UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS

Tuguegarao City

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, ARTS and SCIENCES

First Semester
A.Y. 2020-2021

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

ETHC 1013-ETHICS

Prepared by:

THELMA BARICAUA. MARS

WILSON J. TEMPORAL,MST
ALAN ANTHONY BACCAY, MARS
HAYDEN GONZALES
NESTOR M. CABRIDO JR.
JENNIFER BANGI
ESPERANZA ZABLAN

Reviewed by:

SEVERO L. WASHINGTON, MARS

Teacher Education Program Chair/Department Head

Recommended by:

VENUS I. GUYOS, Ph.D.

Academic Dean

Approved by:

EMMANUEL JAMES PATTAGUAN, Ph.D.

Vice President for Academics

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 ETHC 1013 (ETHICS)
AY 2020-2021

Lesson 1: Introduction to Ethics

Topic: The definition and branches of Philosophy

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. State the basic definition of philosophy;

2. Enumerate the main branches of philosophy;
3. Define and clarify the meaning of Ethics

LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction:

This introductory lesson focuses on the basic definition of philosophy as starting point of the
whole course. It moves further into enumerating the main branches of philosophy which includes Ethics, the
main topic of this course. It ends by distinguishing ethics from the other disciplines or field of study.

Lesson Proper:

A. Basic Definition of Philosophy

The Greek scholar, Pythagoras (c. 580-497 B.C.), coined the term
philosophy and came up with the term into two Greek words “philein
meaning love or friendship and sophia meaning wisdom” (Babor, E., 2001).
The literal definition of philosophy is therefore, “love of wisdom” (Zulueta,
2010). According to Babor, love is an urge, or a drive of the will towards a
particular object. As a drive, love always seeks unity with its object, and it
desires to possess its object. And wisdom means the good exercise or
application of knowledge (Babor, E., 2001).. Hence, loving and seeking
wisdom require the individual to be intimately passionate, responsible of
his/her reflections or actions, and must enjoy what he/she does.

Philosophy is also understood in the context of the Cagayanos’ term siribayat. This Itawit indigenous
vernacular term signifies love of wisdom. The term siribâyat is a fusion of two words “sirib,” which means
wisdom, and “ayat,” love. Etymologically, sirib means an active peering through reality. And “ayat” adds a
personal note to the passion to go beyond what one has already previously seen or understood (Siribâyat,
2013). Hence, to be wise or siriban means to be keen towards reality, that is, allowing the “panono” (the Itawit
term for “reflection) to extend its capacity to unveil and rediscover the true meaning of a reality. In the struggle
to rediscover the true meaning of an experience, the lover of wisdom should be responsible to understand
reality practically in a significant way, not just theoretically.

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Philosophy is a search for meaning and truth.

The kind of search related to philosophy is more intense than that of the ordinary kind of search. This seeking,
looking, and finding wisdom and truth is a passionate search where we surrender ourselves into it. That’s why
searching for meaning is a personal act. But what distinguishes a philosophical search from an ordinary
search is through the emphasis of the three elements:

a. The object of the search is of real value to the subject. In philosophy, broadly speaking, “object” refers to a
thing, “subject” refers to the person philosophizing (Cruz, C.,2004). Meaning, the object of our experience or
investigation must be within our interest and concern like a student taking a course that he is passionate about.

b. It “consumes” the whole person- his attention, concentration, interest, effort (Cruz, C.,2004). Meaning, a
person becomes part of the object of investigation, thus, leading oneself into submission towards the goal. To
quote Cruz, he said that “A philosopher can hardly afford distractions as he goes on his ‘search’.” He
observes, reads, reflects, writes on what to him is the most important aspect in his life (Cruz, C.,2004).

c. It is continued without let-up until (a) the answer is found or (b) the answer is not yet found, but the
conviction is reached that for the moment at least this is the best possible although still imperfect answer
(Cruz, C., 2004). Meaning, a person must not give up into something he seeks for and must not surrender until
the problem is solved. It is like the common notion of saying: Try and try until you succeed. A human person
is considered to be a homo viator (traveler). As a traveler, along the way, despair, frustrations and problems
are always expected. But philosophy tells us that one must be challenged of it and must never surrender
himself in searching for meaning.

The attainment of truth cannot be the goal of philosophy and “the search for truth, not the possession of it, is
the true aim of philosophy” (John-Terry, C., 1994). What really matters for philosophical search is not to focus
oneself towards the result or end, but rather on the process of searching. The journey, not the destination, is
what matters.

Philosophy is also defined as the science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or
highest principles of all things (Ramos, C.C., 2010).

Philosophy, as science, is an organized body of knowledge that involves a systematic investigation of a

reality through the natural capacity of man to think (light of reason). The endeavor of understanding the prima
causa of everything is not purely experimental nor it has a divine intervention, but rather it is purely an
experience of the self to the life-world.

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B. Main Branches of Philosophy

1. What is Metaphysics?

According to Timbreza, metaphysics “is the study of
being in its general aspect.” (Timbreza, F., 2005).
The term “being” refers to the realities that we see
and don’t see. To make simple to understand, it is the
study of realities in life.
Anything that we can think about that has an active
participation in the ESSENCE of beings is the concern
of metaphysics. It has sub-topics like teleology,
ontology, theodicy, psychology and cosmology

It deals with human reality and system of human

thought that seeks to explain the fundamental
concepts of man (Cruz, C.,2004)

2. What is Epistemology?

Epistemology (from the Greek word episteme This branch of philosophy deals with all the aspects
“knowledge”) is a philosophical theory that deals with concering the nature of knowledge. Epistemology has
the truth-value of human knowledge. It asks the sub-divisions like agnosticism, skepticism, a posteriori
question: “is it possible to know? Can man ever know and a priori.
anything? Is it possible to attain certain knowledge?
Where does knowledge come from? (Timbreza, F.,
2005).

The branch of philosophy that investigates the nature,

sources, limitations, and validity of knowledge
(Ramos, C.C., 2010).

It concerns the nature and scope of knowledge. It

asks the question “what does it mean to know (the
truth), and what is the nature of truth? What sort of
things can be known? Is there knowledge beyond the
reach of science and what are the limits of self-
knowledge? (Articulo, A., 2008)

3. What is Logic?
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used
to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect
reasoning (Copi and Cohen, I. & C., 1998).
This branch of philosophy focuses on developing the
mind to be critical and logical. Logic is divided into
sub-topics namely: Induction, Deduction, Syllogism,
and Dialectic.

Logic is the study of the methods and principles used

to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning. Logic

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 does not only help us adequately to interpret facts and
other people’s perceptions or views, it also develops
in us the habit of clear and critical thinking (Timbreza,
F., 2005).

4. What is Ethics?
Ethics is also called moral philosophy which tries to
Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on understand the goodness and badness of a human
reason, which studies human acts and provides act. Ethics is divided into three general subject areas
norms for their goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., namely: metaethics, normative ethics and applied
2005).. ethics.

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the Metaethics investigates where our ethical principles
nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions come from, and what they mean. It focuses on the
(Ramos, C.C., 2010). issues of universal truths, the will of God, the role of
reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of
It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of ethical terms themselves.
human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004). Normative ethics is concerned with the criteria of what
is morally right and wrong. It includes the formulation
Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts- of moral rules that have direct implications for what
such as right action, obligation and justice- and human actions, institutions, and ways of life should be
formulates principles to guide moral decisions, like.
whether in private or public life (Articulo, A., 2008).
Applied ethics refers to the practical application of
moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-
world actions and their moral considerations in the
areas of private and public life, the professions,
health, technology, law, and leadership.

