Textile Raw Materials (PDFDrive) PDF

Textile Raw Materials
AJAY JINDAL
B.Tech.( Textile) MBA,PGDRD PGDHE
RAKESH JINDAL
B. Tech, M.Tech. (Textiles)
ABHISHEK PUBLICATIONS
CHANDIGARH(INDIA )
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ISBN: 81-8247-159-1
ISBN : 978-81-8247-159-7
Copyright: Publisher
First Edition:2007
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CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page
1. INTRODUCTION OF TEXTILE FIBRES

1. 1. Development ......................................... 1
1.2. Fibre and its characteristics .................. 2
1.3. Classification of fibres ........................... 4
1.4. Polymerisation .......... ...................... ...... 8
1.5. Properties of textile fibres ................... 15
1.6. Importance of textiles ......................... 21
2. NATURAL FIBRES
2. 1. Introduction ........................................ 27
2.2. Cotton ................................................. 30
2.3. Miscellaneous Seed and Fruit Fibres .. 50
2.4. Jute .............................. .................. .... 51
2.5. Flax ......................... ........................... 57
2.6. Hemp ..................... 0.. .......................... 62
2.7. Ramie or China grass .......................... 65
2.8. Miscellaneous bast fibres .................... 67
2.9. Leaf fibres ........................................... 68
2.10. Asbestos ................. ............................ 70
2. 11. Wool .................................................... 71
2.12. Other hair fibres ................... .............. 98
2.13. Silk ...................................... ............. 100
3. REGENERATED FIBRES
3.1. Introduction ................ ........ ............. 119
3.2. Viscose rayon ............ ......... ..... .......... 120
3.3. Cuprammonium rayon ........ o •••••••••• • •• 127
3.4. Polynosic rayon ........... ...................... 129
3.5. Nitro cellulose .......................... .... ..... 130
3.60 Cellulose acetate ....... ............. ... ... ..... 131
3.7. Staple rayon ......... ................. ............ 136
3.8. Lyocell .............................................. 137
3.9. Minor regenerated fibres ................... 138
4. SYNTHETIC FIBRES
4.1. Introcluction ...................................... 145
4.2. Nylon ................................................ 146
4.3. Aramid .............................................. 158
4.4. Polyester ........................................... 161
4.5. Acrylic ............................................... 168
4.6. Polypropylene ................................... 176
4.7. Miscellaneous fibres ......................... 178
5. SPECIALITY FIBRES
5.1. Glass and carbon .............................. 186
5.2. Spandex ............................................ 187
5.3. Metallic fibres ................................... 188
5.4. Reflective materials ........................... 191
5.5. Silicate fibres .................................... 195
6. IDENTIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBRES

6.1. Introduction ...................................... 197
6.2. Burning test ...................................... 198
6.3. Staining tests .................................... 199
6.4. Chemical solubility test .................... 204
6.5. Microscopical tests ........................... 204
6.6. Elemental analysis for fibres ............. 209
6.7. Melting point of fibres ....................... 210
6.8. Infrared spectroscopy of fibres .......... 212
References ....................................................... 217

Appendices ....................................................... 218
(A) Important dimensional, physical, me-
chanical and chemical properties of
fibres ................................................ 219
(B) Physical and mechanical properties of
textile fibres ...................................... 220
(C) Composition of vegetable fibres ......... 222
(D) HOW TO BUY COTTON? ................... 223
Glossary ........................................................... 232
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION OF TEXTILE FIBRES
1.1. Development
Fibres abound in nature. Since ages human beings
have been increasingly dependent on fibres and fibrous
materials for shelter and housing, coverage, packaging,
protection and warmth. In ancient times, for protection
and warmth, man depended on animal hides, skins
and furs. As he looked around for more practical,
elegant and comfortable fibres, man found fibres
produced by plants, insects and animals. Using his
brain, he developed methods by which each of these
fibres could be twisted or spun together to form a thread
or yarn. The threads and yarns were then put through
mechanical processing such as weaving or interlacing
for obtaining flexible,' warm and highly comfortable,
stable, durable and useful material known as cloth or
fabric.
Till about the turn oftlle nineteenth century, only

natural fibres existed. Even today cotton, wool, jute,
flax and silk are the most important natural fibres used
for making elegant textiles.
In recent years, this list has been supplemented

by invention of variety of new fibres called 'man-made'
fibres (which include 'regenerated' and 'synthetic'
types). These materials have complemented the
properties of the important natural fibres and have
2 Textile Raw Materials
made possible many of the major advances in product

performance. The world wide production and
consumption of textile fibres have increased
considerably. The increase in total fibre production is
mainly due to growth in population whereas the trend
from naturally occurring fibres to man-made fibres
reflects many factors inc1uding their desirable physical
properties, uniformity, stability of supply and in many
cases comparatively low price tag. The man-made fibres
become particularly effective and desirable when they
are blended with other fibres (mainly cotton or wool).
This chapter is concerned with general description

of fibres that in most cases from the raw-materials from
which yarns and fabrics are produced.
1.2. Fibre and its characteristics

A fibre is a fine single filament which is used in
making of yarns and thread which comprise of the basic
component of all textile items- such as fabrics, mats,
strings, cords, twines and ropes. It is defined as a fine
strand of tissue of plant, animal or any synthetic
material drawn out into filament and subsequently cut
into required length.
1.2.1. Characteristics of a fibre
(i) Length to diameter ratio
For a fibre to be suitable for textile purposes, its

length to diameter ratio must be at least in the range
of hundreds. This physical structure enables fibres to
be twisted together to form yarns and threads. Larger
items having bigger diameters such as cords and ropes
are made by first assembling fibres into yarns and in
turn assembling them into cords and further into ropes
through twists and turns.
IntroductIon of Textile Fibres 3
(ii) Strength
A fibre for textiles must be strong, Its inherent high

strength enables it to withstand the rigours of the
spinning (yarn or thread-making) and weaving
processes and to provide the desired strength in the
woven cloth.
(iii) Flexibility
A fibre should be essentially flexible. Flexibility

permits the fibres to be duly spun and woven and gives
to the textile fabric its unique folding and draping
characteristics.
(iv) Fibre-length
Fibre-length is an important physical parameter.

Fibres can be infinitely long, but they must not be
shorter than 6-12 mm (1/4-1/2 in) in length, so as to
ensure that they are held together by the imparted
twists during spinning.
(v) Elasticity and resilience
Besides having good strength and flexibility, a

textile fibre should also have a good degree of elasticity
and resilience without detrimental brittleness. For
fibres for clothing, garment, a good degree of moisture
absorption is desirable for good feel and comfort.
(vi) Density
The density of the fibre largely influences its

draping qualities when it is made into a fabric. Smaller
density and lower diameter make a finer fibre. Fabrics
made from very light fibres may not drape well; if the
fibre is too dense.
1.2.2. Textile fibre and filament
Fibres have been defined by the textile institute

as units of matter characterized by flexibility, fmeness,
and a high ratio of length to thickness. In individual
textile fibres, the length/width ratio is at least 1000/1.
A filament is a very long fibre. The length of

filaments may range from a few hundred metres, as in
the case of silk, to several kilometres as in the case of
man-made fibres. The thickness of filaments tends to
be similar to that of fibres.
1.3. Classification of fibres

The textile fibres may be divided into two major
groups, namely, (a) natural fibres and (b) man-made
fibres. Table 1.1 describes the different types of fibres
classified under each major group.
During the past two decades, there has been a great

surge of activity in the development and production of
new synthetic fibres. This has given rise to considerable
confusion about the nomenclature of synthetic textile
fibres.
The natural fibres have been classified into thre

groups-
1. Animal fibres- wool, silk, hair fibres etc.
2. Vegetable fibres- cotton, jute, flax, hemp etc.
3. Mineral fibres- Asbestos
vegetable fibres are further divided into four sub-

groups according to source of origin-
Table 1.1. Classification of Textile Fibres
I i
Natural Man-Made
Animal
I
Vegetable Mineral Natural Polymer
I
Synthetic Refractory and
(Asbestos) I Polymer Related Fibres
Seed
I
Bast
I
Leaf
I
Fruit Regenerated
I
Regenerated
I
Cellulose Miscellaneous
(carbon, glass,
metal, silica)
(cotton (flax (abaca, (coir) protein cellulose esters (alginate,
kapok) hemp, manila, (casein, (Viscose (cello lose natural
Jute, sisal, vegetable Rayon, acetates) rubber)
ramie, etc.) protein) cuprammonlum
etc,) rayon)
Silk Wool Hair

(alpaca, camel, Polyurethanes Polyamldes Polyesters Polymerized synthetic
goat, horse, (Lycra ,spandax) (nylons) hydrocarbons rubbers
rabbit, etc.) (ethylene,
propylene)
Polyvinyl derivatives
I
I ..
Polyacrylonltnle
I
Polyvinyl
I
Polyvinylidlne
I
Polytetra-
I
Polyvinyl
I
Polystyrene
I
Polyvinylldene
I
Miscellaneous
(acylic & chlonde chlonde fluoroethylene alcohol dlnitnle polyvinyl
modacrylic) (PVC) (Saran) (Teflon) (PVA) derivatives
01·
(a) Seed fibres- cotton
(b) Bast fibres- flax-hemp
(c) Leaf fibres- manila, sisal
(d) Fruit fibres- coir
The maTl-made fibres are divided into two broad

categories, namely
(a) regenerated (natural polymer)
(b) synthetic fibres
The regenerated fibres are those in which the fibre-

forming material is of natural origin. Synthetic fibres
are made by the chemical synthesis of simple polymer-
formign materials.
The regenerated fibres are further divided into the

following four sub-groups-
1. Cellulose fibres- rayon, such as viscose;

polynosic (in which the fibre is either wholly or manly
cellulose) .
2. Cellulose esters- acetate and triacetate.
3. Protein fibres- casein
4. Miscellaneous- alginate, natural rubber etc.
Synthetic fibres are classified according to their

chemical structure. They fall into six broad groups.
Because the synthetic fibres are often made from
copolymers or from modifications of polymers, a fibre
may belong to two or more of the chemical sub-groups.
Introduction of Textile Fibres 7
1. Polyamides: Nylon 6, 6-6,
2. Polyesters: Dacron, Terylene
3. Polyvinyl derivatives:
(a) Polyacrylonitrile
(i) acrylic, for example, Orlon, Acrilan, Zefran,
etc.
(ii) Modacrylic, for example, Verel, Dynel
(b) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) for example, Rhovyl,
Vinyon, etc.
(c) Polyvinylidine chloride, for example, Saran
(d) Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) for example, vinal and
Mewlon
(e) Polytetrafluoroethylene for example, Teflon
(f) Polyvinylidine dinitrile for example, Dravan
(g) Polystyrene for example, Durabass
(h) Miscellaneous polyvinyl derivatives
4. Polyolefins:
(a) polyethylene
(b) polypropylene for example, Herculon and
Marvess
5. Polyurethanes: lycra or spandex
6. Miscellaneous synthetics: glass and metallic,

carbon.
8 Textile Raw Matena/s
Thermoplast and non-thermoplast
Fibres may also be classified into- (a) Thermoplasts,

and (b) Non-thermoplasts
(a) Thermoplasts- When appropriately heated, the

thermoplasts melt or fuse and exhibit continuous flow
preferably under pressure and most of them can be
dissolved in appropriate solvents.
Cellulose acetate rayon, nylons, vinyl chloride- or

vinylidene chloride-vinyl chloride copolymers, glass
fibre etc. are examples of thermoplasts.
(b) Non-thermoplasts- Most non-thermoplastic

fibres begin to decompose on heating before exhibiting
plastic flow and they can be seldom dissolved in
solvents.
All cellulosic fibres available in nature together with

viscose and cuprammonium rayons (regeneraged
cellulose), wool and asbestos fall in this category.
1.4. Polymerisation
Textile fibres, like most substances, are made up
of molecules. Fibre molecules are called polymers. The
'unit' of a polymer is the monomer. At the molecular
level the polymer is extremely long and linear, whereas
the monomer is very small.
Monomers are usually chemically reactive, whereas

polymers tend to be unreactive. This is illustrated by
the chemical reaction called polymerisation, which
causes the monomers to join end-to-end to form a
polymer.
The length of the polymer is most important. All

IntroductIOn of Textile Fibres 9
fibres, both man-made and natural, have long to
extremely long polymers. Length of a polymer can be
obtained by determining its degree of polymerisation.
This is often abbreviated OP and defined by the
following mathematical expression:
average molecular weight of polymer

O. P. = molecular weight of the repeating unit in the polymer
(A) Addition polymerisation
With this type of polymerisation the monomers add

or join end-to-end without liberating any by-product
on polymerisation. Examples of fibres consisting of
addition polymers are acrylic, modacrylic, polyethylene
or polyethene, polypropylene or polypropene, poly-vinyl
alcohol (PVA) and the chlorofibres, namely polyvinyl
chloride and polyvinylidene chloride.
Example-
CH 2 =CH 2 + CH 2 = CH 2 + CH 2 =CH 2 + ... ~

(Ethylene)
-CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -

(Polyethylene)
(8) Condensation polymerisation
With this type of polymerisation the monomers join

end-to-end and liberate a by-product. This by-product
is usually a simple compound- generally water, but
may be hydrogen chloride or ammonia, depending upon
the specific monomers. Examples of fibres consisting
of condensation polymers are elastomeric, nylon and
polyester.
10 Textile Raw Matenals
Example-
HO(CH 2}sCOOH + HO(CH)sCOOH --~

(Hydroxy acid)
HO(CHJsCO.O(CH)sCOOH + H2 0
1.4.1. Types of polymer
(i) Homopolymer
Such a polymer is polymerised from the same or

only one kind of monomer. Some homopolymer fibres
are: nylon 6, nylon 11, polyethylene, polypropylene,
polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride,
polyacryloni trile.
(ii) Copolymer
Such a polymer is polymerised from two or more

different monomers. There are four sub-categories of
copolymers, as follows-
(a) Alternating copolymer

(b) Block copolymer
(c) Graft copolymer
(d) Random copolymer.
1.4.2. Requirements of fibre-forming polymers
Fibre-forming polymers of apparel fibres should

be:
1. hydrophilic,
2. linear,
3. long,
4. capable of being oriented,
5. chemically resistant, and
6. able to form high-melting point polymer systems.
The usefulness of a fibre for apparel purposes is

generally dependent upon the extent to which its
polymers meet the requirements of fibre-forming
polymers listed above.
A brief explanation of these requirements is as

under-
1. Hydrophilic properties
Fibre polymers should be hydrophilic. The

polymers should be polar, enabling them to attract
water molecules. A fibre is comfortable to wear if its
polymer system consists of hydrophilic polymers, and
the system itself permits the entry of water molecules.
2. Linearity
Fibre polymers should be linear i.e. the polymers

should not be branched. Only linear polymers allow
Cl-dequate polymer alignment to bring into effect
sufficient inter-polymer forces of attraction to give a
cohesive polymer system a1'ld, thus reSUlting in useful
textile fibre.
3. Length.
Fibre polymers should be long. The length of the

polymers constituting the commonly used apparel
fibres is in excess of one hundred nanometres.
Polymers of such length can readily be oriented. If the
polymers are oriented then there are sufficiently
effective inter-polymer forces of attraction to form a
cohesive polymer system and, hence, a useful fibre.
4. Orientation
Fibre polymers should be capable of being oriented.

The polymers are or can be arranged or aligned (i.e.
oriented) into more or less parallel order in the direction
of the longitudinal axis of the fibre or filament.
5. Chemical resistance
Fibre polymers should be chemically resistant for

a reasonable length of time against the common
degrading agents such as sunlight and weather,
common types of soiling, laundry liquors and dry
cleaning solvents. Another most important requirement
is than chemically resistant polymers should not be
toxic or hazardous to wear against human skin.
6. Formation of high-melting-point polymer systems
A fibre consisting of a high-melting-point polymer

system tends to have adequate heat resistance to
enable it to withstand the various heat treatments of
textile wet processing, apparel manufacture, and the
heat subsequently applied to it during laundering,
pressing or ironing during its useful life as a garment.
A fibre's melting point needs to be above 225°C if it

has to be useful for textile manufacture and apparel use.
1.4.3. Amorphous and crystalline region
Polymer orientation in the polymer system of fibres

is of two types-
1. Amorphous polymer orientation
Amorphous orientation of polymers within the

polymer system of any fibre is called the amorphous
region. In amorphous regions the polymers are oriented
or aligned at random, i.e. display no particular order
of arrangement.
2. Crystalline polymer orientation
Crystalline orientation of polymers within the

polymer system of any fibre is called the crystalline
region. In crystalline regions the polymers are oriented
or aligned longitudinally into more or less parallel order.
Characteristics of amorphous and crystalline fibres
1. Amorphous fibres
• More absorbent
• Weaker
• Less durable
• More easily degraded by chemicals
• More easily dyed
• More pliable, softer handling
• Plastic, more easily distorted
2. Crystalline fibres
• Less absorbent
• Stronger
• More durable
• Less easily degraded by chemicals
• Less easily dyed
• Less pliable, stiffer handling
• Less plastic, resist being distorted
......
Table 1.2. Physical and mechanical properties of some natural and man-made fibres ~
Fibre Density Average Crysta- Tena- Breaking Initial Moisture
3
g/cm Finess llinity city (g/ Elonga- Modulus Regain
(denier) (%) denier) tion(%) (g/denier) (%)
Cotton 1.54-1.55 1.8 55-60 3.0-5.0 5-7 40-50 7-8
Flax 1.50-1.54 11.5 65-70 5.5-6.5 2-3 130-200 11-12
Ramie 1.54-1.55 6.3 60-65 6.0-8.0 4-5 100-160 7-8
Jute 1048-1.50 18.0 50-55 2.7-6.0 0.8-2.0 180-300 12-14
Viscose 1.54-1.55 104 35-45 2.2-3.0 15.20 20-30 12

Rayon (bI
><
~
Polyester 1.33-1.38 104 45.50 3.8-6.0 20.-40 12-15 004 ::0
III
~
~
CD
a:l'
1ii
1.5. Properties of textile fibres
Textile materials are capable of being transformed
into desired shapes without resistance and durable
over a reasonable period of wear. They derive these
properties from fibres and yarns. The yarn, in turn, is
formed by twisting a bundle of fibres together. It is
therefore clear that the properties of the ultimate textile
structure will depend very largely on the characteristics
of the fibres from which they are made. These
dimensional characteristics of fibres form the basis of
their use as textile raw materials.
The following are some of the most essential and

other desirable properties-
1. Dimensional and physical characteristics

- length
- fineness
- cross-sectional shape
- crimp
- density
2. Mechanical properties
- strength
- elasticity
- extensibility
- rigidity (stiffness)
3. General
- surface characteristics- frictional, (cohesion)
- environmental stability- resistance to
sunlight, thermal stability, (plasticity)

pliability, resilience
- spinnability
- abrasion resistance
- dimensional stability (uniformity)
- moisture absorption
- resistance to bacteria, fungi, mildew, moths,
etc.
- static electrical resistance
- colour
- wetting characteristics (capillarity and
porosity)
A detailed discussion of the fibre properties

mentioned above is out of the scope of this book.
However, appropriate to discuss the technical
significance of some of the most important properties
of fibres that have a profound influence on the
processing behaviour and the end-use characteristics
of yarns.
Table 1.2 shows physical and mechanical

properties of some commonly used natural and man
made textile fibres.
A brief idea of some of the, properties of textile fibre

is as under-
(i) Fibre length
It is one of the most important property. Other

factors being equal, the longer the fibre, the stronger
the yarn. The lower limit oflength in case of commerdal
textile fibres should not be less than 1 cm. A fibre
having a length below the commercial limit, cannot be
spun economically.
(ii) Fineness
In a fibre, the ratio of length to width or cross-

sectional area is expressed as its fineness. In coarse
fibres the length is about 700 times more than the
width. The ratio may be even 5000 in case of very fine
fibres. Only fine fibres can produce fine yarn. Fineness
has much role to determine properties and
characteristics of particular fibre. It also determines
the end use of fibres to some extent.
(iii) Crimp
Crimp is the waviness of a fibre. It is natural quality

of wools. It is measured by the difference between the
length of the crimped fibre at rest and the length of
the same fibre when it is perfectly straight. It is
expressed as percentage of the unstretched fibre
length. Finewools usually have many fine waves.
Coarse wool is more, definitely curled rather than
crimped.
(iv) Density
Density is the mass or weight of material per unit

volume generally expressed in grams per cubic
centimetre (gmj cc). The specific gravity or specific
weight is the ratio of mass weighed in air to the mass
of an equal volume of water at 4°C.
Since the volume is affected by the lumen in hollow

fibre, the porosity (resulting from surface cracks) and
the amount of crystallanity in certain sections of the
individual fibre it is very difficult to determine the true
density. In this case specific gravity is generally the

preferred method of expressing the weight of the textile
fibre.
(v) Strength
Strength is also one of the most important

characteristics of a textile fibre. Weak fibres cannot
produce a strong yarn. Individual fibres must have
sufficient strength to withstand normal mechanical
strain in the processing. The resistance of a fibre to
use and wear is considerably dependent on its tensile
strength.
(vi) Elasticity and elongation
To be used as textile material, a fibre must have

some elasticity. It is the property by which the fibre
tends to recover its original length upon the removal
of stress that caused deformation.
The elastic limit is the maximum load or stress to

which a fibre can be subjected without the formation
of a permanent set when the load is removed. The
amount of stretch or extension that a fibre will accept
is referred to as elongation. Breaking elongation is the
amount of stretch that a fibre can udnergo before it
breaks.
(vii) Spinnability
Spinnability includes several physical properties

each having an effect on the ability of the fibres to be
spun into yarn.
Staple fibres must have to be capable of taking a

twist. They must have a certain degree of friction
against one another to stay in place when pull is applied
to the yarn. They must also be able to take on whole
special finishes for lubricatio!l during spinning or to
provide additional surface resistance to abrasion.
(viii) Uniformity
Uniformity means the evenness of the individual

fibres in length and diameter. A fibre possessing this
property can produce reasonably even threads. This is
also important in connection with the strength of the
resulting yarn. The more uniform the yarn the stronger
the yarn.
(ix) Plasticity
It is the property of a solid by which under certain

conditions of temperature and pressure it can be made
to take on the shape of any mould and to retain this
shape after cooling. The synthetic fibres being
thermoplastic materials possesses this property. They
are all heat softened.
(x) Absorbency
Most of textile fibres absorb moisture from it is

important that the market purchaser of fibres and
yarns should know their moisture content so that they
will not be paying fibre prices for water.
The amount of moisture present is expressed as a

percentage of the original weight (Moisture content) of
fibres or its oven dry weight (Moisture regain).
The fibre that absorbs moisture are more

comfortable than those with low absorbancy especially
in hot humid weather when perspiration is removed.
20 Textile Raw Materia's
(xi) Cohesion
Cohesion is the property of clinging or sticking

together in a mass. Usually the more rigid the fibre
lower its cohesion. It is generally assumed that a high
degree of frictional resistance plays a part in the
cohesiveness. It is certain that external scales, neps
(the surface irregularities on wool and flax respectively),
twist and irregularitiness in the diametel of cotton
contributes to the ability of such fibres to hold together.
(xii) Resilience
Resilience is the springing back of recovery of a

fibre when it is released from a deformation. Resiliency
is also a desirable property of fibre fillings for pillows
and mattresses and some types of wearing apparel.
(xiii) Static electrical resistance
Phenomenon of Static Electricity creates a problem

in the spinning and other processing of textile fibres.
The problem is more especially in a room with very low
relative humidity. It is much more severe in the caSe
of synthetic fibres which have extremely low electrical
conductivity and too little moisture to provide a path
where by the static electricity can be carried away.
Static electrical properties create problems in the
packaging and sewing also.
(xiv) Capillarity and porosity
These properties with the similar influence on the

ability of a textile fibre or yam to accept and hold a
dye, a fmish, a lubricant or resin finish in order to
increase the wrinkle resistance of a fabric and to give
a wash and wear finish. Liquids passed rapidly through
small cracks or breaks in the outer surface of a fibre
bringing about absorbtion through porosity. In the case
of cotton liquids pass through the hollow centre or
lumen and in wool through small voids on the surface.
It is usually regarded as the effect of the mechanism,
capillarity.
(xv) Colour
Most natural fibre have some colour e.g. silk is

yellow to tan. Wool is brownish tint. Cotton is a creamy
white or brown. This is a natural colouring matter and
requires to be removed before subsequent wet
processing treatments such as dyeing and printing.
The removal is done with bleaching agents.
Most of the synthetic fibres too have a slight creamy

or yellowish colour. Therefore, they must be bleached
or boiled and stripped off their colour by some chemical
process in order to produce a fibre or yarn as white as
possible.
1.6. Importance of textiles

