t get lost

• Logical order: often best to put points that support your own argument first

• Emphasise important or controversial aspects

• Group similar points: points that support one aspect together, complete analysis of one
point before moving to another

• Signposting: words and phrases which direct the reader, e.g. however, additionally,
subsequently, consequently, initially, moreover…
Critical v Descriptive writing

Flaws in an argument
• Confusing cause and effect

• Failing to meet necessary conditions

• Attacking the person rather than reasoning

• Emotive language

• Misrepresentation

• Can be deliberate to mislead, or author may not realise

Confusing cause and effect

• Because two things are found together doesn’t mean there is a link

• Example: “The entire family was ill last night. They all ate fish at the restaurant yesterday.
Therefore, the fish must have been contaminated.”

• What do you think?

• Assuming a link where there is none is a flawed argument (false correlation)

• Example: In summer sales of ice cream and sandals are increased. This is a correlation but
does one cause the other?

• Check:

- Are patterns and trends coincidental or are you sure there is a direct link?

- Are they linked by a third cause?

Not meeting necessary conditions

• Reasons or evidence necessary to support an argument

• If not, the argument is flawed

 • All necessary conditions must be present

• Example: lottery winner must have valid ticket – but what else is necessary?

• Must be necessary AND sufficient

• Example: Birds have wings. The item has wings. Therefore, it is a bird.

Attacking the person and emotive language

• Argument should take counter-arguments into consideration

• Critically analyse the line of reasoning, not the person

• Sometimes authors use emotive/strong language or subjects to persuade and affect your
judgement

• See example on next slide:

Example: Identity Cards

Personal identity cards don’t present any real dangers to human rights. They add to our security, by
making it easier for the police to track and catch criminals.

Opponents of identity cards are wishy-washy liberals who live in leafy areas and haven’t a clue what
it is like to live in run-down areas where crime is rife.

Misrepresentation
• Presenting options in an unfair way

• Focusing on minor points in an opposing argument and ignoring main reasons

• Restricted options: presenting an argument to look as if there are only 2 possible

conclusions, selecting one weak to make the other look preferable

Example: how is this argument flawed?

Curfews

Juvenile crime has risen sharply in cities. Young people are out of control. There are only two
options in a situation like this. Either we agree to put up with savage assaults on our persons and
property, or we place a curfew on all young people after 10 o’clock.

Make a note of your thoughts on the following form.

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https://forms.office.com/Pages/ResponsePage.aspx?id=xEculd4FgkKDr19LRrFij1dzKmMuOYlEiCNM8
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After you've made a note of your ideas, listen to the audio and compare. If you prefer to read, you
can read the transcript which follows the audio.
 https://sway.office.com/Mhzt4GtMKzptktX3#content=0DLLMopeMVsnYx

1 - Curfews

Transcript
The writer is presenting two options: put a curfew in place or put up with 'savage assaults'. The
second option is obviously one which people will not want, so they are really being forced into
choosing the curfew option. In reality, there are more than only these two options. We could
suggest things such as improved street lighting, more policing, or CCTV cameras. In giving the reader
limited options, the writer isn't considering any other alternatives.

The writer has also used strong, emotive language to provoke a reaction, for example 'savage'.
There is no evidence that it is young people committing the crimes, or that crime is occurring after
10pm. These are therefore not valid arguments.

Evaluating evidence
We need to evaluate any evidence or sources we read.

How do you think we might do this?

Think/discuss, then have a look at suggestions below.

Relevant and irrelevant evidence
Read the passage below. Do you think the evidence supports the conclusion?

People need to improve their understanding of how language works so that they can use it more
effectively. Research studies (Bloggs, 2003; Bloggs, 2006) show that the study of a foreign language
improves our understanding of the structure of language, providing a way of comparing different
language structures. Therefore, people who only speak one language should be encouraged to
study a second language.

What do you think?

We could conclude from this that the evidence does support the conclusion.

What about this one?