C. Definition of Ethics

Etymological meaning

The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethikos which itself is derived
from the Greek word ethos, meaning custom or character. In philosophy,
ethical behavior is that which is “good.”  The field of ethics or moral
philosophy involves developing, defending, and recommending concepts of
right and wrong behavior.  These concepts do not change as one’s desires
and motivations change.  They are not relative to the situation.  They are
immutable. (Mintz, S., 2010)

Functional Definition

Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts and provides norms
for their goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., 2005). Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature
of moral virtue and evaluates human actions (Ramos, C.C., 2010). It studies on the morality (goodness or
badness) of human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004). Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts-

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such as right action, obligation and justice- and formulates principles to guide moral decisions, whether in
private or public life (Articulo, A., 2008).

Ethics as the ‘general inquiry into what is good’ poses some questions concerning what sort of actions can
bind humans. What constitutes ‘good’ or what is an unacceptable action in a given situation is tantamount in
saying that the subject matter of Ethics is essential. Teaching Ethics in College Education as a New General
Education Core Course under the New Curriculum explores some of the important theories on the constitution
of what is an ethical action, acceptable and binding in all societies which call for impartiality in decision making
(CMO 20 S 2013).
In a general sense, ethics (or moral philosophy) addresses fundamental questions such as: How should I live
my life? That question leads to others such as: What sort of person should I strive to be? What values are
important? What standards or principles should I live by? There are various ways to define “ethics.”  The
simplest may be is to say that ethics deals with “right” and “wrong.”  However, it is difficult to judge what may
be right or wrong in a particular situation without some frame of reference (Mintz, S., 2010).

The Material Object of Ethics (What does Ethics study?)

- The Human Act/Action

What are other things that we can moralize or we can judge if they are good or bad?
- Custom, cultures, traditions, and other practices of a certain community or society.

The Formal Object of Ethics (What does Ethics want to see in Human Acts?)
- The goodness or badness of the human act.

The material object or the subject matter of Ethics poses some questions in relation to answering moral
judgment, like ‘What is our criteria or standard of morality'?, 'What can account actions as ‘good’ and ‘right’ or
‘good’ as ‘pleasurable’ or ‘pleasurable’ as ‘good actions’?, 'Who has the right to determine what is moral or
ethical'?, 'With regard the applicability of an action, when can we consider it as good or moral?, and the like.

So if Ethics is a branch of Philosophy, how did it find out the norms which it uses to judge if the action
of a certain person is good or bad? It is based purely on thinking, reflecting, and reasoning on the different
moral standards to be used.

Society’s morality calls for a standard which serves as a ‘guiding principle’ of all actions which answers
the question of what is ‘good’ and ‘right’ or ‘bad’ and ‘unacceptable’. Actions are good or acceptable when they
satisfy the standards or ethical codes of a society while they are unacceptable when they fail to follow its
principles. We call these principles, codes or standards as moral standards.

Standards of Behavior
Ethics must be based on accepted standards of behavior.  For example, in virtually all societies and cultures it
is wrong to kill someone or steal property from someone else.  These standards have developed over time and
come from a variety of sources including:
(A) The influence of religious writing and interpretations.
(B) The influence of philosophical thought.
(C) The influence of community (societal) values. (Mintz, S., 2010)

Norms, Values, and the Law

Ethics deals with well-based standards of how people ought to act.  Ethics does not describe the way people
do act.  It deals with the way people should act. Ethical people always strive to make the right decision in all
circumstances.  They do not rationalize their actions based on their own perceived self-interests.  Ethical
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decision-making entails following certain well established norms of behavior. The best way to understand
ethics may be to differentiate it from other concepts.(Mintz, S., 2010)
Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or actions. Values are concerned
with how a person will behave in certain situations whereas ethics is concerned with how a moral person
should behave.  A person who values prestige, power, and wealth is likely to act out of self-interest whereas a
person who values honesty, integrity and trust will typically act in the best interests of others.  It does not follow
that acting in the best interests of others precludes acting in one’s own self-interest.  Indeed, the Golden Rule
prescribes that we should treat others the way we want to be treated. (Mintz, S., 2010)

ETHC 1013 (ETHICS)

AY 2020-2021

Lesson 2: Ethics and Morality

Topic: The comparison of ethics and morality, ethics and other disciplines, and the
importance of ethics

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

4. Compare ethics and morality;

5. Compare ethics from other disciplines;
6. Explicate the importance of ethics;

LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction:

This lesson focuses on the comparison of ethics and morality. It compares ethics from other
disciplines. And it ends by explicating the importance of ethics.

Lesson Proper:

B. Ethics vs. Morality

Ethics

Etymological meaning

The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethikos which itself is

derived from the Greek word ethos, meaning custom or character. In
philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is “good.”  The field of ethics or
moral philosophy involves developing, defending, and recommending
concepts of right and wrong behavior.  (Mintz, S., 2010)

Functional Definition

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Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions
(Ramos, C.C., 2010).

It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004).

Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts and provides norms
for their goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., 2005).

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions
(Ramos, C.C., 2010). It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (Conduct) (Cruz,
C.,2004). Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts- such as right action, obligation and justice- and
formulates principles to guide moral decisions, whether in private or public life (Articulo, A., 2008).

Morality
Morality is an encompassing concept that serves as the underlying force for every action of an individual, even
of society. Morality takes the crucial role of formulating, establishing andsetting ethical norms of conduct that
govern behaviors and actions of an individual or group of individuals in order to achieve harmony, unity, and
order within a society (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
Defining morality, as to its intent and purpose, clarifies the essential features that everyone, who is subject to
moral judgment, determines what kind of actions are normally acceptable and permissibe. Morality establishes
the fundamental framework on the true intent and motive behind every action and decision. Human
intelligence can be a powerful guide in working out moral problems. However, Christians have more than
reason to guide them and this is the person and life of Jesus Christ our Lord, the perfect norm of morality.
(Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
To compare therefore Ethics and Morality, they both study human acts and their goodness or badness; they
both lay moral norms or principles as guidelines as to how one ought to act and ought to be; they both use
reason in analyzing, interpreting, and deciding proper conduct in situations concerning moral dilemma; they
both aim to form a moral person with mature character and create a just and humane society. But what
differentiates them is the fact that aside from using reason as the source of evaluating validity of choice amidst
a moral decision making, only morality also uses Divine Revelation or the use of the Bible and other Church
doctrines to support the validity of its moral claims. It draws its inspiration for such moral stand from the person
and life of Jesus Christ our Lord. Thus, aside from a temporal goal of creating a better society in the present
life, morality also aims for the more lasting goal which is to build the Kingdom of God and to attain Eternal life.

C. Ethics and the other disciplines

1. Ethics and Psychology

"Ethics has something to do with what my feelings tell
me is right or wrong."

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Many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a matter of following
one's feelings. A person following his or her feelings may recoil (withdraw) from doing what is right. In fact,
feelings frequently deviate (departs) from what is ethical. But it does not mean that the feeling of empathy, joy,
anger, disgust, and other feelings are totally not related to making moral decisions. According to Aristotle, the
very goal of human life is happiness. To reach this is moderation or the avoidance of extremes which includes
the use of his reason and his passion (extreme emotions). For example: Using inordinate passion
(concupiscence) in acting may result to bad actions. But without the feeling of empathy, I may not also be
moved to do a good act like helping people who are in need. Without the feeling of anger, I may not also be
pushed to fight in defense of what is right.