Textile products playa vital role in meeting man's
basic needs. We often only consider textiles to be the
clothes we wear. Obviously, the clothing industry is
where the majority of textiles are produced and used.
However, textiles are also important in all aspects of
our lives from birth to death.
The use of textiles has been traced back over 8500

years. The technological advances of textiles in various
industries do not always get recognized as they do in
the clothing industry.
Some important roles that textiles play in other

industries are described as under:
(a) Food industry
Farmers wear protective clothing to spray their

crops with pesticides. Textiles are used to cover plants
and wrap trees for protection from weather and insects.
Coffee filters and tea bags are made of a non-woven
textile. The annual production of tea bag string would
stretch around the equator 67 times.
(b) Building materials
Textiles are used in our homes to insulate them

from heat and cold. The furniture, on which we sit and
sleep, is composed of various types oftextile products.
Textiles are used in roofing materials, wire coverings,
wall coverings, blinds, air ducts and window screens.
(c) Transportation
The transportation industry relies on textiles to

line the beds of the roads before they are paved. A tire
gets seventy five percent of its strength from textiles.
Kevlar aramid is often used to strengthen radial tires
because it is lightweight and five times stronger than
steel. The interiors of all types of transportation vehicles
are covered with textiles. Textiles are also used in the
brake linings, gaskets, seals, seat belts, air bags and
filters of vehicles. The Lear Fan Jet airplane body is
composed of 100 percent carbon fibre composite
material. This carbon material is half the weight of
aluminum and as strong as steel. The heat shields on
spacecraft are composed of a fibre that will withstand
20,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
(d) Health industry
Textiles are used as life saving devices in the

healthcare industry. The artificial kidney used in
dialysis is made of 7,000 hollow fibres and is only two
inches in diameter. The Jarvik-7 artificial heart is
composed of over fifty percent textiles and has Velcro
fittings. Over 150,000 people in the United States have
artificial arteries made of knitted polyester, which aids
in preventing clotting and rejection.
The invention of disposable clothing helps prevent

the spread of bacteria. Sutures for wounds are now
made of a dissolvable textile fibre. Casts for broken
bones, surgical masks, bandages and gloves are other
examples of textiles used in the healthcare industry.
(e) Protective materials
Bulletproof vests are made of 7 layers of Kevlar 29

aramid, which can protect a person from a knife slash
and stop a .38-caliber bullet fired at a range of 10 feet.
Firefighters and race-car drivers wear apparel made of
Nomex aramid to protect them from the extreme heat
they encounter in their professions. Astronauts wear
$100,000 (Rs. 40 lacs approx.) suits made of Nomex
aramid that protect them from the elements of space.
Sports players wear protective helmets and pads made
of textiles.
(f) Recreational products
Sports equipment such as sailboats, hockey sticks,

fishing rods, golf clubs, tennis rackets and canoes are
composed of textile fibres. Kevlar aramid is used in
this type of sports equipment because of its light weight
and strength. Backpacks, balls, life jackets and artificial
playing surfaces are also made of textile fibres.
(g) Miscellaneous textile products
Other products composed of textiles that are not

usually thought of as textile products are as follows:
• Toothbrushes
• Hair Brushes
• Dental Floss
• Artificial Flowers/Plants
• Book Bindings
• Candle Wicks
• Communication Lines
• Circuit Boards
Just by reviewing the textile products contained

in the paragraphs above helps us realize how important
textiles are to our lives. The importance of textiles also
meets another need, which is employment. Today the
textile industry employs over 1.4 million people, more
than any other industry. As textile technology
advances, so will the importance of textiles in our lives.
EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE I

(AJ Short answer type questions
1. Define fibre and filament.
2. What is polymerisation?
3. What are natural fibres?
4. What are man-made fibres?
5. What are regenerated fibres?
6. Name only mineral fibre available.
7. What is addition polymerisaion?
8. What is condensation polymerisation?
9. Which natural fibre has the largest world
production?
10. Which man-made fibre has the largest world
production.
11. Define Homopolymer with example.
12.Define copolymer with examples.
13. Define hydrophillic and hydrophobic.
14. What is the degree of polymerisation?
15. What is fibre fineness?
16. Define specific gravity.
17. Define moisture content and moisture regain.
18. Define monomer.
19.Name different types of co-polymers.
20. Fill in the blanks-
i) Crimp is ___ of fibre.
ii) The longer the fibre (stronger /weaker)
the yarn.
iii) Fine yarn can be produced by (fine /
coarse) fibres.
iv) The length of a polymer is obtained by
determining _ __
v) Viscose rayon is a ___ fibre.
vi) A fibre must have melting point above _ __
to be used as textile material.
21. State True or False-
i) Thermoplast can not be dissolved in solvents.
ii) A fibre forming polymer should be capable
of being oriented.
iii) The coarser the fibre, finer the yarn.
iv) All cellulosic fibres are thermoplast in
nature.
v) The more uniform the yarn, the more

stronger it is.
(8) Medium answer type questions

1. What are characteristics of a fibre? Explain
briefly.
2. What are requirements of fibre forming polymer?
3. What are thermoplasts and non-thermo plasts
fibres? Explain briefly.
4. Give the classification of natural fibres.
5. Classify man-made fibres with suitable
examples.
6. Explain characteristics of amorphous and
crystalline fibres.
(C) Long answer type questions

1. Give the complete classification of textile fibres
with suitable examples.
2. Describe the essential and desirable properties
of a textile fibre. Also explain how the
characteristics of fibre affect the yarn properties.
3. What are major differences between natural and
man-made fibres. Enumerate them in detail.
4. Give a detailed account on important fibre
properties.
CHAPIER I
NATURAL FIBRES
2.1. Introduction
The natural fibres are those which are obtained

from natural source or grow in nature. Among them
cotton, jute, flax, wool and silk are important in terms
of production, indsutrial activity and usage pattern.
With respect to clothing and garments industry only
cotton, linen, wool and silk are important whereas other
fibres have their importance in non-apparel industrial
application as yarns, cords, canvas, twines, ropes, nets,
woven sacks, shopping bags, coarse fabrics, mats and
carpets, filling material for mattresses and cushions,
brushes and geo-textiles. The natural fibres can be
divided into three groups-
(i) vegetable fibres;
(ii) animal fibres; and
(iii) mineral fibres.
2.1.1. Vegetable fibres of natural origin
These include the most important of all textile

fibres. The vegetable fibres are all based upon cellulose,
a polysaccharide fibre related to starch and sugars
which are naturally built up in plants taking light, water
and carbon dioxide from the environment. The

vegetable fibres are further divided into three
categories-
(a) Seed and fruit fibres
Among the seed and fruit fibres, cotton has grown

as the most important textile fibre in the world. It is
the backbone and basic foundation of the world's textile
trade and industry. Cotton is essentially cellulose and
in fact, the purest form of cellulose. Other less
important fibre is coir used mainly for making cords,
ropes etc.
(b) Bast fibre
The bast fibres grow and appear in the form of

bundles or strands of lignocellulosic fibres surrounding
the stem and beneath the outer bark of dicotyledenous
plants. They provide strength to the plant and help to
hold it erect. They are not attached to seeds as are
cotton but are usually part of stem structure or some
other tissues of plant.
The most important fibres/in this group are linen

(flax), jute, ramie, hemp, and sunn. These fibres are also
composed of cellulose. They are made up of long, thick-
walled cells glued together by non-cellulosic materials
(lignins and pectins) resulting in long fibre bundles
running the entire length of the stem. The amount of
non-cellulosic material varies considerably from one type
of fibre to the other. For example, jute may contain as
much as 20% lignin, compared to 8% in flax.
The bast fibres are removed from the woody stems

by the process known as "retting'. The function of this
process is to ferment the non-cellulosic material
binding the fibres and remove it by washing in water.
Natural Fibres 29
Most bast fibres have very high strength but low
elongation-to-break. Bast fibres are generally stronger
when wet. The structure of most bast fibres re8emble.
That of cotton. Bast fibres do not have the convolutions
characteristics of cotton. On basis and importance of
usage pattern,jute is the most important of bast fibres.
(c) Leaf fibres
Leaf fibres are obtained from the leaves of

monocotyledenous plants. The most important fibres
belonging to this category are sisal, henquen and abaca
(manila) in addition to several other less important ones
like pineapple leaf fibre, banana leaf fibre and palm
leaf fibre (Raffia).
Production of such leaf fibres has grown into

successful industrial ventures. Large quantities of
related leaf fibres are in use for making yarns, ropes,
cords and fabrics. Leaf fibres have the potential for
use as reinforcing agents in fibre-reinforced plastic and
rubber composites if they are produced in sufficient
amounts to meet the growing demand.
2.1.2. Animal fibres of natural origin
Natural fibre of animal origin are all basically

natural protein fibres, e.g. wool and other animal hair
fibres and the insect fibre silk. In general, animals fibres
make up nearly 8% of the total textile fibres annually
produced. Wool and silk also play much more
significant roles in the textile trade than their limited
production volume. Wool itself accounts for nearly 90%
of the world production of animal fibre.
Wool, by and large the most important of hair

fibres. The term 'wool' is reserved for the hair covering
of the sheep and all animal-covering fibres are grouped
as hair fibres.
Other hair fibres such as mohair, cashmere wool,

alpaca and vicuna etc. are all similar to wool in chemical
structure; they are proteins, known as keratin, even
though they differ from wool and from each other in
physical characteristics such as length, fineness,
shape, internal structure and perhaps also colour. Only
wool is widely useful as textiles while others are
important in such applications as padding and stuffing
materials and in making felts and brushes.
2.1.3. Mineral fibres of natural origin
Asbestos is the only naturally occurring mineral

fibre. It has been used in heat resistant materials,
thermal insulation, break blocks and reinforcement in
sheet materials for buildings. The use of asbestos is
now rapidly declining following the discovery of health
risks from asbestos dust.
2.2. Cotton
2.2.1. History
Nobody seems to know exactly when people first

began to use cotton, but there is evidence that it was
cultivated in India and Pakistan and in Mexico and
Peru 5000 years ago. In these two widely separated
parts of the world, cotton must have grown wild. Then
people learned to cultivate cotton plants in their fields.
In Europe, wool was the only fibre used to make

clothing. Then from the Far East came tales of plants
that grew "wool". Traders claimed that cotton was the
wool of tiny animals called Scythian lambs, that grew
on the stalks of a plant. The stalks, each with a lamb
as its flower, were said to bend over so the small sheep
could graze on the grass around the plant. These
fantastic stories were shown to be untrue when Arabs
brought the cotton plant to Spain in Middle Ages.
Natural Fibres 31
In the fourteenth century cotton was grown in
Mediterranean countries and shipped from there to
mills in the Netherlands in western Europe for spinning
and weaving. Until the mid eighteenth century, cotton
was not manufactured in England, because the wool
manufacturers there did not want it to compete with
their own product. They had managed to pass a law in
1720 making the manufacture or sale of cotton cloth
illegal. When the law was finally repealed in 1736,
cotton mills grew in number.
In the United States though, cotton mills could

not be established, as the English would not allow any
of the machinery to leave the country because they
feared the colonies would compete with them. But a
man named Samuel Slater, who had worked in a mill
in England, was able to build an American cotton mill
from memory in 1790.
Cotton is defined as white fibrous substance

covering seeds harvested from Cotton Plant. It is
classified as natural, cellulose, seed, mono-celluloar,
staple fibre. Many varieties of Cotton are cultivated
mainly from 3 important genetic species of Gossipium.
Species of Gossipium
(i) Gossipium hirsutum- 87% Grown in America,

Africa, Asia, Australia Plant grows to a height of 2
Meters.
(ii) Gossipium barbadense- 8% Grown in America,

Africa & Asia. Plant grows to a height of 2.5 Meters
with yellow flowers, long fibres with good quality, fibres
with long staple and fineness
(iii) Gossipium arboreum- 5% Perennial plant grows

up to 2 meters with red flowers, poor quality fibres in
East Africa and South East Asia.
There are four other species grown in very

negligible quantities. Cotton harvested from the Plant
by hand-picking or machine picking is ginned to remove
seeds and the lint is pressed into Bales for delivery to
Spinning Mills. Cotton is Roller Ginned (RG) or Saw
Ginned (SG) depending varieties and ginning practices.
2.2.2. General considerations
Cotton is cultivated in 80 countries with an

approximate area of 32 million hectares. Cultivation
period varies from 175 days to 225 days depending on
variety. Cotton is harvested in "two seasons- summer
and winter.
Saw ginned cotton is more uniform and cleaner

than Roller Ginned Cotton. But fibres quality is retained
better quality in Roller Ginning than Saw Ginning
which has high productivity.
Cotton Fibre is having a tubular structure in

twisted form. Now. researchers have developed
coloured cotton also. As on date, percentage of Cotton
fibre use is more than synthetic fibres. But, its share
is gradually reducing. Cotton is preferred for under
garments due its comfort to body skin. Synthetics have
more versatile uses and advantage for Industrial
purposes.
No other material is quite like cotton. It is the most

important of all natural fibres, accounting for half of
all the fibres used by the world's textile industry. Cotton
has many qualities that make it the best choice for
countless uses. These fibres have a natural twist that
makes them so suitable for spinning into a very strong
yarn. The ability of water to penetrate right to the core
of the fibre makes it easy to remove dirt from the cotton
garments, and creases are easily removed by ironing.
Natural Fibres 33
Cotton fabric is soft and comfortable to wear close to
skin because of its good moisture absorption qualities .
Charges of static electricity do not build up readily on
the clothes.
2.2.3. Cultivation and harvesting
Cotton is grown in about 80 countries. For a good

crop of cotton a long, sunny growing season with at
least 160 frost-free days and ample water are required.
Well drained, crumbly soils that can keep moisture
well are the best. In most regions extra water must be
supplied by irrigation. Because of
it's long growing season it is best to
plant early but not before the sun
has warmed the soil enough.
Young plants appear about 5

days after planting the seeds. Weeds
have to be removed because they
compete with young plants for
water, light and minerals and also
encourage pests and diseases. The
first flower buds appear after 5-6
weeks, and in another 3-5 weeks these buds become
flowers.
Each flower falls after only 3 days leaving behind

a small seed pot, known as the boll. Children in cotton-
growing areas in the South sometimes sing this song
about the flowers:
First day white, next day red,

third day from my birth - I'm dead.
Each boll contains about 30 seeds, and up to

500000 fibres of cotton. Each fibre grows its full length
in 3 weeks and for the following 4-7 weeks each fibre
gets thicker as layers of cellulose build up the
secondary cell walls. While this is happening the boll

matures and in about 10 weeks after flowering it splits
open. The raw cotton fibres burst out to dry in the
sun. As they lose water and die, each fibre collapses
into a twisted ribbon. Now is time for harvesting.
Most cotton is hand-picked. This is the best method

of obtaining fully grown cotton because unwanted
material, called "trash", like leaves and the remains of
the boll are left behind. Also the cotton that is too young
to harvest is left for a second and third picking. A crop
can be picked over a period of two months as the bolls
ripen. Countries that are wealthy and where the land
is flat enough usually pick cotton with machines-
cotton harvesters.
2.2.4. Diseases affecting cotton plant
Cotton is subjected to attack from a wider range of

diseases and insects than any other plant. The various
diseases are as under:
(i) Root knot: This is caused by small worm which

enters the root of the plants, mUltiplies and forms
swelling. Chemicals fertilizers like sulphur,
formaldehyde and carbon-di-sulphide control it.
(ii) Cotton wilt: This is a fungal disease which causes

dwarfing of the plant. It is prevented by removing the
affected plants and burning them.
(iii) Rust/ Black rust: It is a deficiency disease caused

by improper scil conditions, lack of potash or improper
drainage. The affected plants have spots on the leaves,
branches and bolls. Use of disease-free seeds control
this disease.
(iv) Cotton anthranose: It is a fungal disease.

Natural Fibres 35
2.2.5. Global varieties of cotton
Global varieties of cotton with reference to planting

and harvesting periods is given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Country Planting Harvesting Staple Mike Variety
Period mm
1 Afghanistan April-May Oct-Dec 26-28 4.0 Acala
2 Argentina Sept-oct Feb-june 24-28 3.9-4.1 Toba
3 Australia Sept-nov Mar-june 24-29 3.2-4.9 Dpl
4 Brazil Oct-nov Mar-june 26-28 3.2-4,0 lac
32-35 3.2-4.8 Moco
5 Burkin June-july Nov-dec 25-28 3.6-4.8 Allen
6 Camerron June Nov-dec 25-28 3.8-4.3 Allen
7 Central Africa Jun-july Nov-dec 25-28 3.8-4.2 Allen
8 Chad June Nov-dec 25-28 3.8-4.4 Allen
9 China April-june Sep-oct 22-28 3.5-4.7 Shan dong
Xinjiang
Mnh-93
10 Coted Ivorie Jun-aug Oct-jan 24-28 2.6-4.6 Allen
11 Egypt March Sep-oct 31-40 3.24.6 Giza
12 Greece April Sept-oct 26-28 3.8-4.2 4s
13 India April-nov Sep-nov 16-38 2.8-7.9 Shankar-6
India Sept-nov Feb-apr Shankar-4
DCH, J-34
F-414
14 Iran Mar-apr Sep-nov 26-28 3.9-4.5 Coker
15 Israel April Sep-oct 26-37 3.5-4.3 Acala
Pima
16 Mexico Mar-june Aug-dec 26-29 3.5-4.5 Deltapine
17 Nlgaria Jul-aug Dec-feb 24-26 2 5-4.0 Samaru
18 Pakistan Apr-jun Sep-dec 12-33 3.5-6.0
19 Paraguay Oct-dec Mar-apr 26-28 3.3-4.2 Empire
20 Spain Apr-may Sep-nov 25-28 3.3-4.9 Carolina
21 Sudan Aug Jun-apr 27-eO 3.8-4.2 Barakat
Acala
22 Syna Apr-may Sep-nov 25-29 3.8-4.8 Aleppo
23 Turkey Apr-may Sep-nov 24-28 3.5-5.5 Deltapme
24 USA Apr-may Sep-dec 26-40 3.8-4.5 Varieties
28-30 3.0A.0 Acala 151T
25-28 3.2-4.6 Paymaster-
280
27-28 3.7-4.7 Stonoville-
ST
35-40 3.5-4 5 Pima S7
2.2.6. Micro-structure of the cotton fibre
The cotton fibre is a single plant cell. Its cross-

section is oval. However, like all plant cells, cotton has
a distinct cuticle, well developed primary and secondary
walls, and a lumen (Fig. 2.1).
'~-
lumen
Fig. 2.1. A morphological diagram of

the cotton fibre
(a) Cuticle
The cuticle is the 'very outside' or 'skin' of the cotton

fibre. It is composed of a waxy layer (cotton wax) only
a few molecules thick. The inert nature of this cotton
wax protects the fibre against chemical and other
degrading agents.
Kier boiling and bleaching during cotton finishing

removes much of the cuticle or wax. This enables cotton
to absorb moisture more quickly. Subsequent
laundering will gradually remove most of the remaining
cuticle. As the extent ofthe cuticle is decreased further,
deterioration of the cotton textile material increases.
Natural Fibres 37
(b) Primary cell wall
It is immediately under the cuticle, is about 200

nm thick. It is composed of very fine threads of
cellulose, called fibrils. The fibrils spiral at about 70°
to the fibre axis. This spiralling imparts strength to
the primary cell wall and, hence, to the fibre.
(c) Secondary cell wall
Beneath the primary cell wall lies the secondary

cell wall, which forms the bulk of the fibre. Its fibrils
are about 10 nm thick, but of undefined length. Near
the primary cell wall, the fibrils of the secondary wall
spiral at about 20° to 30° to the fibre axis. This spiral
angle widens to about 20° to 45° for the fibrillar layers
nearer the lumen. Much of the strength and stability
of the cotton fibre and, hence, of the yarns and fabrics
may be attributed to these spiralling fibrils.
(d) Lumen
The hollow canal, running the length of the fibre,

is called the lumen. Its walls are the innermost,
concentric layers of spirals of the secondary cell wall.
The lumen was once the central vacuole of the growing
cotton fibre. It was full of cell sap, which was composed
of a dilute, aqueous solution of proteins, sugars,
minerals and cell-waste products. When the sap
evaporated, its constituents remained behind to
contribute to the colour of the cotton fibre.
Further, as the sap evaporated, the pressure inside

the fibre became less than the atmospheric pressure
on the outside. This caused the fibre to collapse inward
resulting in the characteristic kidney-shaped cross-
section of the cotton fibre.
2.2.7. The polymer system
The cotton polymer is a linear, cellulose polymer.