People need to improve their understanding of how language works so that they can use it more
effectively. Research studies (Bloggs, 2003; Bloggs, 2006) show that many people cannot describe
the different components of their own language. A surprising number of people have difficulties
remembering the rules even of their mother tongue. Therefore, people who only speak one
language should be encouraged to study a second language.

Does the evidence support the conclusion?

• Evidence might suggest people having difficulties with their own language shouldn’t learn a
second

• It is relevant, but doesn’t support the argument

• Further evidence would be needed to support the conclusion

So, evidence needs to

• Be relevant
 • Support the conclusion/argument

What do you think about this text?

Ice Age

Winters are getting colder. Opinion polls show that most people think there is a new Ice Age on the
way. Therefore, we need to take measures to ensure that fuel resources are managed so that
nobody is left to suffer from extreme cold during forthcoming winters.

• Is the evidence relevant to the conclusion?

• Are the reasons given relevant to the conclusion?

• Reason ‘winters are getting colder’ is relevant to the conclusion

• Evidence from opinion polls – not facts, so does not support the conclusion

• Stronger evidence is needed

Ways to evaluate sources

• Browsing: are they relevant and reputable?

• Focusing on relevant items: how do these support your line of reasoning?

• Selecting and evaluating a small number of sources: weighing the evidence and arguments;
looking for flaws and gaps

• Comparing and contrasting different sources and checking for inconsistencies

Activity
Read the passage and answer the questions:

• Is the line of reasoning good?

• What is the conclusion?

• How strong is the evidence?

• What are the underlying assumptions?

• How well do the reasoning and evidence support the conclusion?

Children at Play

Children need to play outdoors and yet it is amazing how few children get that opportunity today.
Although Smith (2004) argues that 48% of children prefer to play inside, Jones (1964) found that 98%
of children in Britain prefer to play outdoors. I spoke to some parents in Rochborough who said their
children missed out by not being able to play down by the river or roam the countryside in safety.
Most children are now television addicts, or, worse, are addicted to computer games. Everybody
knows that this is damaging children educationally, and yet nothing is done about it. This is certainly
true of Rochborough’s children, and the main reason is that they do not have anywhere to play.
Hardly anybody in Rochborough has a garden. It would be better for their health if they played
outdoors, but parents say they won’t let them unless supervised play areas are provided. The
parents are worried that they cannot see their children when they are playing. What chance is there
for the health of citizens in Rochborough if its children do not get to play outdoors, and end up as TV
addicts?

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https://forms.office.com/Pages/ResponsePage.aspx?id=xEculd4FgkKDr19LRrFij1dzKmMuOYlEiCNM8
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The line of reasoning (logical progression)

• What is the point? There doesn't seem to be one

• Weak line of reasoning

• Information not ordered logically

The conclusion

• Not clear

• “children need to play outdoors” at the beginning is more of a conclusion

• Final sentences don’t lead to a conclusion

Evidence
 • Weak, with insufficient detail

• How many?

• How representative are they of the area?

• Statistics not really analysed

• Dates of evidence very different

• Emotive language: ‘addicts’, ‘golden age’

• No support for children being TV or computer addicts

Assumptions

• “Everybody knows”

• “Most children are now television addicts, or, worse, are addicted to computer games ”

• Is it worse? Who says?

Does the reasoning support the conclusion?

• Poor support for conclusion

• Some reasons, but order not logical

• Some without supporting evidence

• Mixed with irrelevant information such as computer addiction

• Not clear whether argument is made on basis of children’s health

Summary
Summary: critical thinking…

• Examines from different angles

• Checks the accuracy of something

• Checks the order of logic

• Checks the relevance of the data

• Compares different points of view

• Assesses the evidence

References
Cottrell, S. (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Cottrell, S. (2011) Critical Thinking Skills, 2nd edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
University of Reading (2016) Study Advice
http://www.reading.ac.uk/internal/studyadvice/StudyResources/sta-index.aspx

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