2. Ethics and Law

“Being ethical has something to do with

following the law.”

The law often incorporates ethical standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws, like feelings, can
deviate from what is ethical. Simply abiding or following with what the Constitution says does not necessarily
constitute an ethical act. For example, there are laws that might have been adopted but are not necessarily
ethical, but that they promote the interest of some people like the lawmakers themselves (Example: Rice
Tarrification Law in the Philippines and Divorce Law in America).

Being ethical is not the same as following the law.  While ethical people always try to be law-abiding, there may
be instances where your sense of ethics tells you it is best not to follow the law.  These situations are rare and
should be based on sound ethical reasons. Here’s one example:
Assume you are coming home from the store one day and see a fast-moving fire
approach your neighbor’s house. You notice that the neighbor’s car is in the
garage. The garage door entrance to the house is locked as is the main entrance.
You bang on the door and no one answers. You call the neighbor on your cell
phone and no one answers. You don’t think there is enough time to call the fire
department ten miles away before serious damage is done to the house. If you
break into the house to save your neighbor, you break the law. But if you opt not to
break into the house, you will not break the law but you will not be able to save your
neighbor. What would you do next and why?

If you choose to break into the house to save your neighbor, then you break the law. However, you
have acted out of concern for the safety of your neighbor in a life-threatening situation thereby acting
ethically (Mintz, S.,2010). However, if you choose not to break into the house, then you will not break
the law but you failed to be ethical towards your neighbor.

3. Ethics and Sociology

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 "Ethics has something to do with the
standards of behavior our society accepts."

Ethical standards are sometimes based from social norms but social norms are not the sole basis of ethical
standards. Being ethical is not the same as doing "whatever society accepts." In any society, most people
accept standards that are, in fact, ethical. But standards of behavior in society can deviate from what is
ethical. An entire society can become ethically corrupt. Moreover, if being ethical were doing "whatever
society accepts," then to find out what is ethical, one would have to find out what society accepts. To decide
what I should think about abortion, for example, I would have to take a survey of Filipino society and then
conform my beliefs to whatever society accepts. But no one ever tries to decide an ethical issue by doing a
survey. Further, the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate ethics with
whatever society accepts. Some people accept abortion but many others do not. Yet even if everybody does,
the issue of abortion may still remain to be unethical.

4. Ethics and Religion

"Ethics has something to do with my religious
beliefs.“

No one should identify ethics with religion. Most religions, of course, advocate high ethical standards. Religion
can set high ethical standards and can provide intense motivations for ethical behavior. Yet if ethics were
confined to religion, then ethics would apply only to religious people and that particular ethical standard only
apply to the members of a particular religion. But ethics applies as much to the behavior of the atheist as to
that of the devout religious person. Thus, ethics cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as religion.
"I like your Christ, but not your Christianity." In these words of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. J.H.
... Holmes said, "I believe in the teachings of Christ, but you on the other side of the world
do not, I read the Bible faithfully and see little in Christendom that those who profess faith
pretend to see.

"The Christians above all others are seeking after wealth. Their aim is to be rich at the
expense of their neighbors. They come among aliens to exploit them for their own good
and cheat them to do so. Their prosperity is far more essential to them than the life,
liberty, and happiness of others.
"The Christians are the most warlike people. CHRISTIAN NATIONS SEEK WEALTH AND
FIGHT MOST WARS.”

In this article, it shows that membership to and beliefs in a particular religion does not necessarily imply that
one is ethical. I may believe in Christ and may be baptized into Christianity but I may remain to be living in an
unethical way of life. On the other hand, I may not have known Christ and his teachings or may not have been
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baptized as a Christian (Or I may even be a total Atheist) but I can still be ethical by the kind of life I live in
relation to myself, others and my environment.

The importance of Ethics
Ethics is very significant in the following aspects namely: Individual,
Company and Profession. Ethics deals with the principles of ethical
behavior in modern society at the level of the society (community and
environment), individual (personal relationship with others) and
profession (company).

Individual - Personal sense of right and wrong in order to make good decisions
- Helps employees gain the trust of the people with whom they work
Ethics affect this aspect personally because an individual has its own point of reference, view, and
opinion in dealing with personal situations and occurences. It helps the individual develop a sense of
obligation in decision making. Ethics is very crucial in the person’s inner development since it involves
the improvement of oneself, developing a sense of proper disposition as he/she situates
himself/herself from the society. It develops the person to become better by being prudent, just,
courageous and moderate. It aims to make the person have good and proper decisions. Also, it
develops a sense of trust among people in the working setting. As a result, there will be good human
relationship. But this is only possible when actions become habitual and be developed as a good habit
(virtue).
Company -Business develop ethics to help them determine how to behave
- These ethics reflect a company’s belief about what actions are
appropriate and fair among people
- Helps businesses gain the trust of customers, suppliers, and others
With respect to company environment, ethics play a crucial role in the working setting. It “controls
business malpractices among workers (employee and employer), creates a better relation between
employees and employers, improves customer satisfaction, service and issues by having fair and
reasonable business activities, increases profitability, improves business goodwill, better decision
making, and protects business’ reputation.
Profession - Outlines professional responsibilities, values, standards, and rules of
behavior
This apsect focuses on the ethical conduct of a profession. Ethics reminds the person of his
responsibility and obligation in relation to his profession. As the professional disposes his/her duties,
he/she establishes a strong corporate ethical culture. It helps the person conform to the standards and
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 conduct of his profession. So, the person’s dispostion of his professional duties with others, in work
and society shows what kind of profession he/she manifests.

WEEK 3
Good day students! Our lesson for this week focuses on the nature of human acts.  It distinguishes human acts
from acts of man.  It enumerates the constituents of human acts that are very essential in determining the
morality of an action  .  It enumerates the three elements in determining the morality of an action. And it ends
by identifying the impediments to human acts.
In studying ethics, it is necessary to consider its material object and its formal object (the goodness or badness
of an act).  But what is it that we seek to study in ethics?  For the material object of ethics, we seek to study the
nature of a human act.  While for its formal object, we seek to study the goodness or badness of a human act.
But first let us examine the nature of a human act through its definition.
Human Acts

HUMAN ACTS are actions that are proper to humans, thus the crucial element of willful consent and
knowledge of the action must be present.  One must freely use his/her intellect and freewill when acting.
Human acts reveal the value of responsibility or accountability (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
 
 

Human Acts and Acts of Man

Human Acts Acts of Man

Acts that we do with the use of free will and intellect.
They are done freely, deliberate, and voluntary.
These are actions that are proper to humans, thus the
crucial element of willful consent and knowledge of the
action must be present (Living a Christian Moral Life,
2013).
Example: studying, working, eating healthy foods
 
 
Acts that we do without free will and intellect; some are
done by instinct.
The actions are performed without conscious
deliberation or knowledge and with the absence of
freewill. Acts of man constitute unconscious and
involuntary actions.
Example: breathing, digestion, circulation of air in the
body
These are natural processes within the body that
continue to function without the use of free will and
reason. They just happen naturally as automatic
responses to situations (Living a Christian Moral Life,
2013).