The repeating unit in the cotton polymer is cellobiose
which consists of two glucose units (Fig. 2.2). The
cotton polymer consists of about 5000 cellobiose units,
i.e. its degree of polymerisation is about 5000. It is a
very long, linear polymer, about 5000 nm in length
and about 0.8 nm thick. Cotton is a crystalline fibre.
Its polymer system is about 65 to 70 per cent crystalline
and, correspondingly, about 35-30 per cent
amorphous.
H HI I H
OH H
Methylol group
I
CHpH ~ HI I H
OH II 12OH
CH
Glucoside
~~~en
0
1 ~"I I/~ "I ~"I /~ "IY

C--C C--O C-C C--O
/6H /6H
H
,\7c--o/cL0 1"9c-c7/1H "7c-o/c c"9c--c7/ I H
H I
CH 2 0H
I I I
H
L0 I I H
OH CH2 0H H OH
Cellobiose Unit Glucose Unit
Fig. 2.2. Chemical formula of

cellulose polymer
The most important chemical groupings on the

cotton polymer are the hydroxyl groups of -OH groups.
These are also present as methylol groups or -CH 2 0H.
Their polarity gives rise to hydrogen bonds between
the OH-groups of adjacent cotton polymers. Van der
Waals' forces also occur but compared with the
hydrogen bonds, the Van der Walls' forces are oflittle
significance.
Degradation products of cellulose
(a) Oxycellulose: Cellulose is easily oxidised into

variety of products known as oxycellulose. There are
three ways by which oxidising agents can attack the
glucose molecule.
Natural Fibres 39
In two cases oxidation results in the production of
acidic carboxyl groups reaction I and 2 and in the
third case a reducing product two aldehyde groups is
formed in reaction 3.
This shows that both acidic and reducing type of

oxycellulose are present. Oxycellulose formation is
accompanied by all the characteristic attributes of
reduction in the degree of polymerisation. This is due
to the fact that after oxidation the glucose rings are
more easily repture in the manner shown in reaction 4.
H OH H OH
I 'H I
I y-C I ~ y-C i
C/OH ~'\. Oxidation.. I/ OH ~'\.

(1)
I'\.~ /1 - cl'\.~ COOH
H
c--o
,
L 0- H
C--OH
,
CHpH CH20H
I ' ~
H
y-C
/ OH
OH
'H
'\.
I Oxidation I
H
' ~'\.I
y-C
/ OH
OH
'H
(2)
f'\.~-o/L
H , 0-
.. C
I '\.~C - - O
H ,
/L C
CHpH COOH
(3)
Oxycellulose
(b) Hydrocellulose: This is produced by the action

of dilute acids on cellulose. It results from the break
up of chains by hydrolysis as shown by the reaction as
given below.
CHOH H OH CH OH
H C'- -0 r01 c - - C1 H
1 I H
I y-- r o-
, 2 O
I I~ "\C lim ~"\C IH "\C
JY
C
,,\?H_~I "\~ IL J',,\?H ~/I
--0
H
Y
OH
y--
CH 0H
O 0 Y--Y
H OH
H
2
1+HP
CH2 0H H OH
IbH-~"\1
H? or011 'H
I / H - "\
c +
J
C
,,\?H ~I
c--c
"\~
C 0
IIc
--0 1 1 1-- OH
H OH CH2 0H
Hydrocellulose
Hydrolysis lowers the degree of polymerisation and

therefore the tensile strength of the fibre is reduced.
The extent of breakdown depends on the pH of the
acid and temperature. Ifthe non-volatile acids whether
organic or inorganic are not removed, hydrocellulose
can be formed rapidly at higher temperatures which
prevail during drying.
The cellulosic fibres should be neutralised properly

after treatment with acid, otherwise hydrocellulose will
develop gradually on storage.
2.2.8. Cotton and yarn quality co-relation
Instead of buying any cotton available at lowest

price, spinning it to produce yarn of highest count
possible and selling Yam at any market in random, it
Natural Fibres 41
is advisable to locate a good market where Yam can
be sold at highest price and select a Cotton which has
characteristics to spin Yam of desired specifications
for that market.
Essential characteristics of cotton quality and

characteristics of Yarn quality of Yam are given from
detailed experimental investigations. Some of the
important conclusions which help to find co-relation
between Yarn quality and Cotton quality are given
below-
• Staple length: If the length of fibre is longer, it

can be spun into finer counts of Yam which can fetch
higher prices. It also gives stronger Yam.
• Strength: Stronger fibres give stronger Yams.

Further, processing speeds can be higher so that higher
productivity can be achieved with less end-breakages.
• Fibre fineness:Finer Fibers produce finer count

of Yarn and it also helps to produce stronger Yams.
• Fibre maturity: Mature fibres give better

evenness of Yam. There will be less end - breakages.
Better dyes' absorbency is additional benefit.
• Unif.ormity ratio: If the ratio is higher. Yam is

more even and there is reduced end-breakages.
• Elongation:A better value of elongation will help

to reduce end-breakages in spinning and hence higher
productivity with low wastage of raw material.
• Non-lint content: Low percentage of Trash will

reduce the process waste in Blow Room and cards.
There will be less chances of Yam defects.
• Sugar content: Higher Sugar Content will .create

stickiness of fibre and create processing problem of
licking in the machines.
• Moisture content: If Moisture Content is more

than standard value of 8.5%, there will be more
invisable loss. Itmoisture is less than 8.5%, then there
will be tendency for brittleness of fibre resulting in
frequent Yam breakages.
• Feel: If the feel of the Cotton is smooth, it will

be produce more smooth yarn which has potential for
weaving better fabric.
• Class: Cotton having better grade in classing

will produce less process waste and Yarn will have
better appearance.
• Grey value: Rd. of calorimeter is higher it means

it can reflect light better and Yam will give better
appearance.
• Yellowness: When value of yellowness is more,

the grade becomes lower and lower grades produce
weaker & inferior yams.
• Neppiness: Neppiness may be due to

entanglement of fibres in ginning process or immature
fibres. Entangled fibres can be sorted out by careful
processing But, Neps due to immature fibre will stay
on in the end product and cause the level of Yarndefects
to go higher.
Given below are an analysis of yarn properties

which directly attribute to cotton qUality.
1. Yam count: Finer count of yarn can be produced

by longer, finer and stronger fibres.
Natural Fibres 43
2. CV % of count: Higher fibre uniformity and lower
level of short fibre percentage will be beneficial to keep
CV %(Co-efficient of Variation) at lowest.
3. Tensile strength: This is directly related to fibre

strength. Longer Length of fibre will also help to
produce stronger yarns.
4. CV % of strength: is directly related CV of fibre

strength.
5. Elongation: Yam elongation will be beneficial for

weaving efficiently. Fibre with better elongation have
positive co-relation with yarn elongation.
6. CV% of elongation: CV % of yarn elongation can

be low when CV % of fibre elongation is also low.
7. Hairiness: is due to faster processing speeds and

high level of very short fibres,
8. Dyeing quality: Will defend on evenness of yarn

and marketing of cotton fibres.
9. Brightness: Yarn will give brighter appearance if

cotton grade is higher.
2.2.9. Cotton quality specifications
The most important fibre quality is Fibre Length.
(a) Length
Staple Length Length Spinning

classification (mm) (inches) Count
Short < 24 15/16 -1 Coarse Below 20
Medium 24-28 1.1/132- Medium Count
1.3/32 20s-34s
Long 28 -34 1.3/32- Fine Count
1.3/8 34s-60s
Extra Long 34- 40 1.3/8- Superfine Count
1.9/16 80s - 140s
• Spinning Count does not depend on staple

length only. It also depends on fmeness and processing
machinery.
• Length is measured by hand stapling or
Fibrograph for 2.5% Span Length
• 2.5%SL (Spun Length) means at least 2.5% of
total fibres have length exceeding this value.
• 50% SL means at least 50% of total fibres have
length exceeding this value.
. . _ 50% Span length x 100
Length umformity - 2.5% Span length
Significance of UR (Uniformity Radio):
UR% Classification
Very good 50-55
Good 45-50
Satisfactory 40-45
Poor 35-40
Below 30 Unusable
Upper half mean length (UHM)- Average value of

length of Longest of 50% of Fibers
Uniformity Index (UI) = Mean length

Upper half mean length
Interpretation of Uniformity Index:
U. Index Classi- UHM Classi-

fication fication
Below 77 Very low Below 0.99 Short
77-99 Low 0.99-1.10 Medium
80-82 Average 1.11-1.26 Long
83-85 High Above 1.26 Extra Long
Above 85 Very High
Natural Fibres 45
(b) Fibre Strength
Fibre Strength, next important quality is tested

using Pressley instrument and the value is given in
Thousands of Pounds per Square inch. (1000 psi) For
better accuracy, Stelorneter is used and results are
given in grams/Tex.
Lately, strength is measured in HVI (High Value

Instrument) and result is given in terms of grams/tex.
Interpretation of Strength value is given below
Tenacity (g/tex) Classification

Below 23 Weak
24-25 Medium
26-28 Average
29-30 Strong
Above 31 Very Strong
Strength is essential for stronger yarns and higher

processing speeds.
(c) Fineness and maturity
Fibre Fineness and maturity are tested in a

conjunction using Micronaire Instrument. Finer Fibers
give stronger yarns but amenable for more neppiness
of Yarn due to lower maturity. Micronaire values vary
from 2.6 to 7.5 in various varieties.
Usually Micronaire value is referred to evaluate

fineness of Cotton and its suitability for spinning
particular count of Yarn. As the value is a combined
result offmeness and maturity of Cotton fibre, it cannot
be interpreted, property for ascertaining its spinning
Value. This value should be taken in conjunction with
standard value of Calibrated Cotton value.
It is essential to know what Micronaire value is

good for each variety of Cotton.
Maturity Ratio Classification

1.00 and above Very Mature
0.95 - 1.0 Above Average
0.85 - 0.95 Mature
0.80 - 0.85 Below Average
Less than 0.80 immature
2.2.10. Grading of cotton
(a) American cotton grading
Cotton grade is determined by evaluating colour,

leaf and ginning preparation in USA. Higher grade
cottons provide bett~r yarn appearance and reduced
process waste.
Colour is determined by using Nickerson-Hunter

Calorimeter. This gives values Rd (Light or Dark) and
+b (Yellowness). American upland cottons are classified
according to grades as given below:
Grade Symbol Code
1 Good Middling GM 11
2 Strict Middling SM 21
3 Middling M 31
4 Strict Low Middling SLM 41
5 Low Middling LM 51
6 Strict Good Ordinary SGO 61
7 Good Ordinary GO 71
8 Below Grade
Natural Fibres 47
Similar grading is done for Light Spotted, Spotted,
Tinged and Yellow Stained Cottons. PIMA cottons are
graded I to 9.
(b) Sudan-Egyptian cotton grading
In this case, the grade is mainly influenced by the

quantity of immature and wasteful cotton. The staple
length, fineness, appearance, colour and trash content
are also included. The cotton is graded into six full
grades, 1 to 6 in descending order of quality as follows:
1. Extra
2. Fully good
3. Good
4. Fully good fair
5. Good fair
6. Fair
(c) Indian cotton grading
The East Indian Cotton Association (EICA) Ltd.

main tains standards of Indian cottons for 23
descriptions of cottons based on varieties and
geographical divisions. Each description has the
following six grades-
1. Extra superfine
2. Superfine
3. Fine
4. Fully good
5. Good
6. Fully good fair
2.2.11. Properties of cotton
(A) Physical properties
(i) Tenacity: 3-5 g/ denier (dry)
(ii) Breaking elongation: 5-7%
(iii) Moisture regain: 7-8%
(iv) Specific gravity: 1.52 g/ cc.
(v) Composition: 94% cellulose, 1.3% protein, 1.2%

ash, 0.6% wax, 0.3% sugar, traces of pigments and
2.6% others.
(8) Chemical properties
(i) Effect of acids: Weakens and destroyed by acids.

Acids hydrolyse the cotton polymer.
(ii) Effect of alkalies: Cotton fibres are resistant to

alkalies and are uneffected by normal laundering.
(iii) Effect of bleaches: The most common bleaches

on cotton textile materials are sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl) and sodium perborate (NaB0 2 • H 2 0 2 • 3 H 2 0).
They are oxidising bleaching agents and are most
effective in alkaline conditions.
(iv) Effect of oxidising agents: No injury to fibres if

treated under controlled conditions.
(v) Affinity for dye stuff Cotton is considered to be

a relatively easy fibre to dye and print. It is having
good affinity for direct, reactive, vat, sulphur and azoic
dye stuffs. The ease with which cotton takes up dyes
and other colouring matter is due to the polarity of its
polymer and polymer system.
Natural Fibres 49
(vi) Effect of mildew: Cotton is readily attack by
moth and mildew. So it has to be saved from their attack
by suitable methods.
(vi) Effect of light: Prolonged exposure to sunlight

weakens the cotton due to the formation of degradation
products of cellulose, so the fabric made from cotton should
not be exposed to direct sun-light for a longer period and
be kept in cool environment for drying after washing.
(vii) Effect of Heat: Cotton fibre have the ability to

conduct heat energy and they can withstand hot
ironing temperature. Cotton can be heated upto 150°C
without any damage. It scorches at 245°C and burns.
(viii) Effect of metallic salts: Cotton has practically

no affinity for metallic salts.
(ix) Effect of weather: Atmospheric moisture

(humidity) significantly contributes to the break-down
of the polymers on the surface of the cotton fibres
through various hydraulatic reactions. The weakening
of the fibre and break-down of the cotton textile
material may takes place. In general, air pollutants
are acidic and may rapidly accelerate fibre break-down
through acid hydrolysis to which cotton polymers are
not resistant. This may cause fading of coloured cotton
textile material due to the break-down of dye molecules
in fibre polymer system.
2.2.12. Uses
Cotton is exclusively used in apparel fabrics for

men and women wears and household fabrics like bed
sheets, towels, rugs and carpets. Cotton is blended
with other man-made fibres like polyester, viscose,
acrylic etc. to be used for variety of purposes. It can
also be used in industrial applications as tyre cords,
bags, shoes and medical supplies and equipments.
2.3. Miscellaneous Seed and Fruit Fibres
2.3.1. Coir
Coir is a coarse irregular-shaped, ignocellulosic

fibre obtained from the husks of coconuts. It is usually
brown or dark brown in colour having short length (at
least 0.5 mm long), thick-walled individual fibres
characterized by irregular lumens and surface pores.
It is suitable for use as ropes or cordage, matting,

brushes and stuffing for cushions and mattresses
which provide more comfort on being rubberized.
2.3.2. Java Kapok
Java Kapok gives cellulosic seed fibres containing

some lignin, similar to bombax cotton grown in South
East Asia. This fibre is removed by hand from the bolls
and it readily separates out from seeds on drying and
shaking. It is an extremely buoyant, soft but inflexible
fibre that is too 'brittle to be spun. It is a light, lustrous
staple (staple length 32 mm or 1)14 inch) fibre having
circular or oval cross section. It has smooth surface
and wide, thin-walled lumen. It is a fibre of less
importance for industrial purposes.
2.3.3. Balsa fibres
This fibre is somewhat darker than bombax cotton

or Java Kapok. It is mainly grown in West Indies.
Individual fibres are about 12 mm long, appear folded
and show striated surface. Its lignin content is higher
than that of bombax cotton. Lumens contain granules.
It is mostly used for stuffing of mattresses and
cushions.
Natural Fibres 51
2.3.4. Other seed and fruit fibres
Some other cellulosic or lignocellulosic seed and

fruit fibres with their regional source are: (il Kumbi
(galgal, India) and (ii) Chorisia Spciosa, (Brazil)- that
provide fine silky fibres good for mattress and pillow
stuffing and can also be spun and woven into fine
quality fabrics.
2.4. Jute
2.4.1. Introduction
Jute fibre is obtained from the inner bark of the two

cultivated species of the genus Corchorous (C), viz. C.
capsularis (white jute) and C. olitonus (TossaJute) of the
family Tiliaceae. Jute is widely cultivated in the alluvial
plains in the tropical and sUb-tropical zones of the South
Asian region. India is the biggest producer followed by
Bangladesh, Thailand and China.
The natural conditions of these areas are ideal for

its cultivation. In India the highly humidity and alluvial
soils of river Ganga and Brahmputra are suited for
jute cultivation. These are annual plants and may grow
to a height of 12 feet.
2.4.2. Stages of fibre production
(a) Cultivation
The ground is first prepared by ploughing and

harrowing, then seeds are sown between February (for
low areas) and upon mid June (for higher areas). Close
planting at distance of 4 inches is preferred to achieve
best yield. Seeds germinate in 3-5 days. It needs high
temperature (23° to 37°C), maximum relative humidity
(80-95%) and plenty of rainfall.
(b) Harvesting
The stems are harvested by hand shortly after the

flowers have appeared. The plants are either cut or
pulled at appropriate time. Early cutting gives
unsatisfactory yield whereas delayed reaping results
in coarser fibres. The stems are cut, tied into bundles
and laid in the field. Generally their leaves are stripped.
The jute must be retted to remove woody parts.
(c) Retting
Retting is a process in which fibres in the bark are

loosened and separated from the woody stalk due to
the removal of pectins, gums etc. The different retting
methods can be employed for jute.
(i) Stagnant or tank retting: The ju te stalks are placed

in retting basins (tank, pond or river etc.) and kept
immersed 4-6 inches below the surface by weights.
Process is carried out for 12-25 days depending upon
region, temperature of water and maturity of stem.
During this, microorganisms naturally present in stem,
transform the pectinous substances holding the fibres
to simple compounds such as carbon dioxide, acetic
acid etc. which are easily removed being soluble in
water. The colour of bundles gradually changes from
green to yellowish green and then to yellow. The bark
then can easily be separated from stem by hand.
Sometimes stalks are beaten with wooden hammers
to loose fibres from which are then easily peeled off.
The fibres are then washed, dried and baled.
(ii) Chemical retting: In this process tissues are

softened by boiling with 1% sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
or 0.5% SUlphuric acid (H 2 S0 4 ) at boiling temperature
for 6-8 hours. The gum and pectic matter gets
hydrolysed and degraded to lower products, which can
easily be removed by washing with water.
Natural Fibres 53
Extraction of jute is also possible by decortication
of the stem followed by either microbiological or
chemical retting. One chemical retting process involves
boiling of the green ribbon obtained from the
decorticator in dilute ammonium oxalate solution.
2.4.3. Grading of jute
Depending on six fibre quality attributes, as strength,

defects, root content, colour, fineness and density, jute
is graded into eight white (c. capsularis) grades, i.e. WI'
W2 , ••• , Ws and eight tossa (c. olitorius) grades, i.e. TDI'
TD 2 , ••• , TDs in descending order of qUality.
2.4.4. Properties
(i) Microscopic appearance: Jute is a multicellular

fibre. The individual fibre shows nodes and cross
markings in longitudinal view and polygonal shapes
in cross-section. Lumen is wider than the cell wall and
shows remarkable constrictions (irregular thickness)
in the cell wall. Lumen broadens at the end of the fibre
making cell wall very thin. Externally fibre is smooth
and lustrous.
(ii) Length and diameter: A single jute fibre has

average length of 0.1 inch and a mean diameter of 12
/.l (microns). The mean length/breadth ratio is around
90.
(iii) Density: The density of fibre is 1.48-1.50

gm/cm 3 •
(iv) Moisture regain: Jute is highly hygroscopic in

nature. Its moisture regain is 12-14% at standard
condition.
(v) Strength: The tenacity of jute varies from 3.5-7

gm/denier.
(vi) Colour: Varies from yellow to brown to grey

depending upon condition of growth and retting etc.
(vii) Elongation: Jute do not stretch to appreciable

extent under tension. Its breaking elongation is 1-1.2%
under normal atmospheric condition.
(viii) Composition: Jute fibre contains cellulose

(55-63%), hemicelulose (20-24%) and lignin (12-14%).
(ix) Conductivity: It is very good insulator of heat

and electricity.
(x) Elasticity: Jute has lower elasticity due to its

stiffness and rigidity. This has advantages of jute to be
used as bagging material as they retai:q. their shape on
loading.
In chemical composition jute is different from linen

• and cotton as it is composed of a modified form of
cellulose called lignocellulose, a compound of lignin
and cellulose.
(i) Action of alkalies: Strong alkalies degrade its

strength. Jute loses its weight when it is boiled with
dilute caustic soda. The loss is mainly due to the
removal of hemicellulose.
(ii) Action of oxidising agents: Ordinary oxidising

agents have no action on jute.
(iii) Action of acids: Organic acids like oxalic acid,

formic acid, mineral acids like sulphuric acid and
Natural FIbres 55
hydrochloric acid in dilute condition has no reaction
at ordinary or cold conditions. With strong acids at
boiling condition hydrocellulose is formed.
(iv) Action of microorganisms: Jute is more resistant

to microbiological attack than grey cotton or flax. If it
is slightly scoured it has excellent resistant owing to
protective effect of lignin. Sometimes jute fabrics are
treated with cuprammonium solution and then dried
so that a film of green colour is produced on the
material which makes it more or less rot proof.
(v) Action of sunlight: When jute is exposed to

sunlight it gradually assumes a yellowish tinge. This
is due to colour changes within the fibre connected
with lignin molecules.
(vi) Action of heat: Jute like other textile fibres may

not be degraded by heat. However, prolonged heating
operation degrade the fibre.
2.4.5. Uses of jute
(i) Due to cheap, strong, durable, non-slip nature,

low breaking elongation jute is ideally suitable for racks
and bales for packaging purpose.
(ii) It is used in woven carpets as warp, weft or
pile.
(iii) It is used as cordage in domestic ropes, twines
etc.
(iv) Jute waste is used as stiffer natural in seats.
(v) It is sed in furnishing and curtain fabrics.
(vi) It is blended with wool to provide cheap woven
apparel fabrics.
2.4.6. Future prospects
High-tech physical and chemical modifications of

jute hold great prospect for its diversified use as
decorative and lining materials, geotextiles and filter
cloth, as reinforcing fibre materials in composites
including hoses, belting, tyres, rigid and strong
structural FRP composites, as upholstery, soft luggage
and even for making textiles for apparels and bedding.
Whole jute or mesta sticks are in use for production of
tissue paper and papers for printing and writing
purposes.
2.4.7. Mill production of jute material
Jute fabrics are normally made with coarse yarns

(200 tex or more) resulting in fabric weight or area
density of about 200-600 gjm 2 • The better grades of
jute fibre can be spun to finer yarns of about 120 tex
to be woven into fabrics of about 150 gjm2 •
In converting jute fibre to yarn, the traditional flyer

spinning process is still in practice even though ring-
spinning has made its appearance and is becoming
popular. Conversion of jute fibre to yarn generally
involves the following steps:
(i) Batching: This is the first step and it involves

selection and mixing of jute reeds of various grades
from different packages to optimise cost and quality of
the yarns to be spun.
(ii) Softening and piling: Softening of jute is done

by passing the reeds soaked in about 25-30% by weight
of a hydrocarbon oil or vegetable (e.g. rice bran) oil
emulsion in water through a series of fluted rollers
followed by stacking or piling the treated reeds for
24-72 hours. The oil helps to retard the evaporation of
Natural Fibres 57
water from the fibre and to reduce the friction between
the fibre and the machine. The role of water is to soften
or plasticise the fibre for easy processibility in the
subsequent steps.
(iii) Carding: The primary functions of this step are

splitting of the meshy structure of jute reeds, removal
of non-fibrous matters, blending of the fibres to better
uniformity, attenuation and parallelization offibres and
formation of a silver are. For normal to finer yarns,
two cards (breaker and finisher) are used. For coarser
yarns, an additional teaser card is used.
(iv) Drawing: Carded and combed slivers are then

subjected to further attenuation and doubling during
two to three stages of drawing in order to obtain a
lighter and more uniform and crimpy sliver with much
higher degree of fibre parallelisation.
(v) Spinning: This involves final attenuation and

optimum twisting of the drawn silver and formation of
the package called the yarn, using the traditional flyer
spinning or the modern ring spinning methods.
(vi) Fabric-making: Jute yarns are converted to

fa.brics (Hessian, sacking, carpet backing, canvas etc.)
through operations such as winding, beaming, sizing
and weaving. The woven fabric is calendered before
packing.into bales.
2.5. Flax
2.5.1. Introduction
Flax or linen was probably the first plant stem (bast)

fibre used by man for making textiles, particularly in
the West. Flax fibre is obtained from the outer cover of
the stem of an annual plant, Linum Usitatissimum that
grows in many temperate and subtropical regions of

the world. In its inner bark, there grows long, thick-
walled cells of which flax fibre-strands are composed.
There are more than 100 species of flax plant. It

grows in a region from sea level to 4000 feet and in
almost only climate or any soil suitable for cultivation.
An oil is obtained from this plant. As a source oflinseed
oil, the growing of flax plant once spread extensively
in the countries of the American continent including
USA, Canada and Argentina. Many countries in
Western Europe, Russia and some parts of the
Mediterranean Africa including Egypt grow flax mostly
for linen and partly for oil.
At present amount of flax in world trade is gradually

lessening due to several reasons. Firstly despite some
mechanisation on the forms, production costs are high
in terms of manpower. Secondly, flax seriously depletes
on soil. A field can be sown with flax only about once
in seven years. Finally the cost of manufacturing make
linen an expensive fabric.
2.5.2. Stages in fibre production
(a) Cultivation
It requires deep, rich, well ploged soil and a cool,

damp climate. The ground has to be fairly level and
even fertile. Flax is best grown in rotation with grass,
wheat and potatoes with use of potassium sulphate.
The ground is ploughed in winter and seeding is done
in mid-April with hand preferably in rows. The seed
comes up after 8-15 days to spark germination.
For fibre production, seeds are sown thick and

plants are allowed to grown slowly. The cultivated plant
grows to a height of 3-4 feet and a diameter of 0.1 inch
Natural Fibres 59
with tapering leaves and small blue or white flowers.
The plant with the blue flower yields with finer fibre.
The white flowered plant produce a coarse but strong
fibre. Harvesting is done when flowers drop the petals.
(b) Harvesting
When the flower portion of stems turn yellow,

leaves begin to fall and top most seeds tum brown,
which indicates that plant is about to mature and at
this stage harvesting is done. Plants are usually pulled
and not cut and then dried. However, a machine can
be used to efficiently pull the flax. The dried straw is
opened and placed on the moving table of de-seeding
machine. It combs the capsules to one side and weeds
to the other whereas the straw is held gripped in
middle. These are tied as bundles, called beets in
preparation for extraction of fibre and placed on
conveyor to be taken to the retting tanks.
(c) Retting
It is the first stage for obtaining fibres from flax

plant which consists in softening of flax in water by
fermentation. Bacterias are developed in the process
which degrade the partitions of softer cell of bark and
thus facilitating the separation of fibre bundles (8-20
inch long) from bark and woody core of stalk. This
process is stopped after certain time to avoid
degradation of fibre. Both biological and chemical
retting are employed. Retting is done by three methods-
(i) dew retting; (ii) water retting; and (iii) chemical
retting.
(i) Dew retting: It is old and simplest method. The

straw is spread over ground and exposed to allow dew
and rain aided by heat of sun to germinate the growth
of bacteria. It is turned down when top side has been
retted. It is long (3-4 weeks) and tedious method.
(ii) Water retting: It is also called tank retting in

which straw is placed in a tank and covered with water.
Each tank contain approximately 10 tonnes of stalk
and built of concrete having large water tight doors in
the sides. Water enter the tank through pipes, pH and
temperature checked and water is aerated to facilitate
the growth of germ culture for retting. When
fermentation has reached the appropriate stage the
fibres can be separated quite easily. If fermentation is
allowed to proceed beyond this point the fibres
themselves may become damaged, and to avoid this
the progress of the retting must be observed carefully
at intervals. It requires less time than dew retting, from
10 to 15 days.
(iii) Chemical retting: Soda ash and caustic soda in

warm water or boiling in a dilute sulphuric acid
solutions are methods used in this process. It can result
in shortening of retting process however the strength
and colour of flax fibres are largely affected. At present
there is no chemical method which produces fibres of
comparable quality as that of water or dew retted flax.
Bioretting in ponds or tanks are more economical and
produce better quality fibres. After retting the flax straw
is allowed to dry and then taken to breaking machine.
(d) Breaking: It is a mechanical process which is

either done manually (beating with a hammer) or in a
stamping mill in which driven rollers crush and break
the flax. The woody core is broken into random
fragments without damaging the fibres running along
the stems.
(e) Scutching: The next process is called scutching

which separates the unwanted woody matter from the
fibres. This is accomplished by beating the straw with
flat, blunt wooden or metal beaters or blades on the
scutching machine. The woody matter is then removed
leaving the long strands of bundled fibres of flax.
Natural Fibres 61
(f) Drawing and combing: Next successive steps or
mechanical processing are drawing and combing, This
is done to straighten the flax fibres and also to separate
shorter fibres from the longer ones. Thus leaving longer
fibres in parallel formation called sliver or roving. The
roving may then be spun into yarns.
2.5.3. Properties of flax
(AJ Physical Properties
(i) Microscopic appearance: Line fibre is an aggregate

of small fibre cells of pure cellulose cemented together by
gummy material. It has cross marking at intervals called
nodes, which give them their characteristic microscopic
appearance. The cross-sectional view is typical polygonal
with rounded edges and a slit like lumen.
(ii) Length and diameter: Length varies from 6-40

inches and cells have an average diameter of 11-20 /1.
It has fibre density of 1.50 gmjcm 3 •
(iii) Moisture regain: 10-12%
(iv) Colour: It has a colour from yellowish to grey

and has greater lustre than cotton.
(v) Strength: It is a stronger fibre than cotton

because of its very crystalline polymer systems as it
form more hydrogen bonds than cotton polymers. It is
20% stronger when wet than dry. Its tenacity is 4,8-
6.0 gmjdenier.
(vi) Elasticity: It is not elastic in nature.
(vii) Specific gravity: 1.54 same as that of cotton.
(viii) Composition: It contains 70% cellulose, 10%

gums, proteins and 10% natural impurities.
Flax is virtually pure cellulose. In chemical

reactivity or resistance, flax is partly like jute and partly
similar to cotton. But due to significant presence of
alkali soluble hemicelluloses, flax cannot be mercerised
like cotton. Normal laundering will result in alkaline
hydrolysis of waxes and gums bonding cells forming
the fibre together. This results in cell ends projecting
above the surface of the linen textile material called
'cottonising' of linen. Severe cottonising result in
weakening of linen, hence avoided. Other chemical
properties of cotton may be applied to flax also.
2.5.4. Uses of flax
Flax or linen can be a good substitute of cotton.

Flax cotton blends hold high prospect for use in areas
where only cotton is being used for long. Linen fabrics
are used as table cloths, napkins, towels, sail cloth,
fishing lines, tent fabric, sewing thread, pillow covers,
sheets and decorative coverings. Waste flax fibre can
be pulped and made into high-grade high-strength
bank-note, cigarette and writing papers. The ability of
flax to absorb and desorb water rapidly makes it
particularly suitable in the towel trade.
2.6. Hemp
2.6.1. Introduction
Hemp comes from the bark of the plant 'Cannabis

satina'. It is grown in almost all the countries of Europe
including the USSR and in many parts of Asia. It is an
annual plant which is robust, tough and grows
naturally requiring little cultivation. Its stalks may
reach a height more than 10 feet and can be grown at
height of around 8000 feet. As compared to flax it takes
more time to grow, needs higher summer temperatures
Natural Fibres 63
and can be grown for several years in succession in
the same soiL
(a) Cultivation
The sowing is done in mid-April. The field should

have soft, rich and moist soil. The seeds should have
appropriate density and should be fully ripened. Hemp
is a dioecious plant i.e. to say the male and female flowers
are borne on separate plants. The male is cultivated purely
for its fibre whereas in the case of female the flowers are
allowed to ripen so that the seeds are harvested. The
cultivation of hemp closely approximate that offlax. When
the lower leaves fall off and the stalks tum yellow, crop
is harvested usually by hand.
(b) Harvesting
Harvesting is done at right moment neither too

early nor too late. Early harvesting results in fewer,
weaker and less glossy fibres whereas delayed
harvesting results in woody, harsh and less lustrous
fibres. It usually takes place in August or September.
To get good quality fibre male plants are plucked 2-3
weeks before female plants. The female plant is strong
whereas male plant is shorter and thinner in stalk.
(c) Retting
Hemp is retted in water tanks in a manner similar to

flax after which the stalks are dried. The fibres are then
separated either manually or mechanically by passing
through fluted rollers which crush the woody tissues. At
this state the hemp is softened by beating with a softwood
mallet on a flat stone or a hard floor. Finally the fibres
which tend to stick together are separated by combing.
The male plant can be retted in 10 days whereas female

plant being stronger needs 3 weeks.
2.6.3. Properties
(i) Microscopic appearance: Under microscope it is

seen to consist of cell elements. It is uneven in diameter.
Longitudinally fibre shows joints and fractures (cracks)
on the surface. In the cross-section, it is seen to be
polygonal in shape with a pronounced lumen in the
centre. The fibre ends are thick walled and blunt.
(ii) Length and diameter: The length varies between

0.5-1" and diameter is in range of 16-50 J.l.
(iii) Colour: It is pearl grey, yellowish or greenish to

brown in colour.
(iv) Lustre: It has high lustre equal to that of linen.
(v) Moisture regain: More hygroscopic than cotton.

Its moisture regain is 12%.
(vi) Specific gravity: 1.48-1.50.
(vii) Composition: It is not entirely cellulose. The

best variety of hemp is cultivated in Italy which contain
77.8% cellulose, 9.3% inter-cellular matter and pectin
bodies, 0.5% fats & waxes and 3.48% aqueous extract.
(viii) Tensile strength: Greater than linen but it is

coarser.
2.6.4. Uses
Hemp is primarily used in making ropes and twines

and is woven into fabrics for sack cloth and canvas.
Natural Fibres 65
2.7. Ramie or China grass
2.7.1. Introduction
Another important bast fibre is ramie, also known

widely as China grass. Ramie comes from perennial
plants of the Boehmeria clan, viz. Boehmeria Nivea or
Boehmeria Tenacissema. It grows well in warm climate
and requires moist soil. It is commercially grown in
China, Australia, Egypt, India, Russia, Phillippines etc.
In India, it is mainly grown in Assam and West Bengal
and popularly called Rhea, Kunkuna etc. It grows
rapidly and require abundant rainfall. It yields 3-5
crops a year depending upon proper irrigation.
(a) Cultivation
Ramie is planted just before monsoon (April-May)

so as to use whole rainy season for its growth. Another
season may be September-October which requires
frequent irrigation. The plant grows to a height of 4-6
feet and require heavy manuring for growth.
(b) Harvesting
Harvesting is done when small flower buds begin

to appear and lower leaves begin to yellow and fall.
Stalk has a height of about 5-7 feet at the stage. The
cans of this grass like plant contain a series of bast
fibre bundles that extend the full length of the can
and are held together by gums, waxes and pectins.
(c) Decortication
Ramie fibres are removed from the stalks by the

process called decortication often carried out by hand.
Decortication is the peeling or beating out the bark
and the fibrous bast material from the water soaked

green stalk soon after harvesting, using the help of a
suitable scraper or knife. The ramie fibre strands are
then dried and sun bleached. Now-a-day decortication
is done through machines since manually it is
expensive and imperfect.
(d) Degumming
Decortication does not completely remove wax and

gummy substance. This is done during degumming.
Natural adherend gums, holding the fibres in dense
strands, are removed so as to make the gum-free fibres
more fluffy and suitable for spinning. Degumming is
done by two methods- (a) chemical degumming; and
(b) bacteriological degumming.
(a) Chemical degumming: The strands of ramie are

immersed in caustic soda solution (chemical
degumming) for about 34 hours which removes much
of the binding gums and loosened fibres are then mildly
treated with aqueous bleaching powder followed by
dilute acid wash and water wash and then drying.
(b) Bacteriological degumming: In this process

strands of remie are treated with water contaminated
with bacteria which attacks waxes and gums leaving
cellulose unaffected. This method needs time and care
but produces longer fibre. After this process the fibres
are ready for spinning.
2.7.3. Properties
Ramie is a multicellular bast fibre, by and large

cellulosic in nature, having practically little lignin and
hemicellulose. The intercellular binding constituents
present in significant amounts are natural gums and
Natural Fibres 67
pectinous matters. The cells of ramie fibre may be as
long as 40-45 cm, cylindrical in nature and
cahracterised by thick walls and narrow curved
lumens. The surface of the cell is marked by distinct
ridges.
In longitudinal view Ramie appears as a flattened

and of irregular shape. It is silky white and lustrous in
appearance. Fibre diameter is about 0.04-0.06 mm. It
has a tenacity of 5.33-7.4 gmjdenier and breaking
elongation of 1.5-2.4%. It is the strongest and durable
of all vegetable fibres.
Cold and warm weak mineral acids have no effect

on fibre whereas with dilute hot alkali, there is little
loss of fibre. Boiling with dilute mineral acids result in
hydrolysis of cellulose.
2.7.4. Uses
Ramie is mainly used to make ropes, strings and
fishing nets. In China it is used for making 'Grass Cloth'
and White Summer Cloth'. It can be bleached to obtain
good white cloth and can be dyed with all classes of
dyes used for cotton.
2.8. Miscellaneous bast fibres

In addition to the fibres mentioned above, there
are a few more fibres belonging to this class that have
varied uses in the textile industry. These include sunns
and kenaf. These fibres (generally grown in warm
climates) are extracted from the bark of plants
essentially in the same manner as flax. Each of these
fibres has a special place in the region in which it is
grown. For example, sunn and kenai are mostly grown
in India and Pakistan and contribute a great deal
towards the economy of these countries. These fibres

are used mostly in the making of ropes, twines and
sack cloth etc.
2.9. Leaf fibres

2.9.1. Sisal
Sisal fibre is obtained from the leaves of the plant

Agave sisalana. It is cultivated in East Africa, Brazl,
Mexico, and other parts of Latin America. The mature
leaves from the sisal plant are harvested and treated
mechanically to separate the fibres from the pulpy
material. A single leaf may contain up to 1000 fibres.
A sisal strand consists of a bundle of many

individual fibres held together by non-cellulosic gummy
material, such as lignin, which may amount to
approximate 6% based on the dry weight. The individual
fibre is approximately 0.1 inch long. The fibre cells tend
to be straight and stiff, which affects the flexibility of
strands. Sisal fibre has a cylindrical shape in the
longitudinal view and has a central canal or lumen that
varies in width along the length of the fibre. In cross
section, it shows rectangular and polygonal shapes. It
has good dyeing characteristics and can be dyed with
the same direct dyes used for cotton. Sisal is used
extensively for making binder and baler twines, marine
cordage or ropes, sacks, matting and rugs.
2.9.2. Abaca (Manila)
It is a product of the plant 'Musa Textilis' and is

one of the most important cordage fibre. It is mainly
grown in Philippine Islands which account for nearly
90% of total world population of Abaca. It grows in
clusters of sheathlike leaf stalks. The centre of stalk is
wrapped with layers of leaf sheaths containing thin
Natural Fibres 69
layers of fibres. The plant reaches maturity in about
two years and yields leaves upto 15 years.
The extraction of fibres from cut leaves are done

mechanically by process called decortification or they
may be separated from ribbon by scraping the pulp
material with knife. Then they are dried in sun. Outer
sheaths produce strong and darkcoloured fibres
whereas inner one produce weak and light coloured
fibre. Difference in colour is due to exposure to
sunlight. Quality of fibre depend upon maturity of
stalks and method of extraction also.
The strand of Abaca are about 15 ft. long and

contains individual fibres held together by gummy
cellulosic materials. It contains large amount of lignin
(approx. 9%).Fibre is about 0.25 inch long having a
regular ribbon width with ends tending to taper to a
point when seen longitudinally. It has thin cell walls
and a very large lumen. In cross-sectional view the
fibres are polygonal.
Uses
The fibre is strong, moderately flexible, and

resistant to effects of sea water. Therefore, extremely
useful for making ships cables, hawsers, ropes and
cordage. It is also used for making carpets and mats.
2.9.3. Henquen
Henquen fibre is a produd of the plant Agave

fourcroydes. The leaves of this plant are harvested first
from the plants when they are between six and seven
years old. This procedure is followed at half-year
intervals for 15-18 years until the plant flowers and
dies. The fibre is extracted by a process similar to the
one used for sisal. Its strands are approximately 5 ft.
long. Henequen is lustrous and has good colour. Its
structure resembles that of sisal fibre. It also is used

in making twines and coarse canvas fabrics.
2.10. Asbestos
Abestos is a very important industrial fibre that
serves the textile industry in a number of useful ways.
It is a natural silicate fibre of mineral origin. It occurs
in the form of a natural rock composed of tightly packed
fibrous crystals. These are generally constituted of
silicates of either magnesium or its combination with
other elements such as calcium, iron, and sodium.
Chrysotile (hydrated silicate of magnesium), which

occurs in the narrow veins of serpentine rock, forms
the major source of the world's supply of asbestos.
The silicates are packed together alongside each other
imparting a grainy structure to the rock that resemble
wood. These fibres may vary in length from about Y2 to
14 inch.
Asbestos is largely mined in Canada, South Africa,

Rhodesia and Russia, Canada being the largest producer
and supplier. The compressed fibrous mass of raw
asbestos is subjected to preliminary crushing (fibrising)
to open and loosen the fibres from the compact mineral
mass. Care is taken to avoid or minimise breakage of
the fibres.
After the preliminary crushing, the fibrous mass of

asbestos are further opened by passing through a
toothed roller type machine. Dirt and powdered rock
are removed at this stage. The opened asbestos fibres
are now ready for carding.
Carding is affected by combing with rotating

brushes having steel bristles. Impurities and short
fibres further separate out and the longer asbestos
fibres take the form of a loose sheet or web and
Natural Fibres 71
delivered as narrow ribbons or rovings. The rovings
are spun to yarns using flyer or ring spinning frames.
Asbestos fibres may be mixed or blended with selected
other fibres before spinning. The length ranges between
0.5-12 inch. They are somewhat polygonal or circular
in cross-section.
Uses
Asbestos is highly resistant to heat, acids, alkalies,

and other chemicals. It is also resistant to
microorganisms and insects. It is used primarily in
applications such as conveyor belts for transporting
hot materials, electrical installations, fireproof clothing,
break linings, heat resistant felts, tapes and cloth for
gloves, industrial packagings and gaskets.
2.11. Wool
2.11.1. History
The time man discarded animal skins in favour of

garments made from wool fibre marks the origin of
textile industry. Wool in felted state was probably the
oldest fibre known to man. History shows clearly that
Mesopotamia is the birth place of the wool. Various
tribes of that area were famous for their flocks from
the dawn of civilization. Manufacturing of woollen cloth
was an important industry in Mesopotamia. From
there, this knowledge spread to adjoining areas and
ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks and Hebrews
practised hand spinning and weaving in home. Thus
wool industry developed as a household craft allover
the world.
During the early Christian Era the finest woollen

materials came from Baghdad, Damascus and other
cities of the Turkish Empire. The middle ages of the
woollen industry flourished in the Italian cities such

as Venice and Florans, from were it spread to
Netherlands, Belgium and England. It then was taken
to America by a Spaniards. Some sheep were taken
from England to Australia where there were no native
sheep. Wool flourished very well in Australia, which
has become a leading wool producer.
Nature produces macromolecules from a relatively

few elements. Animals grow hair on their body from
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur etc. These
are obtained by animals from the food they eat and air
they breath. First simple compounds are formed from
these and then these simple compounds form protein
macromolecules forming flesh, skin, hairs etc. These
simple compounds are called amino acids e.g. glycine,
alanine, valine, tyrosine, lysine, glutamic acid and
cystine etc. These acids have an amide group (-NH 2 ) at
one end and an acid group (-COOH) at other end. These
amino acids combine to form an amide. If many amino
acids molecules combine they form polyamide. Wool
macromolecules is formed from 18 amino acids
distributed in a particular order and the polyamide
thus formed is a protein called 'keratin' which is fibre
material of wool as cellulose is of cotton.
2.11.2. Physical structure of wool
The wool fibre generally appears as a circular

cylinder that tapers from the root to the tip. It has a
spirally crimped form. When viewed through the
microscope, wool fibre shows four distinct regions. They
are:
(a) the outer sheat or epicuticle,
(b) the scale-cell layer, cuticle
(c) the cortex, and
(d) the medulla (in coarse wools only).
Natural Fibres 73
A purelY diagrammatic illustration of the structure
of a medullate fibre is shown in the Fig. 2.3.
Para
Ortho Endo-cuticle
Cortical cortex
cortex in side line
cell ~
~
Wool
11~Exo-cutiCle
in between
polymer Epi-cuticle out

side line
Proto-fibril--...
Micro-fibril - - - - - l l \ \ .
Macro-fibril -----j.~~...,.~::x~.J.1 Epithelial cell

emerges from a oo(f-},/I--- or wool fibre
cortical cell surface scale
,
I
I
I
~~~;::fi
Fig. 2.3. A morphological diagram