Determinants  Human Act Act of Man

Knowledge/Use of Intellect Yes No

Presence of Free Will Yes  No

Conscious Process/ Voluntariness Yes No

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This clearly shows the differences between human act and act  of man. As an object of morality, human act is
done with full knowledge of the action, performed with the use of free will and acted upon voluntarily. The
absence of these three crucial determinants renders the action as mere act of man (Living a Christian Moral
Life, 2013).

Human actions are qualified as good or right (moral), bad or wrong (immoral) or indifferent (non moral).  The
quality and standard of a human act depends on the relationship of the act with the norms of morality (Law:
Eternal law; Natural law; and Positive law (divine or human)).  Both Divine and human positive laws are
specific application of the Eternal Law or the Natural Law. If a Positive Law does not adhere or respect the
Natural Law, then it ruins or damages the development of the human person.  
An act is good when it agrees with the dictates of right reason.(Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
An act is bad when it disagrees with the dictates of right reason.(Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
An act is indifferent when it stands no relation to the dictates of the right reason (Living a Christian Moral Life,
2013) (acts or actions that are neither good nor bad). 
Please take note that we do not moralize the acts of man, but the human acts.
Constituents of Human Acts

1. Human acts  must be known and deliberate.

An individual, as the moral agent, has full knowledge in doing a certain action. There is a prior knowledge
and a deliberate evaluation whether to fulfill an action or not (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).  It asks
the questions:  Do you know exactly what you are doing? or Do you do the act intentionally?  He/she must
have full knowledge and consent of his/her action.

2. Human acts must be free.

An individual as the moral agent is free from any external factors as well as internal pressure to do an act.
He/she is neither forced nor intimidated to do or not to do something (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).
There is obvious absence of constraint from within and outside of the individual.  He/she is free to do the
act without the influence of an outside factor and personal pressure from within. He/she does the act so
independently and not because of shame, request or control from someone else nor from emotional
disturbance.
3.  Human acts are voluntary.
The action proceeds from the willingness of an individual to perform action with a perceived knowledge of
the end. (Living a Christian Moral Life, 2013).  It asks the questions:  Are you willing to do the act? and do
you know what you are doing and where your action is leading into?  He/she wills to perform the act with
the understanding that he/she knows consciously where his/her actions are leading into.
 
Freedom and Responsibility
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
Man is condemned to be free, because there is no God, according to Sartre.  “Isinumpa ang tao na
maging Malaya.” Whether he likes it or not, man is doomed to freedom, as he himself is freedom. “Ang
tao mismo ay kalayaan.”  This follows from Sartre’s perception that man is the only being whose
existence precedes his essence.  There is no such thing as God-given essence or nature of man,
insofar as man alone has to create himself and develop his own essence through his freedom
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 (Timbreza, F., 2005).
Sartre is telling us that man is condemned to be free, because once thrown into the world, he is
responsible for everything he does.  It is up to you to give (life) a meaning.  Sartre believes that existence
precedes essence (Ramos, C.C. 2010).  Meaning, Sartre believes that “existence precedes essence.”
Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself (Nabor-Nery, M.I., 2007).  
There is no such thing as God-given essence or nature of man, insofar as man alone has to create himself
and develop his own essence through his freedom (Timbreza, F., 2005).  Sartre, as an atheist, tells us that
the human person becomes responsible for the projection of one’s life.  Since you are a free being, it is up
to you on how you use your freedom to make your life meaningful.  Remember that, for Sartre, the
essence of man is freedom.  So, freedom should make or create your life.
 
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
Heidegger contends that this emphasis on freedom enables us to understand philosophy as a
“going-after-the-whole” that is at the same time a “going-to-our-roots.” In other words, we must
search for the essence of human freedom in the constant presence of being-in-the-world that
precedes and grounds philosophical thinking (Heidegger, M., 2005).  
 
This is manifested in Martin Heidegger’s idea on “Dasein” (Da-means there, Sein-means being).
Heidegger challenges us to understand the meaning of Dasein (of what it means to be there.).  He
claimed that man is Dasein (being-there) but Dasein does not necessarily mean man.  This means
that being-there has to be made.  “Ginagawa ang pagiging tao.”   We have to create our being as
persons.  Our mere existence does not presuppose that we are living as a person already.  Like
Sartre, we are responsible in projecting our lives.  So, we must see to it that we are the gardener of
our own lives.  This is what makes Heidegger “very interested in the problem of being rather than
merely in the problem of human existence” (Ramos, C.C. 2010).
 

Other Factors which Affects the Morality of Human Acts

          My dear children, if you have noticed, observed, or experienced, while norms or laws are general, most
often, in their implementation, there are many factors to consider especially in judging the action committed in
relation to the law. Example: If two people committed the same crime, how come that their punishments are
not the same? Even in the school setting, sometimes a student would complain that how come that my
classmate was allowed to enter or do such things while I am not?  
         Aside from the purpose and circumstance that affects the judgment of a certain act, there are other
factors to consider. Other authors would call these Impediments to Human Acts.  (Impediment means
hindrance).

Impediments to Human Acts

Human actions, though naturally a product of will and reason, are sometimes influenced by certain factors, which
are called impediments to human actions. This factors intervene and bar one’s actions from being human or
contribute to the reduction of the quality of a certain action.  The impediments affect the quality of human acts.
 
1.  Ignorance pertains to the lack of pertinent information, as to the nature, circumstances and
effect of a certain action. Ignorance takes place when an individual consciously
proceeds to act on a certain matter without due consideration of the relevant or
necessary information related to it.
ETHC 1013- ETHICS | 14
 Ignorance is classified into:
There is invincible ignorance when one is totally
ignorant of the things surrounding his/her action and
there is no way to remove/dispel it. In situations like
a.  Invincible Ignorance this, the culpability of the individual is negated. A good
example of this kind is a person who is illiterate -- one who
does not know how to read and write, who is caught
jaywalking.
There is lack of required knowledge to determine the
goodness or badness of a certain action, but this can be
dispelled or learned through ordinary efforts,
conscientiousness and proper diligence.
b. Vincible Ignorance Mistakes or wrong actions out of vincible ignorance
lessens one’s culpability. An example would be committing
mistake without totally knowing that what you are doing is
really wrong.
There are two forms of vincible ignorance:
One is pretending to be ignorant since he/she just wants
to gain the approval of the other for his/her wrong action.
(In your ordinary language children, you call this
“agpalusot”.)  Naturally, any action, performed under
i.  Affected vincible
affected or pretended ignorance, does not excuse a
ignorance
person from his/her action. In fact, it actually increases
his/her culpability. An example would be a student who
pretends not to know the school’s policy on proper haircut
to excuse him/her when confronted by the guards.
It happens when a person exerts little effort to know
ii.  Supine or crass
  something. Giving a wrong medicine to a sick person may
ignorance
result in the sickness of the person getting worse.
2.  Concupiscence A situation where one’s inordinate passion hinders one to exercise correct reasoning,
thus also affects his/her action.
         Passions means our emotional elements like anger, pride, envy, love, joy, etc. Not
all passions are bad. Some are innately bad, but some becomes bad only when they are
excessive or called inordinate. Example is pride and anger, these two becomes bad only
when they become excessive that they already control one’s mind and even push
him/her to do a certain action. Still on pride, you must be proud of your parents; you
need pride or else you will be contented with your grades even if they are all line of
seven or even all 75%.
         The morality of actions done out of concupiscence depends on how the passions
affected the action of the doer. The culpability may increase or decrease or can be
negated.
Antecedent concupiscence A spontaneous/sudden inordinate passion influences an
action before it has been controlled by the will. Example:
Juan was already running late for his class. When he
entered the school campus, the guard confiscated his ID
for no apparent reasons. Out of his anger, he
unconsciously cursed the guard. (In ibanag, you call this
“gavva lang”, like gavva kang nanampal dahil sa gulat,
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 etc.)
         The culpability of bad actions done out of
Antecedent Concupiscence can be lessen or even
negated depending on how it happened.
 
 
 
This happens when one is aware of the inordinate passion
and the will chooses to arouse the said passion to perform
the bad action. The passion has already passed through
the intellect and controlled by the will, but still, the
individual performs the human act. In other words, you
know that you are very angry at that person, but you still
push through with the bad action like punching or kicking
or slapping him/her. You did not do anything to calm down
or to cool your anger.
Since the passion is deliberately and voluntarily acted
  Consequent concupiscence upon, the culpability of the  action increases. Gluttony is a
very good example. Pedro is obese. During a town fiesta,
he had visited the houses of his four friends, eating to his
satisfaction. On his way back home, he decided to drop by
a fast food restaurant for more food, and later on, he
vomited. Clearly, it is within his control to limit his food
intake; however, despite being full from the feast, he
deliberately decided to eat more on his way home. His
moral responsibility increases since it is within his will,
reason and disposal to decide to stop, but failed to do so.
 
3.  Fear affects the performance of a human act since the individual is threatened by the
impending dangers (ginawa or nagawa mo yung isang bagay kasi tinakot ka) The
presence of danger and intimidation affects his/her thought-processes in determining the
goodness or badness of his/her actions.
          A human act done with fear is considered as voluntary, therefore it will be culpable
if it is a bad act. The act is still culpable because one can still choose not to act despite
the fear or danger. Example: They forced a woman to remove her clothes with a gun
pointing at her, the woman can still choose not to do the act.
        However, the culpability of a bad act done out of fear can be lessen, increase or
even negated depending on the gravity of the threat and the circumstance surrounding
the action especially in a situation where one just follows his/her instinct to survive.
         While walking on a dark alley, Pedro was accosted by a robber pointing at his head
a gun. Trapped and in danger of being killed, Pedro has no alternative but to fight back.
As a result, the robber was terribly hurt. In this case, Pedro does not have moral
responsibility for hurting the robber because he had performed self-defense to protect
himself from a very clear and present danger. Acts done from fear or through fear, in
certain cases are involuntary because the agent is obligated to choose to avoid the
greater evil. This kind of situation lessens voluntariness and thus, decreases moral
responsibility.
ETHC 1013- ETHICS | 16
  
3.1 Light Fear: The threat/imminent danger confronting a person is not so serious or
grave to influence or force one to do a certain act.
-  So, a seriously bad act done under light fear is culpable.

3.2. Grave Fear: The threat is so serious or grave that it can really influence or force one
to do a certain act.
- Example of this are the cases of hold ups wherein people are forced to give their
money or belonging to another just out of fear; and other similar circumstances.
- The culpability of a bad act done under grave fear can be lessen or negated.
 
- I will not discuss this in detail since it is very much related to the cases of fear.
- The direct message of this is, you must exert all the efforts needed to defend yourself
in extreme cases where your life or your dignity is at stake. Again, this is in the cases of
rape or hold ups wherein the hold uppers even want to kill their victims.
- The morality here is that, one is culpable if he/she will not exert all the necessary efforts
to defend herself/ himself from the aggressor if needed, if his life or dignity is at stake.
Although, the culpability can be lessen depending on the circumstance.  
 
              In another angle, if a woman is defending herself from a rapist and accidentally,
the head of the rapist hits a wall or stone or hard object and died. In this case, the
woman’s action is not culpable since she was just defending herself and there was no
intention to kill the aggressor.
 
Self-defense is a classic example in the face of aggression wherein one has to protect
1.  Violence himself/herself from the attacker.
 
Conditions for Self-defense:
1. The aggression must be unjust.
2. The aggression must be actual.
3. Use minimum violence/it must be proportional
 
Problems comes when people just kill someone without being attack physically. There
was no actual aggression done. Example is, one is just looking at you intently then
suddenly you spank or even kill him with a gun or any other hard objects. Remember in
self-defense, there is no intention to kill but only to defend oneself or run away from the
trouble. Example, you have a gun and one is running after you with a knife. Which part of
the aggressor’s body should you hit with your gun?  The head? Stomach? Neck?
Chest?  None of the above my dear children. It should be the F…… oot or feet.  
2.  Habit is a firm and stable behavior pattern of acting. An individual naturally and consciously
performs an action, as a result of its repetitive performance through time. One acts
based on his/her repeated responses on situations.

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 Good moral habits are called virtues while bad habits are vices.
People are expected to exert utmost effort to free themselves from vicious habits.
Some examples of your bad habits children are: speaking bad words when you are mad,
always coming late, not attending mass, copying during quizzes and exams, etc.  
How do we moralize vices or bad habits?
Vices or bad habits are culpable. The culpability is lessened only when one is exerting
effort to correct or stop his/her vices.  

WEEK 4
Elements in determining the morality of Human Acts

Elements Description  
1.  The Object/Act

This is the action itself.  This answers the

question
WHAT.  It refers to the Human Act itself.
For an act
to be ethically and morally good, the
 
object must be
good in itself, otherwise, it is bad. (Living
a Christian
Moral Life, 2013).
 
 
 
This refers to the persons involved, the  
time, place, and occasion that surround  
2.  The Circumstance an object/act.  In other  
words, it answers the questions: WHO,  
WHEN, WHERE, and HOW.  
This can change or completely alter the
moral quality of
 
a human act.
The circumstance is a condition modifying
human actions,
either by increasing or diminishing the
moral responsibility. (Living a Christian
Moral Life, 2013).
 
Every human act, no matter how trivial or
significant, is done with an intention or
3.  The Intention or End
purpose – the reason behind  
or Purpose
the act.  This answers the question of
WHY.  For a human
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 act to be ethically and morally good, the
agent or doer
must have a good intention. Many such
activities are
said to be morally indifferent in
themselves but when performed, their
moral quality lies in the intention and
circumstance behind these activities. The
end or intention
can modify human action in four ways:
 
a. An indifferent act may become morally
good or bad.
b. An objectively good act may become
morally bad.
c.  An objectively good act can receive
added goodness.

An objectively bad act can never become

good in
   
spite of the good motive (Living a
Christian Moral
Life, 2013).

 Example:
1. Act /Action – There are actions that we can easily see if they are good or
-Killing is obviously bad
bad.
-Helping is generally good
 
 

Example:
-Helping someone. Is it
2. Purpose/Intention - There are actions in which morality can only be seen good or bad?
upon examining the purpose of the doer. -It depends on the purpose
of the doer.
 

Example:
-Is punching someone
3. Circumstance – (who, what, when, where, how or person/doer, bad? What if it’s
action/thing, time, place, and a baby punch or just a
friendly punch?
                                manner)
-What if you slap someone
  unintentionally out of
panic?
-Bawal bang
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 maghubad? How about in
the bathroom?
 
Other Principles/application of the Act, Purpose and Circumstance criteria:

1. The Act is good if the three (Act, Purpose, and Circumstance) are good.

2. If one of the three (Act, Purpose, and Circumstance) is bad, then the act is bad.

3. An indifferent act may become morally good or bad. (depending on the

     intention/purpose of the doer)

4. An objectively good act may become morally bad. (Purpose?)

    Example: when a person gives alms to a poor girl with the intention of seducing her.