of the wool fibre
(a) Epicutic/e
The outer sheath consists of the non-protein part

of the fibre. It is a thin, water-repellent membrane. It
has, however, tiny microscopic pores, through which
water vapour may penetrate into the internal structure
of the fibre. Thus the outer sheath helps wool fabrics
to absorb water vapour from the human body without
feeling damp. and release it into the air.
74 Textiie Raw Materials
(b) Cuticle
Underneath the epicuticle, at the surface, there

are cuticle or scale-like cells. These thin scales are
hard and of horny consistency. These overlap and
protrude for about one-third of their length, the ends
being directed towards the tip of the fibre. The
outermost layer of these scales is a tough membrane
known as the epicuticle. Beneath this the exocuticle
is situated and the inner most layer described as the
endoCl.lticle. These cause a special directional frictional
effect that has a very important influence on the
frictional behaviour of wool fibres.
(c) Cortex
The bulk of the fibre is formed of the cortical cells

or cortex, and it is enclosed by the cuticle. Within the
cortex there is a fibrillar structure. The cortical cells
are 100-200 11 in length and 2-5 11 wide. The tensile
strength, elastic properties and the natural colour of
the wool are determined mainly by the nature of the
cortical cells.
The cortex of the wool fibre has been shown to have

a bilaterial structure; one side is called the paracortex
and the other orthocortex. The chemical structure of
the proteins in the two sections is thought to be different.
The paracortex is more stable and is less accessible to
dyes than the orthocortex. This bilateral structure gives
the fibre a crimped form that is in phase with the mutual
twisting of the two sections. It appears that distribution
of the two varieties is such as to divide the cortex
longitudinally into two hemi-cylinders.
(d) medulla
Many coarse wool fibres have a hollow space in

the center running along the length of the fibre. This
Natural FIbres 75
is the medulla and it may be empty or it may be made
up of a different type of cell. The medulla is absent in
fine wools.
2.11.3. Chemical structure
The wool fibre is composed of protein 'keratin'which

is a complex polymer with an empirical formula
C72Hl12N18012S, Keratin is a giant molecule composed of
a number of a-amino acids with the general formula
H 2 N-CH-COOH
I
R
(in which R is a side chain of varying character)
which are linked through their amino and carboxyl
groups into a polypeptide chain.
The polypeptide chains built up from the

condensation of eighteen different amino acids. The
resulting polypeptide chain has a structure of the
following type:
The nature and molecular weight of the side chains

Rl' R2 , R3 • etc. determine the physical and chemical
properties of wool. There are probably several different
types of polypeptide chains in wool keratin. These
chains have a mean molecular weight of 60,000.
The polypeptide macromolecules may be in the

coiled or spiral form (a-keratin) or extended form
(13-keratin) (Fig. 2.4 a, b). The a-spiral structure
determines the SIze and shape of the protein

macromolecule.
Side Chain
Main Chall1
Main Chain
Two adjacent molecules of a-keratin (coiled)

Side Chain
Two adjacent molecules of (l-keratin (extended)
Fig. 2.4 (a)

A :
A '~H
~~C:/N H 6.. -~ N
'rc- :.- i I;t ../
(, 0J~-HC-c;.
H
1-NfI- 0
OJ~C~~R
. /1
N
~~n
~
.If • I ~
c--l.N ..... ~
~J? ~'. ':
'N':I C-;;.Cr-N~......
r
•H
R"~!
0A R" C
H'9i-c-N-q~
r!tQ-~ R ~.
a R,
~
..
'&. . .N'-C-
A 0
n ! ,R
• I
• H 0
a :
Fig. 2.4. (b) Another representation of
a-keratin molecule
The crystalline regions of wool have a spiral

a-helical configuration, which is the natural
configuration of the fibre. By stretching this stable form
Natural Fibres 77
can be transformed into the unstable l3-configuration.
The amorphous regions have the same general
structure as the crystalline region but are more
accessible to reagents.
2.11.4. linkages and bonds in wool
In wool different amino acids are joined by amide

links along the length of the macromolecules and by
hydrogen bonds, salt linkages and cystine links across
the macromolecules.
(a) Hydrogen bonds
In wool the adjacent macromolecules are held

together by hydrogen bonds, which can be formed
between the keto group ofthe adjacent keratin (>C=O)
and the imino group (H-N<) macromolecules, if they
are sufficiently close to each other (Fig. 2.5). these
contributes to strength and elasticity and reacts with
moisture.
(b) Salt linkage or bridge
There exist other sideways bridges between the

adjacent keratin molecule. An amino group has a
tendency to attract and hold another hydrogen atom,
thereby acquiring a positive electrical charge. On the
other hand, the acid group of the amino acid has a
tendency of losing a hydrogen atom and acquiring a
negative electrical charge. Hence, when these two
groups of different chain molecules come near each
other, a transfer of a hydrogen atom from the acid group
to the amino group takes place and the resultant
oppositely charged groups will then attract each other
and a sideways electrostatic bond, called a salt linkage,
is formed between these two macro-molecules.
¢_HO¢O
H, ,- H
B~
C=O H-N C=O-------- H-N
I I I I
H-~ r=O H-N.
--
A C=O
.
-
-- --
A = Hydrogen bond
B = Salt linkage
Fig. 2.5. Two types of side-ways links in keratin

molecules
The salt link shown in Figure 2.5 is formed at

the ends of two keratin molecules. This type of
sideways link can be formed in the interior of the
chain molecule also. These salt linkages contributes
to strength and reacts with acids and dyes.
(c) Cystine linkage
If an amino acid containing two amino groups

and two acid groups at the ends (cystine is a example)
takes part in the condensation reaction with amino
acids having one amino and one acid group, it is
easy to see that this amino acid forms part of two
macromolecules (Fig. 2.6).
.... H R
II R
ft
It
8 o-Bc-~
.c_~-o-C_H-[}-H-.)!(c:-'!'.-
!I II H
8 .....
-0- c-~
H
H H ft -!II
.... .h-N-D-C-K-Q.<! R
C-N -o-V JI_.ff
C-""L--rC-N .....
II .1, ~ II II I.
Fig. 2.6. Cystine link in keratin molecules
Natural Fibres 79
Since cystine joins these two macromoleculs,
the link thus formed is called a cystine link. It
contributes to strength, lateral resistance and reacts
with alkali, heat, bleaching agents, non felting
agents and moth proofing agents.
2.11.5. Composition of wool
Wool macromolecule is composed of 18 different

amino acids in different proportion which are given
in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Composition of wool
S.No. Amino acid Amount (%)

1. Alanine 4.1-4.4
2. Arginine 6.0-10.4
3. Proline 4.4-7.2
4. Cystine 7.3-13.1
5. Lycine 2.2-3.3
6. Glycine 5.8-6.5
7. Aspartic acid 2.3-7.3
8. Hydroxylycine 0.1-0.2
9. Leucine 9.7-11.6
10. Glutamine acid 12.9-16.0
11. Methionine 0.2-0.7
12. Phenylalanine 1.6-4.0
13. Histidine 0.55-0.7
14. Serine 0.1-0.5
15. Threonine 0.6-6.9
16. Tryptophane 0.7-1.8
17. Tyrosine 2.9-6.1
18. Valine 2.8-5.5
The protein material in wool constitutes about

99% of the total bulk, the remaining 1% being made
up of non-protein materials such as fats etc.
Analytical studies of wool shows its composition as-
Carbon 50%
Hydrogen 7%
Oxygen 22-25%
Nitrogen 16-17%
Sulphur 3-4%
2.11.S. Fibre collection
Wool is obtained by shearing the fibrous covering

of sheep and is produced in almost all parts of world.
The shorn wool is known as fleece or clip. Sheep are
commonly shorn of their fleece once a year (or up to
twice a year). An efficient hand woulde remove the fleece
from a sheep with power operated clippers in 2-2Y2
minutes. A top class shearer will get through just about
two hundred sheep a day to collect nearly a tonne of
wool. Wool, removed from the pelts of slaughtered
sheep by chemical treatment or bacterial action without
damaging the hide, is called 'slipe wool'.
Raw wool is often dirty and contaminated with

some unwanted matters, which have to be removed
before its textile processing. In addition wool is
contaminated with natural fats, grease and perspiration
residues. All these impurities are removed during wool
scouring and wool carbonising to get cleaned wool.
The cleaned wool is passed through a carding

machine having three parts called the scribbler,
intermediate and carder. They all successively work to
achieve the same objective, i.e. separating or loosening
the fibres and mixing them thoroughly. Wool processed
in the carding machine emerges as a thin (4.5 ft. wide)
Natural Fibres 81
blanket of uniformly mixed fibres holding together
in a fluffy mass. A successive gilling and combing
operation may follow the carding operation for much
desired straightening, parallelising and aligning of the
fibres.
2.11.7. Different qualities of wool
The quality of wool depends largely on the breed

of the sheep as well as on the environmental conditions
under which the sheep have been reared. Wool may
be broadly classified as follows:
1. Fine wool (Merino).