5. An objectively bad act can never become good in spite of the good motive. Example: to steal money
with the good intention of giving it to charitable institutions or to the poor, as the legendary Robin Hood did. As
the principle says, “The end does not justify the means.”
 
Types of Ethics

1.  Deontology Deontology (or Deontological Ethics) is an approach to Ethics that focuses on

the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or
wrongness of the consequences of those actions (Consequentialism) or to
the character and habits of the actor (Virtue Ethics).

Deontology may sometimes be consistent with Moral Absolutism (the belief

that some actions are wrong no matter what consequences follow from them),
but not necessarily. 

The deontological class of ethical theories states that people should adhere to
their obliga-tions and duties when engaged in decision making when ethics
are in play.

Deontology is ethics of doing and action.

The word deontology derives from the Greek words for duty (deon) and
science (or study) of (logos). In contemporary moral philosophy, deontology is
one of those kinds of normative theories regarding which choices are morally
required, forbidden, or permitted. In other words, deontology falls within the
domain of moral theories that guide and assess our choices of what we ought
to do (deontic theories), in contrast to those that guide and assess what kind
of person we are and should be (aretaic [virtue] theories). And within the
domain of moral theories that assess our choices, deontologists—those who
subscribe to deontological theories of morality—stand in opposition
to consequentialists (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016)
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 Character-based ethics

A right act is an action a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances.

Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it looks at the virtue or moral
character of the person carrying out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules,
or the consequences of particular actions.

Virtue ethics not only deals with the rightness or wrongness of individual actions, it
provides guidance as to the sort of characteristics and behaviors a good person will
seek to achieve.
2.  Virtue ethics
In that way, virtue ethics is concerned with the whole of a person's life, rather than
particular episodes or actions.

A good person is someone who lives virtuously - who possesses and lives the
virtues.

It is ethics of being.  It asks the questions: “what does it mean to be human?”;

“what is done repetitively?”  or “is it part of your character or very being?”
 
It is the class of normative ethical theories holding that the consequences of
one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness or
3.
wrongness of that conduct.
Consequentialism
What is the effect of the action? Is the effect good?
 
Natural Law

Natural Law is the patterns, order, “rules” or “laws” of nature. These are discovered through
observation, experience, common sense, thinking/reasoning, or reflecting.
Note: we are part of nature since we are living on earth/nature. We have a body that connects us with
mother nature.

So even our bodies have patterns or “rules” that it follows like we need to sleep at least 8 hours a
day, we use our feet to walk and not our hands, we need to eat at least three times a day and the
other functions of the body. So there is an order in our body that needs to be followed or maintain or
else you will get sick until you die, etc.
 
This is the same as our Mother Nature or mother earth. There are patterns or orders in it that we
need to maintain like how many trees can we cut, avoid so much air pollution, not polluting our rivers
so much, etc.
         

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Important note: Once we do not follow Natural Law or these orders in mother nature or in our bodies,
it will lead to sickness, natural calamities until eventually to total destruction. Think my dear children
that most of the calamities we are suffering now are the result of not following the Natural Law.
People’s abuse to nature will come back to us in the forms of calamities like sudden erosion, untimely
typhoon, flash flood, global warming, etc. Even the Covid-19 that we are facing now is a result of
people trying to manipulate everything. They taught that they can easily control everything.
        
So Natural Law asserts that moral standards that govern human behaviors are objectively derived
from the nature of human beings and the nature of the world.
 
Natural Law affirms that since humans are by nature rational beings, it is morally appropriate that they
should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature.
 
In relation to human actions, Natural Law is defined as the light of human reason so we know what to
do and what to avoid.
 
Natural Law is a natural disposition of the human reason ordaining the person to do good and to
avoid evil.
Natural Law could be summed up as the law of human conduct that arises from human nature as
ordered to its ultimate natural end and which is recognized by the natural light of reason.
 
Characteristics of Natural Law
1.       Universal. This law is applicable to all creatures.
2.       Recognizable. It can be noticed through observations, interactions with others, and through
deeper reflection.
3.      Obligatory. Since this is the very law that will lead to our well-being there is no other choice or
better choice than to obey it. Not obeying it would lead to the things that the human person would
like to avoid in life which is destruction and damnation.
4.      Immutable. it will never be changed or is not subject to change.
 
Moreover, the contents of the Natural Law are classified into:
1.       Fundamental moral principles in their general applications such as “Good is to be done and evil
is to be avoided”, “Never do unto another what you would not want him to do unto you,” “the end
does not justify the means,” etc.;
2.       General moral principles that sustain and preserve the basic relations of the human person to
God, to himself/herself, and to neighbors. Examples: “honor your parents;” “preserve your own life;”
“do not murder;” and others;
3.       Applications of the general principles of morality to specific situations in life and society which
come in the form of specific  laws to govern specific situations and circumstances; and
4.      Remote conclusions derived by a process of reasoning which require good education and
deeper reflection. Examples of this content are moral problems such as mercy killing, the
indissolubility of marriage, contraceptive practices, and others.
 

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 So I hope Natural Law is now clear to you my dear children.

          So these are the rules, guides, norms in nature that you will discover through common sense,
observations, and thinking/reasoning or reflecting. In fact, the Ten Commandments except for
Commandment Number 1 and 2 are basically Natural Laws. You do not need to read the Bible before
you discover that you need to honor your parents, not kill, not steal, etc. Sorry if I will say one is too
slow to think/learn if he/she does not know these rules by nature or experience or observation since
we are rational by nature.
 
Positive Law. The word “positive” means being promulgated or “published” or announced. a law
enacted should not take effect unless it is promulgated or announced.

Why is there a need for the positive laws when in fact there is already the existence of the Natural
Law?
            The Natural Law has the tendency to be recognized generally in terms of their aspects, and
not all people easily find the proper application of these laws and their deeper implications in the life
of the human person.
 
The Positive Laws are the specific formulations derived from Natural Law. These are the specific
application of Natural Law in different human or societal contexts. So the Natural Law is seen,
expressed, or applied through the Positive Law. A positive law that does not respect the Natural Law
contributes to the damage to the development of the human person and of the whole creation. It is
territorial or contextual, a law continues until it is changed by another and it is promulgated by a public
authority.

      So my dear children, the positive laws are just the laws that people formulate/specify from the
Natural Law and they impose it to community or society since a lot of people violate a lot of aspect of
the Natural Law or they just ignore it if they think it will not affect them personally without considering
the effect or the damage that it can do to others. Note that all our actions will have an effect on others
either directly or indirectly or affect us now or later. An example is abuse to Mother Nature; before
people just ignored it, and they are only alarmed now that we are suffering from global warming and
other calamities.    
 
Examples of Positive Laws are Constitution, Policies, ordinances, rules, and regulations, etc.
 
The Positive Law is an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good by one in charge of
the community or by a competent authority.  Examples of human positive laws are the ordinances of
a certain place or the constitution of a certain country.

1. Ordinance. It is a decree or a command and not a request; it demands obedience. One has to follow it.

2. Reasonable. It means a certain positive law is based on reason and not on mere emotion. It must be
useful or good which means it must attain its goal. Positive law is also reasonable if it has the following
characteristics: just or fair, honest, possibility of fulfillment, relatively permanent, and must be promulgated.

3. Common Good. A law must serve the interest of the majority and not favor only a few individuals.

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4. Competent Authority. One who enacts or authors a law could be characterized as someone who is
knowledgeable, just, wise, and respectable.

Conscience
- the inner sense of what is right or wrong in
one's conduct or motives, impelling one toward
right action.
- is a personal awareness of right and wrong that
you use to guide your actions to do right.
- conscience is the practical judgment of reason
allowing the person to recognize the moral
quality of an act. (CCC).
- Conscience would tell, one must abhor the
evil/bad and embrace what is good.
 
The Two General Kinds of Conscience

It is a conscience that judges an act before it is done.

Antecedent conscience A typical example is during a quiz -- when a student has two options
whether to cheat or not to cheat. Before he/she cheats, the person knows
and is able to deliberate whether such action is pleasing to him/her or not.

It judges an act after it is being done.

Consequent
conscience Going back to the example above, consequent conscience works after
the cheating has been executed by the student and so he/she starts
feeling guilty about the act that he/she committed.

Conscience is further classified into different forms such as correct conscience and false conscience;
scrupulous conscience and lax conscience; and certain conscience and doubtful conscience.  These
classifications fall either under antecedent or consequent conscience depending on whether moral
assessment happens before or after a human act is being done.
 

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | 24

 a. Correct conscience is a conscience that judges a good act as good and a bad act as indeed bad.
b. False conscience - the opposite of correct conscience. One judges a good act as bad and a bad
act as good.
c. Scrupulous conscience - one is always afraid of committing errors; thus not following rules/laws
is tantamount to committing errors.
d. Lax conscience - a person keeps on excusing him/herself from every mistake committed. It is as
if, he/she does not commit any mistake at all.
e. Certain conscience is a firm judgment that one is not in error. It means, it is clear and evident that
what a person does is indeed right.
f. Doubtful conscience - judgment is always suspended because of the uncertainty of the goodness
and badness of human action. The word ‘doubt’ denotes the idea that one is not sure of what he/she
is doing.
 

General Principle: Always follow your conscience.

Welcome! Before we start the lesson in this course, let us pray the Louisian prayer.
 
In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen.
                                             
                                                                                         Louisian Prayer
O God, wellspring of goodness and blessings, we give you thanks and praise as one
Louisian community. The graces You incessantly grant upon us and Your divine
providence have sustained our beloved University throughout the years of mission
and excellence.
 
Having been founded by the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, we
pray that You keep us committed and dedicated to our mission and identity to
serve the Church and the society as we become living witnesses to the Gospel
values proclaimed by Jesus.
 
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For if we are steadfast in our good and beautiful mission, our works will bring
success not only to ourselves but also to those whom we are bound to love and
serve.
 
Inspired by St. Louis our Patron Saint, who was filled with a noble spirit that stirred
him to love You above all things, may we also live believing that we are born for a
greater purpose and mission as we dwell in Your presence all the days of our life.
 
Grant all these supplications through the intercession of Mother Mary and through
Christ our Lord. Amen.
In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen.
 
Good day students! Our lesson for this week focuses on the determinants of human acts.  It identifies the
types of ethics.  And it ends by defining and discussing the natural law and human positive law and
conscience.
 
Elements in determining the morality of Human Acts

 
Elements Description  
 
1.  The Object/Act This is the action itself.  This answers the 
question    
WHAT.  It refers to the Human Act itself. 
For an act  
to be ethically and morally good, the  
object must be
good in itself, otherwise, it is bad. (Living
a Christian
Moral Life, 2013).
 

ETHC 1013- ETHICS | 26

 This refers to the persons involved, the
time, place, and occasion that surround
2.  The Circumstance an object/act.  In other
words, it answers the questions: WHO,
WHEN, WHERE, and HOW.
This can change or completely alter the
moral quality of
 
a human act.
The circumstance is a condition modifying
human actions,
either by increasing or diminishing the
moral responsibility. (Living a Christian
Moral Life, 2013).
 
Every human act, no matter how trivial or
significant, is done with an intention or
3.  The Intention or End purpose – the reason behind
or Purpose the act.  This answers the question of
WHY.  For a human
act to be ethically and morally good, the
agent or doer
must have a good intention. Many such
activities are
said to be morally indifferent in
themselves but when performed, their
 
moral quality lies in the intention and
circumstance behind these activities. The
end or intention
can modify human action in four ways:
 
a. An indifferent act may become morally
good or bad.
b. An objectively good act may become
morally bad.
c.  An objectively good act can receive
added goodness.

An objectively bad act can never become

good in
   
spite of the good motive (Living a
Christian Moral
Life, 2013).

 Example:
1. Act /Action – There are actions that we can easily see if they are good or
-Killing is obviously bad
bad.
-Helping is generally good
 
 

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 Example:
-Helping someone. Is it
2. Purpose/Intention - There are actions in which morality can only be seen good or bad?
upon examining the purpose of the doer. -It depends on the purpose
of the doer.
 
Example:
-Is punching someone
bad? What if it’s
a baby punch or just a
3. Circumstance – (who, what, when, where, how or person/doer, friendly punch?
action/thing, time, place, and
-What if you slap someone
                                manner) unintentionally out of
panic?
 
-Bawal bang
maghubad? How about in
the bathroom?
 
Other Principles/application of the Act, Purpose and Circumstance criteria:

1. The Act is good if the three (Act, Purpose, and Circumstance) are good.

2. If one of the three (Act, Purpose, and Circumstance) is bad, then the act is bad.

3. An indifferent act may become morally good or bad. (depending on the

     intention/purpose of the doer)

4. An objectively good act may become morally bad. (Purpose?)

    Example: when a person gives alms to a poor girl with the intention of seducing her.

5. An objectively bad act can never become good in spite of the good motive. Example: to steal money
with the good intention of giving it to charitable institutions or to the poor, as the legendary Robin Hood did. As
the principle says, “The end does not justify the means.”
 
Types of Ethics

1.  Deontology Deontology (or Deontological Ethics) is an approach to Ethics that focuses on

the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or
wrongness of the consequences of those actions (Consequentialism) or to
the character and habits of the actor (Virtue Ethics).

Deontology may sometimes be consistent with Moral Absolutism (the belief

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 that some actions are wrong no matter what consequences follow from them),
but not necessarily. 

The deontological class of ethical theories states that people should adhere to
their obliga-tions and duties when engaged in decision making when ethics
are in play.

Deontology is ethics of doing and action.

The word deontology derives from the Greek words for duty (deon) and
science (or study) of (logos). In contemporary moral philosophy, deontology is
one of those kinds of normative theories regarding which choices are morally
required, forbidden, or permitted. In other words, deontology falls within the
domain of moral theories that guide and assess our choices of what we ought
to do (deontic theories), in contrast to those that guide and assess what kind
of person we are and should be (aretaic [virtue] theories). And within the
domain of moral theories that assess our choices, deontologists—those who
subscribe to deontological theories of morality—stand in opposition
to consequentialists (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016)

Character-based ethics

A right act is an action a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances.

Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it looks at the virtue or moral
character of the person carrying out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules,
or the consequences of particular actions.

Virtue ethics not only deals with the rightness or wrongness of individual actions, it
provides guidance as to the sort of characteristics and behaviors a good person will
seek to achieve.
2.  Virtue ethics
In that way, virtue ethics is concerned with the whole of a person's life, rather than
particular episodes or actions.

A good person is someone who lives virtuously - who possesses and lives the
virtues.