2. Medium wool.
3. Long wool.
4. Cross breed wool.
5. Carpet wool.
1. Fine wool
Fine wool are Marino wool produced by a breed of

sheep known by that name . It is the finest quality of
wool in the market. The principle marino families of
today are Spanish,
Australian,
American, South
American and
South African (Fig
2.7).
The menno
wool is noted for
Fineness, softness Fig. 2.7. Marino sheep
(soft wool of all) and crimp or waviness. It has as many
as 30 waves to an inch to a fibre. The crimp enable the
fibres to hold together when twisted in a yarn and

thus relatively stronger yarn may be produced. It
also gives marino wool fibres with unusual elasticity
characteristics. Most of the marino wool from modern
sheep is white or near white in colour. Length varies
from 2 to 4 inches. Though it has short staple length
but suitable for producing counts from 60 S to 80 s .
Average diameter is about 17 11 . Since the number of
scales per inch is greater for marino wool, it has got
superior felting property (Fig. 2.8). The marino is also
noted for its superior drawing and spinning properties.
It is also superior to other types of wool in appearance,
handle and finish.
Fig. 2.8. A marino wool fibre (Magnified 1500

times) Note the surface cells or scales which
overlap towards the tip of the fibre
2. Medium wool
The fleece occupies a middle position between

the length and coarseness of fine wool and long wool.
The length varies from 2-5 inch and counts are spun
from 46 5 -60 5 . Average diameter ranges from 20-40
11. They are lighter than marino, less sandy and
greasy. Largest percentage of this wool type is
produced by breeds in Great Britain. The important
breeds are Southdown, Shrospshire, Hampshire and
Oxford. The breeds are also found in U.S.A.,
Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile and
Natural Fibres 83
Canada.
Medium wools are suitable for hosiery and knit

goods. Also used for Ladies wear such as suitings,
coatings, fine tweeds and men's worsted suitings,
serges, flannels, overcoating and blankets.
3. Long wool
The wools are the largest of all breeds, their length

ranging from 5-14 inches. They are the coarsest wool
grown and spun into counts 36s-50 s . The average
diameter is between 25-50 1-1. Long wool sheep have
been found to thrive in regions of excessive rainfall.
The important breeds of this type are Lincoln, Cotswold,
Leicester. The breeds are also found in USA, Argentina,
Australia, New Zealand and Canada. These breeds can
be classified into two types:
(a) Lustre wools.

(b) Semi lustre wools.
The lustre wool is often 12 inch long and is made

into lustrous dress fabrics, buntings, linings etc.
The semi lustre wool is shorter and has a less

pronounced lustre. It is made into serges, dress fabrics
and curtains.
4. Cross breed wools
These wools are obtained from sheep raised by

crossing one breed of sheep with another to develop
certain desired characteristics or combination of
characteristics.
The cross bred sheep serve dual purpose i.e.,

excellent in both meat and wool production. Sometimes
increased resistance to certain adverse local conditions
local conditions is also achieved. Most of the crossed
breed sheep are the outcome of the crosses between
the Merino and one of the English breed. Such sheep
yield good mutton and wool which in fineness and
length occupies a place intermediate between the
two parents. The length varies from 3-6 inch and
are spun into counts 50s to 60s . The diameter ranges
between 25-50 11.
New Zealand sheep industry is based on cr,oss-
breed sheep. Australia and South Africa also export
a great deal of wool produced by cross bred sheep.
The important cross bred breeds are:
1. USA (i) Corriedale, (ii) Columbia,
(iii) Panama, (iv) Romedale,
(v) Montadale, (vi), Targhee.
2. Australia (i) Corriedale, (ii) Polwerth.
3. New Ze1and (i) Corriedale.
5. Carpet wool (Long and coarse type wool)

Carpet wool are produced by sheep which live
under primitive conditions in all parts of the world.
A large proportion of the carpet wool comes from
Asiatic countries. Wool is usually 4-10 inch long.
The carpet type of fleece protects the sheep from
low temperatures, high winds and variations in
moisture.
Carpet wools are principally used in the
manufacture of carpet and rugs. In the world trade,
Indian wool is known as East India Carpet. Some
better qualities are used for making medium grade
serges, overcoatings, coarse tweeds, hosiery and
other coarse fabrics by mixing with other wools.
2.11.8. Grading of wools

Commercial grades of wool are based on fineness
Natural Fibres 85
or diameter of fibre. Two distinct systems of grading
are used in the industry to describe the market
grades of wools as given below-
(i) Blood or Americal system; and

(ii) Numerical or English system.
Terms like fine, half blood and three eights blood

describing the fineness of wool are of American origin.
The word 'blood' is a wool grade term. The numerical
terms like 50 8 ,60 8 , 70 8 are used internationally. They
have for their basis the maximum spinning capacity of
the finest possible count to which it can be spun. The
fineness of wool can be designated more accurately by
these numbers. Both the blood system and the
numerical system refer only to the relative fineness or
diameter of wool fibre.
Table 2.3 shows the designation of the market

grades of wool in the two systems and co-relation of
blood system with the numerical system:
Table 2.3
S. Blood Equvalent
No. System numerical
System
1. Fine blood 80 8 , 70 8 , 60 8
2. Quarter blood 50 8 ,48 8
3. Common blood 44 8
4. Three eights blood 56 8
5. Low quarter blood 46 8
6. Half blood 62 8 ,58 8
7. Braid 40 8 , 36 8
2.11.9. Classification by fleece
Sheeps are generally shorn of their fleeces in

the spring but the time of shearing varies in the
different parts of the world. Wool shorn from young
lambs differs in quality from that of older sheep and
also differ according to atmospheric conditions. The
classification of fleece is as follows:
. (a) Lamb's wool
The first fleece sheared from a lamb of about six

to eight months old is known as lambs wool and
sometimes called as fleece wool or first clip. This wool
is of very fine quality. The fibres are tapered because
the ends have never been clipped. Such fibres produce
a softness in the texture of fabric that is characteristics
only oflamb wool. However, lambs wool is not as strong
as fully developed wool of the same sheep because of
its immaturity.
(b) Pulled wool
When sheep are slaughtered for meat, their wool

in pulled from the pelt by the use of lime, by sweating
or by a chemical depilatory. Such wool fibre are called
pulled wool. It is of inferior quality because of two
reasons:
(i) sheep that are raised for meat generally do

not have a good quality of wool.
(ii) the roots of fibres are generally damaged by the
chemicals and the tension exerted in pUlling.
(c) Hogget wool
Hogget (Hogg or Teg) wool comes from sheep of 12

to 14 months old that have not been previously shorn.
Natural Fibres 87
The fibre are soft, fine, resistant and mature with
tapered ends. Hogget wool is very desirable grade of
wool and because of its strength it is used primarily
for the warp yarns of fabrics.
(d) Dead wool
The wool fibre known as dead wool is sometimes

mistaken for pulled wool. The term is correctly used
for wool that has been recovered from sheep that
have died on the range or been accidentally killed.
Dead wool fibre is inferior in grade. It is used in low
grade cloth.
(e) Wether wool

Any fleece clipped after the first shearing is
called wether wool. This wool is usually taken from
sheep older than 14 months and these fleeces
contain much soil and dirt.
(f) Cotty wool
Sheep that are exposed to severe weather

conditions or lack of nourishment yield a wool that
is matted or felted together and it is hard and brittle.
This very poor grade is known as cotty wool.
(g) Taglooks
_ The torn, ragged or discoloured parts of a fleece

are known as taglocks. These are usually sold
separately as an inferior grade of wool.
2.11.10. Impurities in wool
Raw wool may contain 30 to 70% of impurities.

These are wool fat, suint dried perspiration), dirt,
mineral matters and burrs dried vegetable matter). The

approximate composition of a dirty wool might be-
Keratin 33%
Dirt 26%
Suint 28%
Fat 12%
Mineral matter 1%
Suint, a complex mixture, is soluble in water and

can be isolated from the raw wool by aqueous
extraction. Wool fat is a yellowish wax like substance
and is derived from fatty acids and cholesterol. It is
soluble in organic solvents. When heated for a long
time with alcohol (potassium hydroxide) it is split up
into cholesterol and the potassium salt of fatty acids.
In addition, the fibre in its natural state, also

contains a consideration amount of dirt. This is held
by the adhesive action of the grease and falls away
during scouring.
Removal of impurities
Impurities present in wool are removed by following

methods:
(a) Wool scouring
Wool is usually scoured before processing into yarn

so as to remove grease, sweat and mineral impurity.
Lower grade qualities used for carpets or blankets may
be carded in the greasy state as the greast could act as
lubricant. However at present even these wools are
scoured before processing.
Successive scouring and washing tanks are used

Natural Fibres 89
for washing with warm detergent solutions and
water accompanied with thorough agitation. Soap
and soda ash (sodium carbonate) are the effective
scouring agents. Solvent extraction for removing fatty
and greasy matters may also be used. The cleaned
wool would however, retain much of the natural
colouring matters.
(b) Burr extraction or wool carbonising
Vegetable matters such as burrs, seeds and straw

can be removed from wool either mechanically (just before
and/ or during carding) or chemically (immediately after
wool scouring or during fabric fmishing). The stage chosen
depends on the type, quality, the method of processing
and the resultant fabric.
(i) In mechanical method, burrs and vegetable

matters are removed by passing the wool through the
heavy crushing rollers so that the vegetable matters
can be removed as a powder in subsequent carding.
The worsted industry generally prefers mechanical
removal.
(ii) The chemical process of burr extraction is known

as carbonisation. In this method, vegetable matter
which is cellulose is converted into a black brittle
hydrocellulose by treatment with certain mineral acids
or some of their salts. The process is known as
'carbonizing'. In the woollen both mechanical and
chemical methods are adopted.
2.11.11. Felting of wool
The object of felting a woollen cloth is to give it a

desired finish called milling, The felting characteristics
of wool fibres is taken advantage of in the production
offeIts (rugs and blankets). Aielt is simply a big mass
of fibres held together entirely by their natural

entanglements and holding-power.
The scales on the surface of wool fibre are

arranged with their edges pointing in one direction
along the fibre. Wool fibre appears more rough in
the tip-to-root direction than in the opposite
direction. Felting takes place when a wool web or
fabric is subjected to mechanical action when it is
wet. The fabric gets its natural shrink, becomes thick
and the fibres get matted into closely packed mass
as the fibres lose much of their elasticity.
Repeated compression of wool fibres and

subsequent relaxation facilitates felting of wet wool,
whereby the fibres tend to bend into loops inside the
fabric and penetrate these loops forming well-
distributed knots and entanglements that characterize
a good felt structure. The amount of felting in a woollen
cloth can be determined by the measurement of
shrinkage. Felting can be done by
(i) Rubbing and procuring the fabric with rocker

shaped fulling blocks.
(ii) Chemical treatments at a particular pH and time
to achieve the desired degree of felting. More felting
takes place at pH less than 3 and greater than 9.
2.11.12. Recovered wool/Remanufactured wool
The supply of wool available to the world is

insufficient to meet world's needs. As demand for raw
wool grew, manufacturers began recovering wool from
rags and old clothes. The wool which has already been
made into yams and fabrics are reused.
Remanufactured wool refers to fibres reclaimed

from scraps of fabrics that were never used. These
Natural Fibres 91
comes from cutting rooms, fabrics samples and
similar sources. The fabrics are converted back into
a fibrous state before being made into yarns and
fabrics. Reused wool refers to fibres reclaimed from
fabrics that have worn or used, with old rags and
clothing comprising the major source.
Recovered wools are poor in quality compared

with fleece wool. The processes tend to snap the
fibres and remove some of their surface scales. Lack
of firmness and poor handle are found in fabrics
having high content of recovered wool. Fabrics made
from low grade reused wool do not wear but tend to
loss their shape. Recovered wool do not dye such
rich colours as new wool, so their garments are often
dull in shade.There are three types of recovered
wool:
(a) Shoddy
Shoddy is wool recovered from fabrics which have

not been felted e.g. tweeds, knitted goods and worsted.
(b) Mungo
Mungo is made from cloths such as velours which

have been felted during manufacturing. The fibres in
these fabrics are in a more matted condition than they
are in an unmilled cloth. They are more difficult to
disentangle and suffer more damage in the process.
(c) Extract
Extract consists of wool recovered from cotton wool

union fabrics with dilute sulphuric acid. The wool that
remains is teased apart. Extract is the least valuable
of the three forms of recovered wool.
2.11.13. Types of yarn
Wool is usually spun into two types of yarn, viz.

(i) Woollen and (ii) Worsted.
(i) Woolen
Woollen yarns are usually made from short

staple fibres which are held loosely and given only a
limited twist during spinning. Such yarns are woven
into thick, full-bodied materials such as tweeds and
blankets and also used for knitting. There are 3 to 4
machines in sequence of operation. In addition to
pure wool it may contain remanufactured wool,
certain waste material or man-made fibres.
(ii) Worsted
Worsted yarns are much finer, firmer, regular,

tightly twisted and smoother than woollen. Worsteds
are usually spun from longer staple fibres and are
woven to make fine dress materials and suitings. There
are as many as 20 machines in sequence of operation
for a worsted yarn. Worsted fabrics have a well defined
weave.
2.11.14. Characteristics of wool
(a) Crimp
Wool fibre has a natural crimp due to its unique

chemical and physical structure. This causes the fibre
to bend and turn, giving wool an inherent three-
dimensional crimp. Because it is naturally elastic and
resilient, wool imparts to all products that are made
from it, many unique properties: rapid wrinlde recovery,
durability, bulk, loft, warmth and resistance to
abrasion.
Natural Fibres 93
(b) Fibre absorbency
Wool is a year-round fibre. Wool can easily absorb

up to 30 percent of its weight in moisture without
feeling damp or clammy. The ability of wool to absorb
moisture makes it comfortable in both warm and
cold conditions. By absorbing perspiration, wool
enhances the body's own cooling system and helps
keep the skin dry. This characteristic makes wool a
versatile all-season fabric.
Wool also keeps you warm in the winter by

absorbing perspiration, allowing the body to generate
heat faster than it is lost to the atmosphere.
(c) Resistance to flame
Because wool contains moisture in every fibre, it

resists flame without chemical treatment. Instead of
burning freely when touched by flame, wool chars and
stops burning when it is removed from the source of
the flame. Wool is self-extinguishing; it will not support
combustion. This is why wool blankets are
recommended for use in extinguishing small fires.
(d) Dyeability
Wool absorbs many different dyes deeply,

uniformly and directly without the use of other
chemicals .. Because of this ability, wool is known for
the beautiful, rich colors that can be achieved.
(e) Durability
The flexibility of the wool fibre also makes it more

durable. A single wool fibre can be bent back on itself
more than 20,000 times without breaking compared
to 3,000 times for cotton and 2,000 times for silk. The
natural elasticity of wool also makes wool fabrics

resistant to tearing. In addition, the outer skin of the
wool fibre acts as a protective film giving wool cloth
improved resistance to abrasion.
(f) Natural felting properties
The outer layer of wool is made up of small scales

that contribute to wool's property of felting. Agitation,
friction and pressure along with heat and moisture
cause the edges of wool fibres to interlock, preventing
the fibre from returning to its original position. This
shrinkage, which occurs, is irreversible.
The felting property of wool is both an advantage

and a disadvantage. In a controlled situation, the felting
process is called "fulling" or "milling" and creates a
softer finish for woven wool fabrics. Felting is also
crucial to the production of a wide variety of non -woven
wool fabrics for hats and industrial uses.
Felting is considered a disadvantage because it

makes washing untreated wool fabrics difficult. The
machine wash label certifies that wool has been treated
for machine washability and dryability. To produce a
washable wool product, wool fibres are coated with a
film to reduce end-to-end differential friction, thereby
eliminating the entanglement that produces shrinkage.
(g) Resilience
Wool fibres can be stretched up to 50 percent of

their original length when wet and 30 percent when
dry. But when the tension is released, the wool fibre
will bounce back to its original shape.
Because w::>ol fibres are weaker when wet, a wool

garment should not be hung to dry. Instead, it should
be laid flat on a towel to dry to keep its original shape.
Natural Fibres 95
Recovery from stress takes place faster when the
fibre is in a humid environment, which is why
steaming a wool garment will freshen the fabric and
why a steam iron is recommended for pressing wool.
(h) Resistance to Compression
Resistance to compression values are useful in

assessing the suitability of wool for specific end uses.
Resistance to compression (R to C) is the force per unit
area required to compress a fixed mass of wool to a
fixed volume. Resistance to compression is related to
fibre diameter and the form and frequency of crimp.
For instance, low and medium R to C wools tend

to be softer, more susceptible to felting, easier to
process and produce strong fabrics. On the other hand,
high R to C wools have a harsher handle, are resistant
to felting and are bulkier.
2.11.15. Properties of wool fibres
(i) Microscopic appearance: The characteristic

longitudinal microscopic appearance of wool is the
overlapping surface cell structure called scales pointing
towards tip of fibre which give wool a serrated surface.
The cross-section is usually oval in shape.
(ii) Length: Average length of wool fibres ranges from

1-8 inches.
1-3 inches in woollen.
3-8 inches in worsted.
(iii) Diameter: It varies from 0.001-0.003 cm in fine

wool and 0.001-0.007 cm in carpet wool.
(iv) Colour: The fibres have a white or light cream

colour but some breeds may have brown and black

colour.
(u) Lustre: Wool fibre has a natural luster,

depending on the type of wool. Merino wools are
generally semidull, whereas some other varieties
have a silky luster.
(vi) Density: 1.33-1.35 gmJ cc, slightly lighter than

cotton.
(vii) Moisture regain: 13-19%, depending upon form

and condition.
(viii) conductivity of heat: Poor.
(ix) Tenacity: Wool is characterised by low tenacity

(l-1.8 g/denier), but higher extensibility. However, this
does not lower its work of rupture. These fibres have
an elastic recovery of 99% from 2% elongation and 60%
from 35% extension, respectively.
(x) Elongation at break: 25-40% under standard

condition, 30-40% when wet.
(i) Effect of moisture/water: Moisture absorption of

wool is higher than that of any other fibre. Under
normal conditions it may hold upto 20% of its weight.
Under high humid condition, wool may absorb about
a third of its weigh t of moisture. When soaked in water
at ordinary temperature, swells by about 10% of its
initial volume. When dried, it returns to its initial size.
(ii) Effect of heat: Heating in water or steam for

some time would make wool lose its strength and with
heating under steam pressure at 120°C, wool will
decompose and eventually dissolve. Wool loses its
Natural Fibres 97
suppleness and becomes weak on heating above lOO°C
for long. It starts yellowing when heated above l30°C
and chars on heating to 300°C or above, giving a typical
smell of burning hair. Wool burns in a flame but stops
burning when removed from a flame.
(iii) Effect of sunlight and weather: Exposure to

sunlight and weather tends to yellow white or dull
coloured wool textile materials. Prolonged exposure
severely weakens wool fibres by excessive breakage of
peptide and disulphide bonds.
(iv) Effect of insect and microorganism: Like meat,

wool is a form of protein. Woollens are the best
appetisers and attractive diet for different types of moth.
The larvae of these insects cause an immense damage
to wool and woollen products.
(v) Effect of acids: Wool decomposes completely in

hot concentrated sulphuric acid (H 2 S0 4 ) though it is
much more resistant to other mineral acids (dilute or
concentrated) at ambient conditions and at a high
temperature. Nitric acid attacks wool and damages it
by oxidation. Volatile organic acids like formic acids
and acetic acids do not damage wool.
(vi) Effect of alkalies/solvents: Strong alkalies

attackwool and dissolve it very rapidly, especially at
high temperatures. Alkali also hydrolyses wool though
less selectively than acids. For example, a 5% solution
of caustic soda will completely dissolve wool at the boil
in a short time. The extent of the reaction of wool with
alkali depends upon the alkali used, temperature,
concentration, etc. Dilute solutions of ammonia do not
harm wool, but concentrated solutions do, especially
at high temperatures. Therefore, solution of low
alkalinity must be used for scouring of wool at a
specified time and temperature to avoid damage to
fibre. Wool shows good resistance to dry-cleaning

and some other common solvents.
(vii) Affinity for dyestuff: Wool is considered a

relatively easy fibre to dye because of good affinity.
It is coloured more readily by following classes of
dyes- acid dye, chrome or mordant dyes, pre-
metalised dyes and reactive dyes.
2.12. Other hair fibres

In addition to wool, there are a number of other
hair fibres obtained from animals of the goat and
camel families that are also of commercial
importance.
2.12.1. Mohair
Mohair is the product of the Angora goat native
to Turkey. Most of the world mohair production now
comes from the United States, South Africa and
Turkey, totalling approximately 60 million pounds.
Mohair fibre has a fine structure similar to wool.