It is ethics of being.  It asks the questions: “what does it mean to be human?”;

“what is done repetitively?”  or “is it part of your character or very being?”
 
It is the class of normative ethical theories holding that the consequences of
one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness or
3.
wrongness of that conduct.
Consequentialism
What is the effect of the action? Is the effect good?
 

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Natural Law

Natural Law is the patterns, order, “rules” or “laws” of nature. These are discovered through
observation, experience, common sense, thinking/reasoning, or reflecting.
Note: we are part of nature since we are living on earth/nature. We have a body that connects us with
mother nature.

So even our bodies have patterns or “rules” that it follows like we need to sleep at least 8 hours a
day, we use our feet to walk and not our hands, we need to eat at least three times a day and the
other functions of the body. So there is an order in our body that needs to be followed or maintain or
else you will get sick until you die, etc.
 
This is the same as our Mother Nature or mother earth. There are patterns or orders in it that we
need to maintain like how many trees can we cut, avoid so much air pollution, not polluting our rivers
so much, etc.
         
Important note: Once we do not follow Natural Law or these orders in mother nature or in our bodies,
it will lead to sickness, natural calamities until eventually to total destruction. Think my dear children
that most of the calamities we are suffering now are the result of not following the Natural Law.
People’s abuse to nature will come back to us in the forms of calamities like sudden erosion, untimely
typhoon, flash flood, global warming, etc. Even the Covid-19 that we are facing now is a result of
people trying to manipulate everything. They taught that they can easily control everything.
        
So Natural Law asserts that moral standards that govern human behaviors are objectively derived
from the nature of human beings and the nature of the world.
 
Natural Law affirms that since humans are by nature rational beings, it is morally appropriate that they
should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature.
 
In relation to human actions, Natural Law is defined as the light of human reason so we know what to
do and what to avoid.
 
Natural Law is a natural disposition of the human reason ordaining the person to do good and to
avoid evil.
Natural Law could be summed up as the law of human conduct that arises from human nature as
ordered to its ultimate natural end and which is recognized by the natural light of reason.
 
Characteristics of Natural Law
1.       Universal. This law is applicable to all creatures.
2.       Recognizable. It can be noticed through observations, interactions with others, and through
deeper reflection.

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 3.      Obligatory. Since this is the very law that will lead to our well-being there is no other choice or
better choice than to obey it. Not obeying it would lead to the things that the human person would
like to avoid in life which is destruction and damnation.
4.      Immutable. it will never be changed or is not subject to change.
 
Moreover, the contents of the Natural Law are classified into:
1.       Fundamental moral principles in their general applications such as “Good is to be done and evil
is to be avoided”, “Never do unto another what you would not want him to do unto you,” “the end
does not justify the means,” etc.;
2.       General moral principles that sustain and preserve the basic relations of the human person to
God, to himself/herself, and to neighbors. Examples: “honor your parents;” “preserve your own life;”
“do not murder;” and others;
3.       Applications of the general principles of morality to specific situations in life and society which
come in the form of specific  laws to govern specific situations and circumstances; and
4.      Remote conclusions derived by a process of reasoning which require good education and
deeper reflection. Examples of this content are moral problems such as mercy killing, the
indissolubility of marriage, contraceptive practices, and others.
 
So I hope Natural Law is now clear to you my dear children.

          So these are the rules, guides, norms in nature that you will discover through common sense,
observations, and thinking/reasoning or reflecting. In fact, the Ten Commandments except for
Commandment Number 1 and 2 are basically Natural Laws. You do not need to read the Bible before
you discover that you need to honor your parents, not kill, not steal, etc. Sorry if I will say one is too
slow to think/learn if he/she does not know these rules by nature or experience or observation since
we are rational by nature.
 
Positive Law. The word “positive” means being promulgated or “published” or announced. a law
enacted should not take effect unless it is promulgated or announced.

Why is there a need for the positive laws when in fact there is already the existence of the Natural
Law?
            The Natural Law has the tendency to be recognized generally in terms of their aspects, and
not all people easily find the proper application of these laws and their deeper implications in the life
of the human person.
 
The Positive Laws are the specific formulations derived from Natural Law. These are the specific
application of Natural Law in different human or societal contexts. So the Natural Law is seen,
expressed, or applied through the Positive Law. A positive law that does not respect the Natural Law
contributes to the damage to the development of the human person and of the whole creation. It is
territorial or contextual, a law continues until it is changed by another and it is promulgated by a public
authority.

      So my dear children, the positive laws are just the laws that people formulate/specify from the
Natural Law and they impose it to community or society since a lot of people violate a lot of aspect of
the Natural Law or they just ignore it if they think it will not affect them personally without considering
the effect or the damage that it can do to others. Note that all our actions will have an effect on others
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 either directly or indirectly or affect us now or later. An example is abuse to Mother Nature; before
people just ignored it, and they are only alarmed now that we are suffering from global warming and
other calamities.    
 
Examples of Positive Laws are Constitution, Policies, ordinances, rules, and regulations, etc.
 
The Positive Law is an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good by one in charge of
the community or by a competent authority.  Examples of human positive laws are the ordinances of
a certain place or the constitution of a certain country.

1. Ordinance. It is a decree or a command and not a request; it demands obedience. One has to follow it.

2. Reasonable. It means a certain positive law is based on reason and not on mere emotion. It must be
useful or good which means it must attain its goal. Positive law is also reasonable if it has the following
characteristics: just or fair, honest, possibility of fulfillment, relatively permanent, and must be promulgated.

3. Common Good. A law must serve the interest of the majority and not favor only a few individuals.

4. Competent Authority. One who enacts or authors a law could be characterized as someone who is
knowledgeable, just, wise, and respectable.

Conscience
- the inner sense of what is right or wrong in
one's conduct or motives, impelling one toward
right action.
- is a personal awareness of right and wrong that
you use to guide your actions to do right.
- conscience is the practical judgment of reason
allowing the person to recognize the moral
quality of an act. (CCC).
- Conscience would tell, one must abhor the
evil/bad and embrace what is good.
 
The Two General Kinds of Conscience

It is a conscience that judges an act before it is done.

Antecedent conscience A typical example is during a quiz -- when a student has two options
whether to cheat or not to cheat. Before he/she cheats, the person knows
and is able to deliberate whether such action is pleasing to him/her or not.

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 It judges an act after it is being done.

Consequent
conscience Going back to the example above, consequent conscience works after
the cheating has been executed by the student and so he/she starts
feeling guilty about the act that he/she committed.

Conscience is further classified into different forms such as correct conscience and false conscience;
scrupulous conscience and lax conscience; and certain conscience and doubtful conscience.  These
classifications fall either under antecedent or consequent conscience depending on whether moral
assessment happens before or after a human act is being done.
 

a. Correct conscience is a conscience that judges a good act as good and a bad act as indeed bad.
b. False conscience - the opposite of correct conscience. One judges a good act as bad and a bad
act as good.
c. Scrupulous conscience - one is always afraid of committing errors; thus not following rules/laws
is tantamount to committing errors.
d. Lax conscience - a person keeps on excusing him/herself from every mistake committed. It is as
if, he/she does not commit any mistake at all.
e. Certain conscience is a firm judgment that one is not in error. It means, it is clear and evident that
what a person does is indeed right.
f. Doubtful conscience - judgment is always suspended because of the uncertainty of the goodness
and badness of human action. The word ‘doubt’ denotes the idea that one is not sure of what he/she
is doing.
 

General Principle: Always follow your conscience.

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