However, it appears circular in cross section, with
small spots caused by trapped air bubbles. Its staple
length varies according to the age of the animal. A
six-month-old Angora kid would yield fibres varying
from 4 to 6 in., whereas a full-grown goat would
produce mohair fibres of 9-12 inches in length each
year.
Mohair has physical properties essentially similar

to those of wool. In addition, mohair has a very high
resistance to wear. Due to its durability characteristics
it is mainly used in applications such as unholstery. It
is also blended with wool to produce light-weight fabrics
for summer wear and other kinds of apparel materials.
Natural Fibres 99
2.12.2. Camel hair
The better variety of camel hair used in the
textile industry comes from the Bactrian Camel, found
in China, Mongolia and the USSR. There are
essentially two types of hair obtained from the camel.
There are the soft, downy undercoat fibres (which
is very fme and light brown in colour) varying from 1
to 5 inch in length, and the coarse outer coat, tough
fibres ranging in length up to 15 inch. The fleece of
the camel is not claimed by either shearing or
pulling, but is shed naturally in locks. Each animal
yields somewhere between 5 and 10 lbs of fibre per
year.
The soft fine camel hair fibre is used for making
overcoats, dressing gowns and knitted fabrics. The
coarse fibres are used for making belting, ropes,
and blankets.
2.12.3. Cashmere wool

This fibre is obtained from the cashmere goat
found in Tibet, Northern China, Mongolia, Northern
India, Iran, and Mghanistan. The Cashmere goat is
covered with an outer coat of straight, coarse, long
hair approximately 2-5 inch long, under which there
is a downy undercoat of very fine and soft valuable
fibres. The goat sheds the undercoat and some of
the outercoat of hair through molting. At this time,
the goat is combed and the two types of fibre are
separated. The yield of both types of fibre amounts
to approximately 8 oz. per animal.
Cashmere hair is extremely fine, varying in
diameter from 15 to 17 J,l. Pure cashmere is often
used in the production of such high-quality fabrics
as the famous Indian shawls, which have a beautiful
drape and soft handle.
2.12.4. Alpaca, Llama, and Vicuna
These animals are the inhabitants of the high

mountainous regions of South America. They are found
chiefly in Peru, Bolivia, Equador and Northwestern
Argentina. The llama or South American camel is
mainly a beast of burden that provides a fleece of
thick, coarse fibres about 10-12 inches in length.
The fleece is a mixture of fine hair and kemp. It is
usually brown in colour and is used mainly for
producing handmade fabrics, rugs, and carpets used
locally.
The Peruvian alpaca, a close relative of the llama

but a much smaller animal, produces a fine soft fleece
that may yield fibres of up to 16 inch in length. It is
suitable for spinning on the worsted system. Its colour
may vary from black or brown to fawn or white. Yet
another animal, the huarizo, a cross between llama
and alpaca, produces a moderately uniform but less
fine fleece than that of the alpaca.
A native of Peru and Bolivia, the vicuna (belonging

to the llama family) is a much smaller animal. Its
undercoat comprises extremely fine (13 IJ) and short
(about 5 inch) fibres. The fibre is a tawny brown in
colour and produces very fine and soft fabrics. It is the
finest of all wool or hair-like fibres.
2.13. Silk
Silk, like wool is a protein fibre; however, silk is of
insect origin, being formed as a fine fIlament of long
length from the body fluid of the insect called the
silkworm. Silk is not a hair fibre like wool. The
silkworms are cultivated on branches of plants of the
mulberry type. It is the only natural fibre that occurs
in the form of a fme continuous fIlament.
Natural Fibres 101
2.13.1. Discovery of silk
The credit for discovery of silk and cultivation of
silkworm goes to ancient Chinese. They guarded
the secret of sericulture from outside world for about
3000 years. The origin of silk is shrouded in myths
and legends. According to one legend a princess Sil-
Lin-Chi discovered silkworm wrapping itself in a
beautiful cocoon in a garden accidentally while
wandering. Later she made a startling discovery that
it could be unreeled and obtained a fine thread of
great length which could be spun into a thread. She
was later deified as the Goddess of Silkworms.
Later in third century, Chinese sericulture
experts were kidnapped and taken to Korea and
Japan. Thus the knowledge of sericulture spread
from here to other parts of world who produced silk
quickly and scientifically. Major silk producing
countries in the world today are Japan, China, Soviet
Union, India, Italy, South Korea, Turkey, Iran, Brazil,
Spain, France, Sicily, Syria and Austria.
2.13.2. Life cycle of silk work

The silkworm belong to lower class of animals,
undergoes a series of transformation in its form
during its lifetime. This transformation is called as
metamorphosis. There are four stages in the life
cycle of a silkworm each having its own specialised
function (Fig. 2.9).
/E99~
Moth Caterpillar
~pupa/
Fig. 2.9. Lifecycle of a silkworm
1. Egg
The female moth lays 500 eggs in a group which
adhere to the leaf by sticky substance. The eggs hatch
in about 15 days and emerging larva called caterpillar.
2. Caterpillar
It has sole function of feeding itself. Mter a few

days it stops eating and shed old skin and acquire
new one. Again it starts eating. This is done four times
and it grows to a considerable size. In final feed, lasting
about 10 days it eats 20 times its own weight ofleaves.
Finally it stops eating and begins to build a cocoon
enclosing itself.
3. Pupa
Within cocoon the caterpillar undergoes a change
forming chrysalis or pupa, an inactive form. This in
turn forms into the stage of full growth moth.
4. Moth
Thus within the cocoon the caterpillar

metamorphoses twice commonly called pupation to
emerge as adult moth, the imago. The moth escapes
from cocoon by secreting a fluid which dissolves away
a section of cocoon to make a hole through which the
moth makes its escape. It has a very short life and has
the sole function of reproduction. Its life span is about
a week, during which it mates and dies.
2.13.3. Sericulture
The systematic (artificial) rearing of silkworms is

called sericulture. To avoid dependency on nature and
to increase production, a system was designed in which
Natural Fibres 103
silkworms were given necessary condition in an
establishment, called magnaneries. In a sericulture
establishment all the stages in the life of a silkworm
can be seen at the same time. These stages are as
under:
Stage I
The eggs of the moth which are free from any

disease are selected and stored in a cold chamber. Then
they are placed in an incubator with the chopped
mulberry leaves for hatching. Mter 12-15 days the
caterpillar emerges. One ounce of egg yields
approximately 36000 silk worms. A perforated paper
is placed over them and mulberry leaves are spread.
The worms climb through holes leaving behind egg-
residue.
Stage /I
Caterpillar is a larva of about Y4 inch in length. It

is carefully matured for about 20-30 days. They are
fed on finely cut mulberry leaves 5 times a day. It is
over 3 inches long and weight 5 gms.
The worm is fully grown and stops eating and

begins to spin filaments. The liquid silk (called FIDROIN)
is present in two glands in the silk worm. From there
it flows into two channels to a common exit tube called,
the spinnerate in the silk worm head. As it emerges
the liquid silk hardens into very fine filaments and
these are coated and cemented together by a gummy
substance called Sericin which comes from two other
glands nearby. As the silk emerges, the silk worm
moves its head backwards and forwards. Gradually it
surrounds itself with a strongly built cocoon made from
a continuous silk strand. Spinning usually takes 2 to
3 days.
104 I Textile Raw Materials
Stage III
After finishing spinning, the enclosed silk worm

undergoes a remarkable transformation, passing from
the form of a caterpillar into an inert chrysalis or pupa.
The pupa inside the cocoon develops into a moth
within two weeks if left undisturbed.
Stage IV
The adult moth make an opening in cocoon by

secreting a fluid that this dissolves away its small
section. Thus continuous filament is splitted at several
places making it useless and inconvenient for winding.
So to ensure continuous long filament it is necessary
to kill the worm before final stage. This is done by
immersing the cocoon in a salt solution in air-tight
vessel or by exposure to sunlight. This may cause some
damage to fibre. Some improvement can be made by
following methods:
• SUbjecting the cocoon to action of steam thus

killing pupa.
• by placing cocoon in deep freeze where moth
may be frozen to death.
All the moths are not destroyed some are kept-for

breeding.
2.13.4. Chemical composition of silk
Silk is a continuous protein filament spun by silk

worm. Like wool keratin, silk is formed from amino
acid. In its chemical composition, silk fibroin is much
simpler than wool (keratin) fibre. Silk fibre, chemically
a polypeptide, is built up from mainly four amino acids-
glycine (38-41%), alanine (30-33%), serine (12-16%)
and tyrosine (11-12%). Both amorphous and highly
Natural Fibres 105
crystalline zones are present in the cluster of chain
molecules of silk fibroin. The crystalline zones are
believed to be constituted of long sequence of
symmetrical alternate Glycine (G) and Alanine (A)
repeat units and the amorphous zones randomly
accommodate serine, tyrosine and some other minor
amino acid residues (X) along with Glycine (G) and
Alanine (A) as shown in sehematic structure given
below:
G.A.G.A.G.A.G.A.G.A.G.A.X.G.X.A.X.G.A.X.
Crystalline Amorphous
Comparison with wool
• Wool is made up of 18 amino acids whereas silk

contains only 11 out of which only two (glycine
and alanine) account for 60% of silk protein.
• Cystine linkages are present in wool but these

are absent in silk.
• Very few silk linkages are present in silk as

compared to wool.
• Silk structure has limiting interchain hydrogen

bonding then wool.
Due to these differences, the properties of wool

and silk differ widely though both are natural
polyamides formed from amino acids.
2.13.5. Extraction of silk from cocoon-reeling
Silk is quite different from other natural fibres

which are produced in relatively short length. Silkworm
makes its cocoon from a twin filament that extruded

from its head (spinnerettle) in a continuous strand.
These filaments are coated and glued together by
gummy substance called sericin. The worm gradually
gets covered and captivated into a strongly structured
cocoon made from a continuous silk strand stretching
may be up to nearly a mile (1.6 km) in length.
The production of a 'thread' or 'yarn' of silk

suitable for weaving is therefore a process different
from that which is used in the case of shorter fibres.
All that is necessary is to unwind the long continuous
filaments from the cocoons and then twist a number
of these together to form a thread of useful
thickness.
The unwinding of the fine silk filaments from

the cocoons is called reeling. Reeling consists of
the following operations.
(a) Stifling: Here, the moths inside the cocoons

are killed by steam or hot water.
(b) Sorting: To obtain uniform and good quality

yarn, cocoons of different sizes are grouped together.
Damaged and ill-developed cocoons are rejected and
used in the waste industry.
(c) Cooking: The sorted cocoons are placed in 1%

hot soap solution at 90°C in a vat to soften the sericin
gum and to enable the filaments to be drawn out easily
as one continuous thread. It is done for a few minutes.
(d) Brushing: After cooking unreelable,

discontinuous and rough mass of fibres called the floss,
is removed with a brush until the free end from which
the continuous length is found Floss is used in the
waste industry.
Natural Fibres 107
Cocoons, after brushing are transferred to a basin
containing water kept at 60°C. Reeling requires great
skill, as the operator must produce uniform thread by
combining the silk filaments in suitable fashion since
each filament is narrower towards the beginning and
the end than it is in the middle.
(e) Croissure: If the silk filaments are simply drawn

together, the results would be rippon or a tape. So to
obtain a cylindrical thread it is must to have a device
called croissure, which causes crossing of the threads
several times with itself to dissipate water and to assist
cohesion of silk filaments.
The silk filaments after passing through the

croissure device passes through a guide eye set on
sliding rod having to and fro motion across the direction
of the thread. Then the filaments are wound on the
rotating six armed winding reeler in the form of
skeins.The raw silk skeins are soaked in worm water
with soap. The softening of the sericin gum make easy
handling of the filament.
Mter mechanical drying, the skeins are placed on

light reels from which the silk is wound on bobbins.
The thread is then inspected and packaged and is ready
for supply to manufacturers for construction offabrics.
2.13.6. Thrown silk
Reeled silk is unsuitable for weaving or knitting

and is transformed into yarn by process called 'silk
throwing'. In this proper number of reeled threads are
taken together and twisted to obtain yarn suitable for
weaving or knitting.
Types of thrown silk
Depending upon number of reeled threads and

twist, thrown silk is known by different names as
(i) Singles: 3-8 or more silk filaments which mayor

may not be twisted together to form a yarn.
(ii) Tram: Yarn is made by twisting 2, 3 or more

threads together with small amount of twist (3-6 Twist
per Inch, TPI). It is used in hosiery or as weft thread
in woven fabric.
(iii) Crepe: It is composed of high twisting (60-100

TPI) of 2, 3 or more untwisted threads.
(iv) Organzine: It is composed of 2 or more singles,

each of which have 15 TPI. These singles are then
combined by twisting them around each other in the
opposite direction with 12 to 14 TPI which cause them
to interlock more tightly resulting in a flrm and stronger
yarn.
(v) Georgetite: In this 2 or 3 reeled threads are folded

and a twist (70-75 TPI) is given.
2.13.7. Spun silk
Broken silk filaments unsuitable for reeling

constitute silk-waste which on weight basis nearly equal
the quantity of silk collected in the continuous filament
form. The waste silk is flrst cleaned and de gummed and
after degumming, the broken, short filament pieces are
SUbjected to processes similar to those used for short
staple flbres like cotton and wool. The waste flbres are
opened and loosened into a silver in a machine. The
silver is then combed, sorted into different groups on
length basis and then drawn into rovings to be
subsequently spun by twisting, so that the short-flbres
hold tightly together to form the yarn. Such silk yarns,
commonly called 'spun silk' are used for making woven
Natural Fibres 109
dress materials, velvets and pile fabrics, scarves, ties,
knitted goods and different union fabrics.
2.13.8. Degummed silk
The natural gum or the cementing agent serecin

is left on the silk during reeling, throwing or weaving.
It has the capacity to protect the fibres from
mechanical damage. It is usually removed by boiling
the raw yarns or fabrics in soap water. After
degumming, the yarn or fabric feels softer and lighter
and looks much lustrous too. The degumming process
may lead to a loss of one third of the weight of the
yarn or fabric.
Raw silk with the gum still on the filaments is

called 'hard silk'. Degummed silk is called 'soft silk'.
Georgette, chiffon and crepe fabrics are woven

from hard silk which is afterwards degummed.
2.13.9. Different types of silk
Several species produce proteinous fibre. These

can be categorised into two types-
(a) Cultivated silk e.g. mulberry silk.

(b) Wild silk e.g. Tussar silk, muga silk, ERI silk
(i) Mulberry silk
As name indicates these are produced by worms

which feed on mulberry leaves. The most important
one is 'Bombyx mort'. These are used in sericulture
and can easily be domesticated. Gorgeous and fabulous
silk materials are produced out of this variety. In India
it is produced in West Bengal, Mysore, Tamil Nadu,
Kashmir, Assam and Punjab.
. (ii) Tussar silk
Tusser silk is produced by species Antheraea

mylitta In India, by Antheraea paenyi in China and by
Antheraea yamamai in Japan. Also known by several
name such as Tussore, Tussar and Tussah. This
species yields two crops of cocoons in a year. These
are difficult to domesticate and lead an outdoor life
and are found in forests upto an altitude of 5000
feet. The worm feeds on a variety of leaves like oak
leaves, caster plant leaves, cherry leaves etc. Tussar
worm do not split the silk filaments as a result
continuous filaments are achieved. In India it is
found in Chota Nagpur, Orissa, West Bengal and
Kashmir accounting over 90 per cent of the total
production. C10things made out this variety have a
'Dry Look'. They have the subdued brilliance of
morning sun.
(iii) Muga silk
It is produced only in North-eastern region of

India (Assam). It is obtained from the species
Antheraea assama. The worm feeds on sun and solar
leaves and produces golden yellow silk.
(iv) ERI s!'k
It is produced from species 'Attacus racini' or

'Philosamia cynthia' in Assam, part of China or South
East Asia.
The Eri culture extends up to an altitude of 1500

meters in the hills and is practised in temperatures
varying from 12°C in winter to 37°C in summer with a
humidity of 80 to 100%. Eri worms are reared indoors.
Natural Fibres 111
Comparison between wild silk and cultivated silk
Even though the wild species cannot be

domesticated they enjoy the following advantages over
the cultivated ones:
1. More durable owing to greater thickness of

threads, though cultivated silk threads are stronger in
finished fabric.
2. More cheaper and marked by high productivity.
3. Wild silk worm do not need any care and

attention unlike cultivated one.
4. Yield several crops per year whereas cultivated

one gives only one.
5. Cultivated variety feeds only on mulberry leaves

whereas wild one feed on several ones like caster plant,
oak leaves, cherry leaves etc.
2.13.10. Properties of silk
fA) Physical properties
(i) Microscopic appearance: The irregular, random,

longitudinal stratitions are seen on raw silk. Consists
of double fibre strand. In cross-section it is triangular.
(ii) Length and diameter: Length averages upto 1300

mm and thickness is about 0.00054-0.0018 inch.
(iii) Colour and lustre: It is yellowish in colour and

having bright lustre.
(iv) Strength: Exceptionally strong having tensile

strength of 2.5-5.0 gm per denier.
(v) Moisture regain: It has a moisture regain of

11 %, less absorbant than wool .
(vi) Specific gravity:

(a) 1.3 g/ cc in raw state
(b) 1.25 g/ cc in de gummed state.
(vii) Elongation: 10-25% of length.
(i) Effect of light: gets weakened.
(ii) Effect of heat: begins to yellow. Above 330°F

disintegrates.
(iii) Effect of water: Temporary loss of strength upto

10-25%.
(iv) Effect of acids:

(a) Mineral acid (Sulphuric acid, hydrochloric
acid): Acid dyes do not injure even at boil, concentrated
acids destroy the silk.
(b) Volatile organic acids (Formic acid and acetic
acid): No damage unless heated.
(c) Non volatile organic acids (oxalic acid,
tartaric acid and citric acid): Must be washed out
quickly to prevent weakening.
(v) Effect of alkalies:

(a) Strong alkalies (soda ash and caustic
soda): Gets damaged
(b) Weak alkalies (Borax, sodium silicate, soap):
Alkalies weaken silk, soaps must be avoided in
Natural Fibres 113
washing.
(ui) Effect of oxidising agents (H2 0 2 and KMnO): No
damage if after treated with reducing agent and
rinsed.
(vii) Affinity for dyestuffs: Good affmity for acid
dyes.
(uiii) Effect of mildew: Silk is slightly attacked by
moth and mildew.
I EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE I
Vegetable Fibres
(A) Short answer type questions

1. Name two fibres of vegetable origin.
2. What is cellulose? Define.
3. Define oxycellulose.
4. Defme hydrocellulose.
5. What is retting?
6. Name any two bast fibres.
7. What are main constituents of raw cotton?
8. Who are important cotton growing countries in
world?
9. Name some varieties of cotton cultivated in
India.
10. What is rippling?
I1.Name any two fruit fibres.
12.What is the chemical structure of cellulose?
13. Define 'Tow'
14. Name two leaf fibres.
IS.Jute is mainly cultivated in which part ofIndia?
16. What are neps?
114 rextile Raw Materials
17. Which fibre find its importance as a useful

packaging material?
18.Defme scutching.
19. Which fibre is used in making green cloth and
white summer cloth?
i) All natural fibres are cellulosic in nature.
ii) Jute is a protein fibre.
iii) Most abundantly used bast fibre is hemp.
iv) Cotton can be cultivated in cold countries.
v) Cotton has convolutions in its structure.
vi) In dew retting, acids are used.
vii)Jute is a successful packaging material.
viii) Flax fibre is very cheap in cost.

1. What are main constituents of raw cotton?
Explain briefly.
2. What are various uses of jute fibre?
3. What are different methods for extraction of jute
fibre from plant? Explain briefly.
4. Describe physical and chemical properties of flax
fibre.
5. Write a note on chemical structure of cellulose.
6. What is the structure of cottorrfibre? Describe
each part alongwith its diagram.
7. Explain various uses of cotton fibre.
8. Write a brief note on chemical structure of
cellulose.
9. What are various uses of linen fibre?
10. Write a note on bast fibre.
11. Write a note on seed and fruit fibres.
Natural Fibres 115
12. Give the grading of jute fibres.
13. What are future prospects of jute? Explain
briefly.
14.Explain various processes carried out for mill
production of jute material.
15. What are the different types of commercial
cotton? Explain.

1. Write a complete note on jute fibres starting
from its cultivation, extraction of jute fibres,
physical and chemical properties and uses.
2. What is flax or linen fibre? Where it is found?
Describe its cultivation, harvesting and process
of preparation of fibre.
3. What is cotton fibre? Where and how it is
cultivated in India? Explain in detail. A Iso
briefly describe various varieties of cotton
present in India.
4. Describe various physical and chemical
properties of cotton fibre in detail.
5. Write a detailed note on following-
(a) hemp fibre
(b) ramie or china grass
6. Describe in detail about following-
(a) Sisal fibre
(b) Manila fibre
7. Write short on following fibres-
(a) Coir (b) Java Kapok (c) Balsa
Animal and Mineral Fibres

1. What are protein fibres?
2. What is felting of wool?

3. What do you understand by carbonising of
wool?
4. Define carpet wool.
5. Silk worm feeds on _ _ _ _ __
6. Define the following terms-
(a) Crepe yarn
(b) Organzine yarn
(c) Tram yarn
(d) Singles yarn
7. Which is only mineral fibre available?
8. What are hair fibres? Give examples.
9. wool is best quality of wool.
10. Wool and silk are fibres.
11. What is throwing of silk?
12.Name different thrown silk threads.
13.What is spun silk?
14. Define degummed silk.
IS.The silk filaments in cocoon are cemented
together by gum called _ _ __
16.Name different stages in life cycle of silkworm.
17. What is protein constituent of wool called?
18. Define milling. Why it is carried out?
19.Name the impurities present in raw wool.
20. Define metamorphosis.
21. What is sericulture?
22.Name different varieties of silk
23. What do you understand by 'All wool' labelled
fabrics?
24.What is meant by 'virgin wool' labelled fabric?
25. Define weather wool.
Natural Fibres 117
26.What is dead wool?
27. What is cotty wool?
28. Define fleece wool.
29. Define slipe wool.
30.Differentiate between remanufactured and
reused wool.
i) Marino wool is the best quality of wool.
ii) India and Pakistan are the main wool
producing countries.
iii) Wool scouring is done to increase its weight.
iv) Worsted fabrics are made from straight,
regular and long fibres.
v) Suint is removed during wool carbonising.
vi) Recovered wool can be reduced to produce
[me quality of woollen material.
vii) The credit for discovery of silk goes to ancient
Chinese.
viii) Silkworm feeds on mulberry leaves.
ix) Silk fibres have prominent scales on surface.

1. Write a short note on grading of wool.
2. Differentiate between woollen and worsted yarn.
3. What is carbonising of wool? Also explain
methods of wool carbonising.
4. What is the composition of raw wool?
5. Name different varieties of wool.
6. Write a short note on mineral fibre asbestos.
7. What are different types of silk? Explain briefly.
8. Differentiate between cultivated silk and wild
silk.
9. Describe 'weighting of silk'. Why it is necessary?
10. Write a short-note on degummed silk.
11. What are various uses of silk fibre? Explain.
12.How wool fibre can be differentiated from silk?
13.Describe various physical and chemical
properties of silk fibre.
14. Write a note on spun silk.
15. What are different types ofthrown silk threads?
16. What is recovered wool? Describe its different
types.
17. Write a brief note on chemical structure of wool.
18. Write short note on following-
(a) Mohair
(b) Camel hair
(c) Cashmere wool

1. What are different qualities of wool? Explain
each in detail alongwith their specific
characteristics, area of production and uses.
2. What is composition of raw wool? Explain the
complete process for production of clean wool
from raw wool in detail.
3. What are various stages in life cycle of a
silkworm? Explain in detail.
4. Describe the complete method of extraction of
silk from cocoon.
5. Describe physical and chemical properties of
wool fibre.
6. Write a detailed note on account of physical and
chemical structure of wool fibre.
CHAPTER 3
REGENERATED FIBRES
3.1. Introduction
Regenerated fibres are manufactured from a
natural polymer, cellulose, which is obtained from
wood. Cellulose is reacted chemically so as to make
viscos solution which can be extruded to make viscose
fibres. These fibres are chemically similar to cotton
and share their desirable properties of moisture
absorbancy. The first regenerated fibre, called rayon,
which was originally intended to be a substitute for
silk.
By adopting the basic production process, a range

of viscose fibres with different characteristics, like high
tenacity, high wet modulus, crimped and inflated fibres
can be produced for different uses. The viscose process
is long and complicated and the byproducts give rise
to environmental problems. So other man-made
cellulosic fibres are produced called modified re-
generated fibres by using an alternate process. These
fibres include cellulose, diacetate and tri-acetate. The
raw material is cellulose, but in these fibres it is
modified chemically so that polymer can be dissolved
in an organic solvent. These fibres are produced almost
entirely as continuous filament yarns and are used in
soft silk like dress fabrics. Most cigarette filter tips are
made from cellulose di-acetate fibres.
3.2. Viscose rayon

Viscose rayon is a regenerated cellulosic fibre and
cellulose is the raw material for producing this fibre. It
is obtained by the process viscose. The name viscose
was derived from the liquid state of the spinning
solution as the spinning solution is thick and flow like
honey.
3.2.1. Manufacturing process
Flow diagram for production of viscose rayon

filament and viscose fibre is given in Fig. 3.1 and 3.2,
respectively.
Chemical formula for viscose rayon,

cuprammonium rayon and polynosic rayon is-
Cellobiose is the basic unit of the cuprammonium,

polynosic and viscose rayon.
Cellulose, in regenerated form, is the polymer of

these three regenerated cellulose fibres; their degree
of polymerisation is about
• 250 cellobiose units (i.e. n = 250) for

cuprammonium;
• 300 cellobiose units (i.e. n =300) for polynosic;

• 175 cellobiose units (i.e. n = 175) for viscose.
Regeneraged Fibres 121
Steeping Wood pulp (87 to 98% a-cellulose)
Sodium hydroxide solution (17-19%)
(Alkali cellulose) Wetting agent catalyst
1
Shredding I-Surfactant
Ageing
1
(depolymerization)
1 ....
Carbon dlsulphlde
Xanthation (Wet chum)
...
1
Dissolution ... s odium hydroXide solution
Vzscose composItIOn:
1
Blending, ripening,
Cellulose 6.5 to 9%
Sodium hydroxide 5.5 to 6.5%
Total sulphur 2.0 to 2.5%
filtration, deaeration
1 Pigments, deluster ant
CoagulatIOn bath
Wet Spinning Carbon disulfide
Glauber's salt
1
Neutralization, !-owash solution
Purification, Finishing
1
Drying
1
Winding
Fig. 3.1 (a) Flow diagram of production of

viscose filament
Cellulose wood pulp
---)0)
8dde
Carbon disulphide
Shredding/grinding Ageing Xanthatlon
Caustic soda
Dissolving Ripening Filtration

o
o
o
o
o
o
<local]
'
Wet processing drying
rB ~: i:
~.:: Bale
Fig. 3.1 (b) Flow diagram of production of

viscose fibre
The raw material for the viscose rayon is cellulose
(Cellulose is a white amorphous, shapeless substance
that forms the cell walls of plant life. Chemically, it is
a carbohydrate. Carbohydrate is a compound, sugar,
starch or cellulose of carbon with hydrogen and
oxygen). Viscose rayon is obtained by reduction of
cotton linters or high alpha cellulose woods to a pulp,
same as in the manufacture of paper. The pulp is
bleached and pressed into sheets this is done in the
pulp mill. In the rayon mill the following are the
processes to manufacture the rayon fIlament or fibre.
(a) Steeping
The cellulose sheets are soaked in alkali in the

steeping tank containing 17-18% NaOH for 30-60
minutes at temperature 18°C. After steeping, sheets
of cellulose are pressed to remove the excess alkali.
(b) Shredding
In this operation the cellulose sheets are shredded

mechanically into fluffy crumbs. At this stage
surfactants like polyethylene glycol are added to
decrease the surface tension and improve dispersion
of carbon disulphide during the later process of
xanthation.
(c) Ageing
This is depolymerisation step in the presence of

oxygen. Here the degree of polymerization come down
from 1000 to 300. In this process the crumbs are stored
in rectangular galvanized steel container covered with
lids. The oxygen present within the crumbs is
responsible for the depolymerisatioin, exposure to
outside air is avoided. Aging is carried out for 24-72
hours at 2S-30°C. The process can be accelerated in
the presence of catalysts or at higher temperature.
(d) Xanthation
The aged alkali is transferred into sealed hexagonal

drums rotating at 2-4 revolutions per minute where
the 10 % by weight of cellulose carbon disulphide is
introduced. The process is carried out for 2-4 hrs and
the colour change takes place from white to yellow,
yellow to deep yellow and then to reddish orange. The
product at this stage is sodium cellulose xanthate in
the form of small balls.
(e) Dissolution
Dissolution of sodium cellulose xanthate is carried

out in 4 - 6% solution of NaOH in a cylindrical vessel
provided with agitators for 4 - 5 hours. The air whipped
into the solution is removed by evacuation.
(f) Filtration
The solution is filtered to remove any impurities

and un-dissolved cellulosic particles. Filtration is done
at several stages.
(g) Blending
To have the uniformity and to avoid any batch to

batch variation, viscose solutions from several tanks
are mixed in a large vessel.
(h) Ripening
The viscose solution obtained is difficult to

coagulate. The solution is kept for 1 - 3 days for
ripening, at this stage the solution is kept at controlled
temperature 15 - 25° C. In this step various changes
takes place, here first the degree of polymerization falls
and then rises to original value. The ripened solution
is again filtered carefully to remove any foreign matter
and deaerated. Pigments can be added to produce died
fibres. Delustering agents Ti0 2 is added for controlling
the lustre and other chemicals for special yarns. After
ripening the solution is ready for spinning.
(i) Wet spinning
In the spinning of the solution into fibre formation,

the regeneration of cellulose from cellulose xanthate
in the presence of acid takes place. Spinning is carried
out by extrusion of the spinning solution from the
spinneret having the tiny holes (diameter is in the order
of 0.05 mm). Spinneret is present in the coagulation
bath. The spinning speed may be as high as 120 mj
min. As the acid in the coagulation bath diffuse into
the filaments, regeneration of the cellulose takes place.
The composition of the coagulation bath is as follows
H 2 S04 8 - 10 %
N~S04 16 - 24 %
Glucose - 2%
ZnS0 4 1 - 2%
H 20 69%
Each chemical has its own function; Na 2 S0 4

precipitates the sodium cellulose xenthate from the
viscose solution into filaments and H 2 S0 4 converts in
to cellulose, Glucose gives the pliability and softness
to the filaments and ZnS0 4 is responsible for added
strength and serrated cross section.
(j) Winding and stretching
Winding the stretching of the filaments is also done

to orient the molecules in the direction of the fibre
axis to improve the mechanical properties of the
filaments. After that the filaments strands are wound
and are further processed with following operations.
Washing
,1.
Desulphurising
,1.
Bleaching
,1.
Washing
,1.
Drying
,1.
Winding
The cake is washed with water to remove the

impurities using a cake washing machine. Mter that it
is washed with sodium sulphide solution at 62 65°C
to remove the residual sulphur. Then bleaching is done
with sodium hypochlorite or with hydrogen per-oxide
(H 2 0 2 ) to remove the residual chlorine, cake is treated
with mild HCI in the case of sodium hypochlorite
bleaching and finally it is dried.
3.2.2. Properties
(i) Degree of 175-240 celluboise

polymerization
(ii) Amorphous region - 60 - 65%
(iii) Crystalline region - 35-40%.
(iv) Moisture regain 11-12 %
(v) Tenacity 14 - 45 gjtex (dry)
50% of the dry (wet)
(vi) Specific gravity 1.49 gj cm3
Chemical properties of the viscose rayon are similar

to cotton being cellulosic fibre. Shorter polymer and
Reqeneraqed Fibres 127
very amorphous region are responsible for greater
sensitivity to acids, alkalis, bleaches, sunlight and
weather in comparison to cotton.
3.2.3. Uses
The role of viscose rayon in the field of man-made

fibres is similar to that of cotton in natural fibres. Rayon
is relatively cheap and has a wide range of applications.
Its lustre is high but it can be appropriately delustred.
Viscose rayon conducts heat more readily than silk,
the most lustrous natural fibre, and rayon has a cooler
feel against the skin. The loss of strength that viscose
undergoes under wet conditions can be controlled and
brought to a minimum by modern resin finishes.
The introduction of rayond staple has opened

prospects for blending rayon with other natural or
synthetic staple fibres and in fact, rayon staple is quite
largely used in this fashion. Rayon imparts its unique
moisture absorption character and some other
'cellulosic' features to its blends with stronger, lighter
and less moisture absorbing fibres. Rayon-cotton,
rayon-polyester, rayon-jute and rayon-wool blends
made by using rayons of appropriately matching staple
lengths are of particular importance.
3.3. Cuprammonium rayon
3.3.1. Manufacture process
For the manufacture of cuprammonium rayon

cotton linters are boiled with caustic soda and soda
ash followed by chlorine bleaching, washing and drying
in the next sequence (Fig. 3.3). The dried pulp is
dissolved in copper oxide and ammonia- ammonical
copper oxide forming a solution (blue in color), ready
for spinning. The solution contains 9-10% cellulose,
128 'Textile Raw Materials
after filtration and deareaton. For spinning, the
spinning solution is made to pass through the large
orifices (O.8mm diameter) of the spinnerets. At the
bottom of the spinnerets there is a glass funnel that is
fed with running soft water. It removes some of
ammonia & copper and precipitates the cellulose in
plastic form. A little of stretch is applied to the fIlaments
for the orientation of the molecules in the direction of
application of force so the process is called stretch
spinning.
Fig. 3.3. Production of cuprammonium

rayon
Mter this, the fIlaments are made to pass around

a roller, part of which is in the acid bath having mild
H 2 S04 , to complete the coagulation process which
converts the remaining copper and ammonia into
copper and ammonium sulphates. The yarn is wound
in the hank or in the form of cakes. The hank or cake
has to be washed with water to remove the copper and
ammonium sulphates. Finally these are dried and
lubricated.
In the modern method instead of single reel the

yarn is washed in the sheet form of 575 ends and
lubricated; dried and wound on the beam:. This beam
can be directly used as warp beam for knitting or 4-5
combined together to form weavers beam for weaving
purpose. This direct beaming causes great savings.
Reqeneraged Fibres 129
3.3.2. Properties of cuprammonium rayon
Properties of cuprammonium rayon are similar to

viscose rayon. Strength is slightly higher (2-3 grams
per denier) and moisture regain is 11%.
3.3.3. Uses of cuprammonium rayon
Cuprammonium rayon filament yarns have an

extremely pleasing hand and texture. Fabric resembles
silk in hand and appearance. It is mostly used for
apparel, stockings and under garments.
It is generally more expensive than other

regenerated cellulose fibres/yarns. Its extra fineness,
goo tensile strength, lustre and draping qualities often
justify its extra cost. Cuprammonium rayon is made
into satins and chiffons and much of it goes into dress
fabrics, linings, underwears and fine drapery and
upholstery fabrics.
3.4. Polynosic rayon

The polynosic fibres are a new kind of viscose
rayon. In their manufacturing steps, a higher degree
of polymerisation is maintained by reducing the severity
of chemical processing so that a value of 500-700 is
retained. It is also done to obtain a microfibrillar
structure by precipitating the viscose gently and slowly,
in partic\tlllr by carrying out the stretching before the
xanthate has been re-converted to cellulose. The fibres
so made are much more like cotton. The degree oftheir
disadvantage reduces greatly, whilst they still retain
their advantages of uniformity of size, length, lustre
and potential cheapness. Wet strength in polynosic
rayon is higher than of normal viscose rayon.
3.4.1. Manufacture of polynosic rayon
Polynosic fibres are manufactured similar to

viscose rayon. The main difference hetween the
manufacturing are as follows:
(i) Ageing of the alkali cellulose is eliminated.

(ii) The cellulose xanthate is dissolved in water
instead of dilute alkali (3%).
(iii) Ripening of the cellulose xanthate solution is
eliminated.
(iv) The spinning bath consist of acid of very low
concentration and little or sometimes no salt.
Uses
Polynosic rayons are very beautiful and their lustre
is subdued like that of spun silk. They are strong and
uniform to handle. They are mainly used in the
manufacturing of dress materials, poplins, curtains,
cords and other hangings.
3.5. Nitro cellulose

For the manufacture of nitro cellulose cotton linters
are treated with a mixture of nitric acid and SUlphuric
acid. After that linters are dissolved in a mixture of
alcohol and ether which forms the spinning solution
known as collodion.
The spinning'solution is made to pass through the

spinnerets, filaments hardens after the evaporation of
alcohol. The nitrate element is removed by a sodium
hydro sulphide treatment which results purified
cellulose. This method is not so popular for
manufacture of rayon
3.6. Cellulose acetate
3.6.1. Introduction
The three types of rayon- viscose, cuprammonium

and nitro-cellulose are known as regenerated rayons
since the original raw material, cellulose, is changed
chemically in to another form, which in turn is again
changed i.e. again regenerated into cellulose once more.
The forth method i.e. cellulose acetate is not a
regenerated cellulose product, as the filaments are not
regenerated cellulose, but are formed from cellulose
acetate which is a derivative of cellulose.
Polymer system
The hydroxyl groups.on the cellulose polymer are

acetylated to the degree that the acetate or secondary
cellulose acetate polymer has less than 92 per cent
but at least 74 per cent of its hydroxyl groups
acetylated; that is, 2.3 to 2.4 of the OH-groups per
glucose unit are acetylated. This is usually shown as
4 acetate groups per cellobiose unit [Fig. 3.4 (all.
I
HO
Fig. 3.4 (a). The acetate or secondary cellulose

acetate polymer, DP is about 130 units
i.e. n = 130
The triacetate or primary cellulose acetate polymer

has at least 92 per cent of its hydroxyl groups
acetylated. In general, this is shown as 6 acetate groups
per cellubiose unit [Fig. 3.4 (b)].
CH.ooccHa H HsCCOY
H~ °OA qH
'c/~ ){"~ \! H
/
I \~
C---O
~/H' H/\~C---o/ '
HO I I I
H H1CCOO CHaOOCCHa
Fig. 3.4 (b). The triacetate or primary cellulose
acetate polymer, DP is about 225 units
i.e. n = 225
The flow diagram for the manufacture of cellulose

acetate rayon is as
Raw material
,l.
Purification
,l.
Pretreatment
,l.
Acetylation
,l.
Hydrolysis
,l.
Preparation of spinning solution
,l.
Spinning
(a) Raw material: The raw material for cellulose

acetate is cotton linters or wood pulp.
Reaeneraged Fibres 133
(b) Purification: First cotton linters are purified by
kier boiling under pressure for 4-10 hours followed by
washing and then bleaching with sodium hypochlorite
and drying.
(c) Pretreatment: The purified cotton is steeped in

glacial acetic acid under controlled temperature to
make it more reactive
(d) Acetylation: In this process the cotton is treated

with an excess of acetic anhydride and glacial acetic
acid in an closed vessel fitted with a powerful stirrer.
RlSO 4 increases the rate of reaction. Reaction is
exothermic and the vessel is cooled to keep the
temperature low otherwise degradation of cellulose
takes place. For the frrst four hours the temp. is kept
at 20°C and then increased to 25-30°C for the next 7-
8 hours. The cellulose dissolves completely in to the
reaction mixture then it is considered to be completely
acetylated. At this stage all the three hydroxyl groups
of the cellulose are replaced by three acetyl groups.
This is also called cellulose triacetate or primary acetate.
(e) Hydrolysis: Primary acetate is not suitable for

spinning as it is soluble only in expensive and
objectionable solvent chloroform. The hydrolysis of
primary acetate is done to convert it' into acetone
(cheap) soluble called secondary acetate or diacetate.
In this step the primary acetate is run into water with
excess acetic acid anhydride (95 % solution of acetic
acid in water) for 20 hours at high temperature. During
this hydrolysis of cellulose triacetate takes place and
some of acetyl groups are replaced by hydroxyl groups.
Degree of acetylation in the secondary or diacetate is
about 2.3. Degree of polymerization is in the range of
350-400. The cellulose diacetate is washed separately
centrifuged and dried at low temperature. Blending of
various batches is carried out for uniformity and to
reduce the batch to batch variation.
(f) Preparation of spinning solution: The spinning
solution 25-35 % is prepared with acetone in a closed
vessel. For completely dissolution it takes around 24
hours. Dulling agents, like Ti0 2 and other coloring
pigments are added at this stage if required. The
spinning solution is called Dope. The dope is filtered
and deaerated.
(g) Spinning: The dope is extruded through the

spinnerets having tiny holes located inside of the
spinning cabinet. In the cabinet hot air at temp 100 0 e
is circulated form the bottom, this causes the
evaporation of acetone. The air with the acetone is
allowed to escape the cabinet from the top and is taken
to recovery plant from where the acetone is recovered
and reused. The hardened filaments move down to feed
rollers (Fig. 3.5).
b= __ ==_1 Fiit;"~d--'
lliV~§§ I+- polymer
f
~--[pu:;lution
~Filterpack
l,.--, I •
\:-rn'4-- Spinneret
!
I
I
illli,il
iI 1 I
I
iIII i+- Heat chamber
III/ I (solvent evaporation and
I If I polymer solidification)
I ' I A'Ir Lubrication/
, ,
D ~
~I
sIzing
~Feeder
~ roiler
Drawn and twisted to
winding or crimping
and cutting to staple
length
Fig. 3.5. Dry spinning line

Regeneraaed Fibres 135
Stretch is applied on the filaments to orient the
molecules in the direction of applied force to improve
the mechanical properties of the filaments and are
finally wound upon the bobbins individually or in
filaments form. Several spinneretes are drawn together
in the form of the rope called Tow. For the manufacture
of staple fibres, after drawing process crimping is
carried out and then the fibres are cut into desired
length that may be used as alone or blended with other
fibres.
3.6.3. Properties of cellulose acetate

(i) Degree o/polymerization 130225 celluboise
(ii) Amorphous region 60%
(iii) Crystalline region 40%.
(iv) Moisture regain 6.5%
(v) Tenacity 1. 2 gj tex (dry)
(vi) Specific gravity
Triacetate 1.32 gj cm3
Acetate 1.25-1.30gj cm3
(B) Chemical properties
Chemical properties of the acetate rayon are similar

to cotton being cellulose "back bone" fibre. Shorter
polymer and very amorphous region are responsible
for greater sensitivity to acids, alkalis, bleaches,
SUnlity.lt a ...... weather in comparison to cotton.
Burning test
Cellulose acetate rayon will melt when placed close

to flame, the residue is hard, blackish-brown bead,
difficult to crush between the fingers.
3.6.4. Uses
Drip-dry property, permanent pleating effect and

'need no-ironing' character of the triacetate make it a
good choice for easy-care slacks, skirts and dresses.
In the staple form, it is suitable as a blend component
with other staple fibres, such as cotton and viscose,
needing moderately high ironing temperature due to
its relatively high melting temperature. Blended with
wool, the triacetate provides fabrics having the
characteristic heat-setting and drip-dry properties
combined with the warmth of wool.
3.7. Staple rayon

It is possible to cut the long filaments in to short
staple of desired length by simply incorporating a
cu tting device. The length of the staple can be
controlled by the speed of the cutting device and the
number of the blades. For the manufacture of staple
fibres after drawing, crimping and heat setting the tows
are cutin to desired length and packed in to the bale
form. The staple fibre may be used alone or blended
with other fibres for the production of staple fibre yarn.
The flow diagram for the production of staple fibre is
as follows:
Drawing of Tow
-!-
Preliminary heat setting
-!-
Crimping
-!-
Final heat setting
-!-
Cutting
-!-
Bailing or packing
Regeneraqed Fibres 137
3.8. Lyocell
The newest invention on the fibre block is lyocell.
Courtaulds Fibers Incorporation introduced it under
the trade name Tencel, in 1992. Lenzing AG, a company
in Austria, began manufacturing lyoceillast July under
the trade name Lenzing Lyocell.
Like its relative rayon, lyocell is a cellulosic fibre.

Dissolving wood pulp in a solution of amine oxide
produces Lyocell. The production process is
environmentally friendly. The wood pulp is obtained
from trees grown in managed tree farms. The non-toxic
solvents used to dissolve the wood pulp are recycled.
Because lyocell is a cellulosic fibre, it is biodegradable;
however, it will not break down completely if it is
disposed of in a landfill. Products made from lyocell
can be recycled, incinerated, or digested in sewage.
The fibre will degrade completely in just eight days.
These environmental efforts lead to higher production
costs, which reflect higher prices in the garments and
products made from lyocell.
Lyocell's success is greatly contributed to its many

positive properties. Lyocell, dry or wet, is stronger than
cotton and rayon. Its dry strength is comparable to
that of some polyesters. Other qualities of lyocell
include excellent drape, stability, dyability and hand.
As an added bonus, many apparel fabrics containing
lyocell can be machine-washed. However, some
garments may require dry cleaning because of their
construction methods or finishes. These characteristics
have paved the way for the emergence of lyocell in the
designer markets. Other designers that have
incorporated lyocell fabrics in their lines include Calvin
Klein, Gianfranco Ferre and Jean Paul Gaultier.
Ninety per cent oflyocell is used in women's wear.

Its uses ranging from casual denim applications to
tailored suits. A small percentage oflyocell is found in
casual men's wear such as golf shirts. Other uses of
lyocell products include industrial textiles, special
types of papers and non-wovens. Artificial leathers,
filters, hygiene products, and medical wipes are among
the non-woven end uses. Industrial uses include
protective suits in the work wear industry, coated
fabrics, military fabrics, oil filters and ropes. Two
cigarette manufacturers are now using lyocell to make
ultra-low tar cigarettes. Lyocell can also be found in
upholstery fabrics and window treatments.
Although lyocell can have all the glory to itself, it

is the spinning process with other fibres that enhances
their qualities. It is currently being blended with fibres
such as wool, cotton, silk, flax and various
manufactured fibres. Cotton blended with lyocell
becomes stronger, wooljlyocell blends are more
absorbent and rayonjlyocell blends are more stable.
The development of lyocell took sixteen years of

research and development with a cost of over $100
million. The reSUlting fibre was well worth the wait.
Lyocell's versatility to expand into many markets,
coupled with its appeal to the environment will help
ensure a solid and profitable future of this new fibre.
3.9. Minor regenerated fibres
3.9.1. Protein fibres (Casein, Zein etc.)

Protein molecules are formed by linking or
polymerisation of amino acids by peptide links (CO-
NH). The fibrous proteins (such as found in wool and
silk) consist of more or less extended long-chain
molecules. There are other natural long-chain
molecules that may coil up into a compact ball held
together by internal chemical cross links. These are
called globular proteins. Such globular protein
molecules may be unfolded or denatured by either
heating or chemical means and can then be converted
into fibres. There is an abundance of certain proteins
that form the by-products of industrial processes.
These are casein, zein, arachin, and soy bean protein.
Casein is obtained from skimmed\ milk. Casein is

dissolved in caustic soda, allowed to ripen to a suitable
viscosity and then wet spun. The fibres are hardened
by treatment with formaldehyde before use. It is then
mechanically crimped and cut into staple of various
lengths. Casein is generally blended with cotton, rayon,
wool and linen.
Casein filaments have a smooth surface and nearly

round cross section. They have a low tenacity of about
1.1 g/ den when dry and suffer a loss in strength of up
to 65% when wet. They have a very high elongation of
60-70%. Casein fibre resembles wool in most of its
physical characteristics. As a result, the bulk of casein
fibre production is used in blends with wool. It has a
soft and warm handle, good thermal insulation and
good recovery properties. Casein-wool blends are used
extensively in knitting yarns, felt hats, carpets and as
resilient fillings.
Fibers obtained from the protein of ground nuts

have almost wool-like characteristics. These are
primarily used in blends with wool for making sweaters,
blankets, carpets, and felts. However blends with cotton
or wool are sometimes used in the production of fabrics
for shirting and dress materials.
Zein fibre 'Vicara®' was first produced in the United

States. It is obtained from zein, the protein of maize.
Zein, soybean and collagen protein fibres are no longer
produced commercially and therefore are of little

importance to the textile industry.
3.9.2. Alginate fibres
Alginic acid is a polymer of d-mannuronic acid with

a molecular weight greater than 15,000. It is a
constituent of seaweed and accounts for nearly one-
third of the weight of seaweed. Alginic acid and its
metallic (calcium, beryllium, and aluminium) salts have
long-chain molecules that can be aligned to form fibres.
Alginate fibres are very sensitive to water and mild
alkalies and these fibres are not manufactured on a
large scale for normal textile applications. The only
fibre produced at present is calcium alginate by
Coutaluds Ltd., UK. Calcium alginate yarns are used
in very special applications.
Alginate fibres are round to oval with a serrated

outline. The striations run along the length ofthe fibre.
They have low tenacity ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 gjden
and elongations of 2-6%. Alginate fibres do not burn
but decompose when exposed to a flame. Calcium
alginate is insoluble in water but attacked by mild
alkali. .
Uses
Alginate fibres have been used for theatre curtains

because of its non-flammable character. The water
solubility of some alginate fibres has proven to be of
immense value in producing woollen yarns with high
10ft and in continuous production of fully fashioned
knitted hosiery such as socks. Alginate yarn is used in
medical applications such as 'styptic' elastic dressings,
and because of its non-toxicity and easy absorbtion
into the bloodstream. It is also used in dental surgery
for plugging cavities.
Reqeneraged Fibres 141
3.9.3. Natural rubber fibres
Rubber is obtained by the coagulation of the latex

produced from the rubber tree. In its natural state,
rubber is a tough and elastic material. It can be
softened by heating and milling which makes it
thermoplastic. It can then be molded or extruded to
form sheets or filaments. Rubber loses its
thermoplasticity and acquires elasticity when
vulcanized. Rubber filaments are produced as ribbons
by cutting a sheet or in round cross sections by
extrusion. It can be used either in these forms or in
the form of a core spun yarn, the rubber filament
forming the core and the outer covering made up of
spirally wound textile yarns. Rubber has low tenacity,
high extension and excellent elastic recovery
characteristics. Its moisture regain is negligible and it
has a very high electrical resistivity. It deteriorates on
prolonged exposure to sunlight. It is extensively used
in sports-wear, hosiery and women's under- and
outerwear to provide support and improve the fit of
garments.
EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE

1. What is the raw material for rayon?
2. What is cellulose?
3. What is difference between fibre and filament?
4. What is the degree of polymerization for viscose,
acetate and cuprammonium rayon?
5. Among the cellulose rayons which is not a
regenerated cellulose rayon?
6. What is the composition of spinning bath for
viscose rayon?
7. Write down chemical formula of acetate rayon.

8. Match the following-
1 Titanium dioxide 1 Spinneret
2 Viscose rayon 2 Dry spun
3 Cutting device 3 Cellulose diacetate
4 Longer than fibre 4 Wet spun
5 Acetate rayon 5 Filament
6 Acetone is solvent 6 Delustering agent
7 Casein 7 Cellulose triacetate
8 Filament to
staple fibre
9.Regenerated
protein fibre
9. Fill in the blanks:
i) Cellulose sheets are soaked in _____for
viscose rayon.
ii) Shreeding converts the cellulose sheets in
to _ _ __
iii) Ageing is done for _ _ _ __
iv) Zein is regenerated fibre.
v) DP of cellulose after ripening is _ _ __
vi) is solvent for cellulose triacetate.
vii) is solvent for cellulose diacetate
viii) is moisture regain of acetate rayon.
ix) is moisture regain of viscose rayon.
x) In process degree of polymerization
of solution first falls and then rises and
comes to original value.
xi) _ _ _ _ _ is not regenerated rayon.
xii) Pressing of sheets is done in viscose rayon
after steeping to remove excess _ _ _ __
xiii)In manufacture of cellulose acetate cotton
_ _ _ _ are steeped in acid to
increase the reactivity.
xiv) __ is done to convert cellulose triacetate
into _ _ _ __
xv) Degree of polymerization of acetate rayon is
___ than viscose rayon
xvi)Moisture regain of cuprammonium rayon is
_ _ _ _ than acetate rayon.
xvii)Wet strength of viscose rayon is _ _ __
than dry strength.
i) Rayon is stronger when wet
ii) Rayon leaves hard bead when burned
iii) Rayon must be made with cellulose as a base
material
iv) Cellulose xenthate is white in color
v) Acetone is a solvent for cellulose triacetate.
vi) DP of viscose rayon is 1000.
vii) Viscose rayon is dry spun filament.
viii) Ageing is done to increase the degree of
polymerization
ix) Cellulose acetate has higher moisture regain
then viscose rayon.
x) Cutting is done to convert the fibres into
filaments
xi) Diameter of the orifices in the spinnerets is
responsible for determining the fineness of
the filaments.
xii) Acetate rayon is dry spun.
xiii) Shredding is conversion of sheets of cellulose
into small crumbs.
xiv)Acetate rayon is regenerated rayon.
144 , Textile Raw Materials

1. What is difference between dry and wet
spinning?
2. Draw a flow diagram for manufacture for viscose
rayon.
3. What is shredding and ageing?
4. What is the function of different components of
spinning bath for viscose rayon?
5. Why cellulose acetate rayon is not a regenerated
fibre?
6. Draw the flow diagram for manufacture of
cuprammonium rayon.
7. What is the function of stretch in the spinning
of viscose rayon?
8. Why hydrolysis of cellulose triacetate is carried
out?
9. What is cellulose? Explain.
10.Explain the ageing and xantation process in
making the viscose rayon.
l1.Draw the flow diagram for manufacture of
acetate rayon.

1. Explain the production process for the
manufacture of cuprammonium rayon.
2. Explain the production process for manufacture
of acetate rayon.
3. What are regenerated fibres? Discuss in detail
the complete manufacturing process for viscose
rayon.
CHAPTER 4
SYNTHETIC FIBRES
4.1. Introduction
The term synthetic means that the fibre polymer
is entirely man-made. This group includes three major
classes and several minor ones. The first synthetic fibre
was a polyamide (Nylon) produced in United States in
1938 and used initially for stocking. The application
rapidly expanded to other textile products like shirts,
bed-sheets, under wears, carpets and reinforcement
in tyres and belts. In last 15 years polyamides have
been replaced by polyester/cotton blends.
The polyester was first produced commercially

in 1953 and having expanded rapidly, is now the
largest man-made fibre in terms of production.
Polyester staple fibre is commonly blended with
cotton and other cellulosic fibres. Blend of PET with
wool is used in suiting and trousers. An interesting
development is polyester micro-fibres, extremely fine
fillaments, which give fabrics a soft silky handle.
Acrylic fibres were first produced in 1948. The

fibres have a soft, warm handle and are well-suited to
the production of high bulk yarns. These have many
applications in knitwear, carpets and pile fabrics. A
variety of acrylics called modacrylic is largely used as
upholstery fabrics. The polyolefin fibres, polythene and
polypropylene, are of increasing importance and their
production totals about 8% of all synthetic fibres.
The other synthetic fibres are produced on a

much smaller scale. They include polyvinyl chloride
or polyvinyl alcohol. Elastane fibres are used in small
proportion where stretch properties are required such
as swim-wears, stretch trousers and lingeries. The
aramids are the newest class of fibres which are
chemically modified polyamides. The best known brand
names are Kevlar and Nomex; both are the products of
dupont company of USA.
4.2. Nylon
4.2.1. Introduction
Nylon has been accepted as generic term

representating a family of fibres forming polyamides.
The most important types are- Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6.
Nylon 6, 6 was discovered by Wallace Carothere of Du
Pont Company of USA in 1930. The polymer was
commercialised by Dupont in 1939. Subsequently Paul
Schlack in Germany discovered Nylon 6, produced
through another route in 1939. This chapter deals with
the production of Nylon 6, Nylon 6, 6 and high
performance fibres (Aramids).
4.2.2. Polymerisation of Nylon 6
For nylon 6 the monomer is caprolactam:
Polycaprolactam, the
repeating unit of nylon 6
polymer, with a degree of
polymerisation of 200 units (i.e.
n = 200).
SYnthetic Fibres 147
Polymerization is preceded by a hydrolysis step
OC-(CH,},-NH + H,O ~ HOOC -(CHJ-NH,

I I
Caprolactam + Water = Amino caproic Acid (ACA)
Aminocaproic acid, thus produced adds further

monomer units initiating polymerization. This is known
as step-addition reaction.
HOOC-(CHJ,-NH, + n OC-(CHj,-NH
I I
HOOC-(CHj,-[-NH-(CH,),-CO-]"-NH,
The process develops an equilibrium after

sometime of polymerisation. In industrial practice,
under optimum conditions, the reaction forms an
equilibrium with 90% in favour of polycaprolactam.
Caprolactum A Polycaprolactum
10% 90%
This is the reason why nylon 6 has to be washed

to remove the water-soluble monomer (caprolactam)
after polymerization. However, besides caprolactam
some amount of oligomers (3%) of DP = 2-4, are also
formed due to side reactions e.g.
OC-(CH,l,-NH ~ CO(CH,),-NH
I I I I
I I
NH-(CHJ,-CO
Similarly, tri and tetramers are also formed.
Once the equilibrium is reached, which usually

takes about 4-6 hr in a VK tube (VK denotes the
German words Vennfacht kontenuerlich which means
continuous) a step-growth condensation
polymerization occurs involving the formation of

polycaproamide molecules.
This reaction leads to increase in molecular weight.
HOOC-(CH 2 ) s-[-NH-(CH2) s-CO]x-NH2

+ H2N-[-(CH2)S-CO-NH-]y-(CH2)S-COOH
-~) HOOC-(CH2)S-[-NH-(CH2)S-CO-jx+y-NH + H 20.
For the optimum degree of polymerisation initially

high water content and high temperature favours the
ring opening of caprolactum and more amino caporic
acid is formed and favours the pre-polymerization
reaction. In the second stage of the reaction low
temperature and low water content favours the
conversion of monomer to polymer and the product
with higher molecular weight as the water is liberated
from the reaction. So vacuum is required to shift the
equilibrium in forward direction to have maximum
conversion of monomer to polymer i.e. for higher degree
of polymrization.
Caprolactum polymerization is two stage process.

By using two stage polymerization process with
appropriate reaction conditions, the time of
polymerization can be reduced by almost a half at a
given temperature. The course of polymerization during
this process is shown schematically by using two VK
tubes in series (Figure 4.1). The first tube acts as a
pre-polymerisation unit and the product is transferred
to the second VK tube for completion of polymerization.
Caprolactam with water (1-5%) and stabilizer are

fed with continuous feeding device from the top of VK
tube. There is a dephelegomator which refluxes back
caprolactam and allow the water to evaporate off (Fig.
4.2).
Synthetic Fibres 149
Water
Caprolactam vapours
water
j
CD •
E E
>--
- II
8. ...
fA
a. a.
Polymer
Fig. 4.1. Continuous two stage

polymerisation process
11It--H--Oephlegmalo<
Zone healers
~rif-.~- Ballles
Polymer melt
Fig. 4.2. Systematic diagram of

VK tube reactor
During the passage of melt in the tube,

caprolactam ring opens up to form amino caproic
acid which initiates polymerization reaction. Water
arising from polycondensation is removed from the
reaction system in the form of vapours which bubble
out of the melt favouring further polycondensation.
By the time melt reaches the bottom of the tube it
gets fully polymerized and is withdrawn at a constant
rate with the help of a metering pump (and are
converted into chips after cutting. The chips are
dried to 0.05% moisture content and are stored in
nitrogen atmosphere.
Flow diagram for production of nylon 6 filament

IS shown systematically in Fig. 4.3.
Caprolactum Chips Monomer
Additives Preparation Extraction
Continuous
process
MeltSPG
Yarn Dyeing Draw Drying of
POY
(Optional) Texturing Chips
Spin Draw
Stretching
Fabric ~ _ _ _ _ _--I or Draw-
Preparation
Warping
Fig 4.3. Nylon 6 filament

yarn production
4.2.3. Polymerization of Nylon 6,6

For nylon 6,6 the monomers are adipic acid;
HOOC(CH 2 l 4 COOH and hexamethylene diamine;
H 2 N(CH 2 l6NH 2 <
[-OC(CH2l4CONH(CH2l6 NH-ln
Polyhexamethylene diamino adipate; the
repeating unit of the nylon 6,6 polymer, with a
degree of polymerisation of 50 to 80 units (i.e. n =
50 to 80)
The two reactants are first reacted to form an
intermediate known as nylon 6,6 salt or
hexamethylene diamine adipic acid (HA) salt. In the
second stage of reaction, the nylon 6,6 salt is
polymerized to get nylon 6,6 polyamide.
Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid are

dissolved separately in methanol. When the two
solutions are mixed, neutralisation reaction takes place
and nylon 66 salt is formed. The salt is relatively
insoluble in methanol and crystallizes out on cooling.
The crystals are separated by centrifuging and washing
with methanol.
Stage I.
H2N(CH2)6NH2 + HOOC(CH2)4COOH
-7 H2N(CH2)6NHOC(CH2)4COOH + H 20.
(HA Salt)
Nylon 66 salt is dissolved in distilled water to
get 60% solution. Acetic acid (0-5-1%) is then added
as a viscosity stabilizer. The solution is heated to
260-280°C.
Stage /I
nH2N(CH2)6NHOC(CH2)4COOH + H 20
(HA salt)
~ H[NH(CH2)6NHOC(CH2)4COlnOH + nH 20
(Nylon 6,6)
As the heating starts and temperature rises water

evaporates and a pressure of 15-20 kgjcm 2 builds up.
Pressure is slowly released and heating is continued
to distill off all the water and the polymer melt is
removed from the bottom of the autoclave in the form
of ribbons which are cut into chips. The chips are dried
to avoid hydrolytic degradation at a moisture content
below 0.05% and stored under nitrogen atmosphere
to avoid oxidative degradation on storage.
Flow diagram for the production of Nylon 6,6
filament yarn is shown systematically in Fig. 4.4.
Poly. 2 Poly-
Hexamet-hy Poly.1 Prepa- Chips prepa-
con densa-
lene diamine ration of HA- ration
tion
adipic acid Salt
Direct
Spinning
Yarn Dyeing Draw

(Optional) Texturing
Stretching
Fabric ~ _ _ _ _ _--I or Draw-
Preparation
Warping
Fig. 4.4. Production of Nylon 6,6

Filament Yarn
4.2.4. Spinning
The firm 'spinning' means any process that
produces continuous filaments, yarns or threads.
Spinning turns short staple fibres such as cotton
and wool or fibre strands such as flax, ramie, jute,
sisal etc. into continuous yarns. The mass of fibres
or fibre strands is paraUelised by carding and
combing processes into silvers and rovings from which
they are appropriately picked up in the spinning
frame in well designed clusters under controlled
speed and then twisted together so that the fibres
duly grip one another to produce what are known as
'spun' yarns.
The molten polymer obtained directly from the
nylon 6,6 polymerisation reactor or by melting the
dry nylon (6 or 6,6) chips is pumped through a filter
press to remove undissolved additives, foreign
particles and gel particles. The filtered melt is then
metered into the spinneret system by means of a
precisely controlled metering pump. The orifices of
the spinnerets may have circular or non -circular
cross-sections.
The filaments emerging from the spinneret are
cooled in quench ducts, using a cross-current of
air, given a finish and then dried if necessary and
wound on bobbins at a take-up speed of 3000-6000
m/min. Drawing of filaments and twisting may follow
spinning and programmed quenching in, what is
called a spin-draw process for making fibres and
yarns of higher molecular orientation, degree of
crystallinity and strength.
Spin finishes are applied, where required, by
spraying appropriate formulations on the yarns or
by passing the yarns through aqueous solution of
emulsion of lubricants, emulsifiers, wetting or
coupling agents, antistatic agents, bactericides,
anti-soil agents and antioxidants. And finally drying
of the finished yarns are carried out.
The filaments are crimped and cut into short
staple length if desired; there staple fibres can be
blended with other fibres. The typical melt spinning
is shown in Fig. 4.5. A is for the production of filament
yarns and B is for the production of short staple
fibre line.
Fig. 4.5. Typical melt-spinning lines for

making Nylon (A) filament yarns and
(8) staple fibres, nylon 6.
4.2.5. Products made at different spinning

speeds
In general, an appropriate combination of

spinning speed and post-spinning 'operation dictates
and end use application of nylon 6 or nylon 6,6
filaments. Nylon 6 and nylon 66 multifilament yarns
may be produced in the form of low-oriented yarn
(LOY), partially oriented yarn (POY), highly oriented
yarn (HOY) and fully oriented yarn (FOY). These
products, spun at different speeds are briefly
described as under.
(a) Low-oriented yarn (LOY)
LOY is spun at spinning speeds in he range of

100-1500 m/min. The continuous filament is
subjected either to (1) draw-twisting for use as
sports wear, fish net twine, rope, etc., or (2) draw-
texturing for making socks. The continuo:us' filament
bundle (tow) m?-y be drawn, crimped and cut mainly
for use in carpets or for blending with wool fibre.
(b) Partially oriented yarn (PaY)
POY Nylon is generally produced at wind-up speeds

of between 2800 and 4000 m/min. The polyamide POY
spun at these speeds is characterised by orientation-
induced crystallization and it provides higher strength and
lower elongation to break as compared with LOY samples.
(c) Highly oriented yarn (HOY) and fully oriented yarn

(FaY)
Spinning speeds above 4000 m/min greatly

increase the rate of stress-induced crystallization.
Useful fibres from nylon 6 and nylon 6,6 can be
prepared directly without drawing by spinning at 6000-
7000 m/min as the tenacity, elongation and shrinkage
values of the fibres are acceptable for a number of
applications.
4.2.6. Properties of Nylon
The polymer system is estimated to be about 65-

85% crystalline and correspondingly about 35-15%
amorphous. The linear polymer system with very short
inter-polymer distance (0.03 nm) enables to form a
number of H-bonds.
(i) Tenadty:
Nylon 6 Normal 3-6 g/d
High 9 gld
Nylon 6,6 Normal 3-6 gld
High 9 gld
Nylon 6 loses 9-12% tenacity when wet.
Nylon 6, 6 loses 20% tenacity when wet.
(ii) Breaking elongation:

Nylon 6 30-55%
Nylon 6,6 16-65%
(iii) Elastic recovery:

Nylon 6 99-100% at 4% elongation
Nylon 6,6 100% at 4% elongation
(iv) Specific gravity: 1.14 gl cc
(v) Moisture regain: 2.8-5%
(vi) Melting point:

Nylon 6 218°C
Nylon 66 250°C in air
264°C in nitrogen atmosphere
turns yellow when heated above
150°C for hours.
(8) Chemical Properties
(i) Effect of acids: Less resistant to acids than to

alkalies. Acid causes hydrolysis of amide groups,
reducing or lose of affectiveness of inter-polymer H-
bonding and thus weakening nylon.
(ii) Effect of alkalies: Prolonged exposure to alkalies
will cause significant alkali hydrolysis of nylon
polymer thereby resulting in weakening 1:he nylon.
It has highly resistant to micro-organism and has
high abrasion resistance.
4.2.7. Difference between Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,6
Even though nylon 6,6 and nylon 6 do not differ

in basic chemical structure, there are certain
differences in the physical characteristics of the
two types of fibres. Some of the most important are:
1. Nylon 6 has a lower melting point (215°C) than

nylon 6,6 (250°C).
2. Nylon 6 has a slightly greater resistance to the
influence of ultraviolet light than nylon 6,6.
3. Using a given dyestuff, nylon 6 will dye to a
shade several times deeper than nylon 6,6, when dyed
together.
4. Nylon 6,6 has a better resistance to degradation
because of prolonged heating than nylon 6.
5. Nylon 6 has better elastic recovery than nylon
6,6.
6. Nylon 6 is softer in hand than nylon 6,6.
7. Nylon 6 has higher fatique resistance than nylon
6,6. Therefore more suitable in tyre cord application
than nylon 6,6.
8. Nylon 6 has lower modulus and higher
elongation at break than nylon 6,6 for fibres of similar
tenacity.
9. Nylon 6 has higher flex resistant than nylon 6,6.
4.2.8. Uses of nylon
High tenacity nylon 6,6 or nylon 6 are best suited

for use as tyre cords in heavy-duty tyre construction,
for construction of hoses and conveyor and power
transmission belts. Excellent resistance to flexing,
fatigue and rotting coupled with low specific gravity,
good adhesion to rubber and high mechanical strength
induding high impact resistance make nylon 6,6 and
nylon 6 cords ideal materials for such reinforcing
applications.
Nylon filaments, fibres, yarns, cords and fabrics

are excellent materials for making carpets and tufted
objects, fabrics for apparel, jackets, vests, gloves,
umbrella, tents, cords, ropes and tows for making
fishing nets and for use in ship-yards, mountaineering
and many defence related applications.
However, nylon 6 has certain advantages over

nylon 6,6 in tyre cord application as because adhesion
of nylon 6 to rubber is stronger and its fatigue
resistance is higher than those of nylon 6,6.
4.3. Aramid
The fibre-forming substance in this class of fibres
is a long-chain synthetic polyamide in which at least
85% of the amide linkages are attached directly to two
aromatic rings (-CO-NH-). The two aramid-type fibres,
Kevlar and Nomex, are spun as multifilament yarns
and may be cut to produce staple by the process
developed by E.!. DuPont de Nemours and Co.,
incorporated.
This class of fibres has a unique combination of

very high strength and roughness never achieved in
nature or in any other fibrous material. Some of the
important characteristics are:
1. These fibres do not melt, rather they decompose

above 380°C.
2. High strength (tenacity varies from 4.8 to 5.8 g/
den).
3. Good modulus.
4. Good fabric integrity, particularly at high
temperat1ue.
5. Inertness to moisture.
The above combination of properties makes these

fibres particularly suited for end use applications such
as hot air filtration, protective clothing, military
applications (helmets and bullet proof vests), and
structural supports for aircrafts and boats. Other uses
include ropes and cables, mechanical rubber goods,
marine and sporting goods equipment.
4.3.1. Nomex
It was prepared from m phenylenediamine and
isophthaloyl chloride.
H N
:2 0 NH ClOC
2 + 0 COCl
(Isophthaloyl
-
(m-phenylene
diamine)
-
1 chloride)
H 0
I II
_[_~ ON-~-uc-l-
H 0 In
(Nomex)
The polymer is dissolved in dimethyl formamide

containing 4.5% lithium chloride. A twenty percent
dope is dry spun at 200-210°C. The fibre is extracted
with cold water and drawn in steam at a draw ratio of
5.5. The fibre is flame retardant, has a melting point of
317°C. It is used as protective flame retardant fabric
for fibre fighter's coats, refinery operations uniforms
and dryers overalls.
4.3.2. Kevlar
The most important aramid fibre is based on the
poly (I, 4-phenylene terepthalamide). DuPont
introduced the first such type of fibre under the trade
name Kevlar. It is prepared by the reaction between
p-phenylenediamine and terephthaloyl chloride.
(p-pheylene (isophthaloyl (poly-l, 4-phenylene terepthalamide)

diamine) chloride)
The polymer is dissolved in sulphuric acid and

spun by using dry jet wet spinning technique. The fibre
is heat treated for crystallization and further
orientation.
Kevlar type of fibres have high strength (above 20

g/ d) and high modulus. These are used in radial tyres,
conveyor belts, composites, ropes, cables, ballistics and
friction products.
4.3.3. Dry jet wet spinning
In the dry jet wet spinning method the spinning

solution is extruded through spinneret which is
suspended at a short distance above the coagulation
bath (Fig. 4.6).
To take-up
device
Fig. 4.6. Schematic diagram of dry-jet

wet spinning process
Using this method it is possible to give a higher
stretch during spinning. The temperature of the dope
extrusion and coagulation bath can be independently
controlled. In systems where dope must be hot, to lower .
viscosities to extrudable levels and the coagulation bath
cold to preclude detrimental void formation during
coagulation, dry jet wet spinning is the only option. A
spinning speed of about 200 metres, minute is possible
and fibre with improved properties is obtained.
4.4. Polyester
4.4.1. introduction
Poly (ethylene tere-phthalate) or, PET is the most

important member of the synthetic fibre. The class of
the fibre was discovered in 1941 by J.R. Whinfield and
J.J. Dickson et al. of United Kingdom. The commercial
producton was started in early 1950s. The different
companies manufacture the fibre under different trade
names as Terrene (CAFI, India), Futura (National
Organic Chemical, India), Terylene (U.K.), Dacron
(USA).
4.4.2. Polymerization of polyester
Raw material for polyester is
9 OCH
COOCH 3
'
OR 9
0H
COOH
Dimethyl Terephthalate (OMT) Terephthalic acid (TPA)
and
HO-(CH,),-OH
Mono ethylene glycol (MEG)
Preliminary reaction is carried out between

Dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and Mono ethylene glycol
(MEG), or TPA and MEG producing a new intermediate,
diglycol tereph thalate (DGT). This is further
polymerized in the second step or polycondensation
to get Polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
The intermediate DGT formation leads to a number

of advantages compared to a direct mixture of
monomers subjected to polycondensation. These are:
• Polycondensation process is carried out from a
uniform, chemically pure, monomeric starting
material.
• Wider choice of catalysts.
• Less side reactions are there
• Higher speed of reaction
• Good colour of polyester
• Better thermal stability of melt
• Better drawability.
The chemical reactions of PET preparation
(a) DMT and MEG are used as starting materials

the process is referred to transesterification (TE) ro ester
interchange reaction (Et).
(where x = 0-4)
The major portion in the esterified product is

diglycol terephthalate, (DGT) in which case x = O. It
has the following structure:
HOH 2 CH 2 COOC- 0 -COOCH 2 CH 2 0H

DGT
Besides monomer DGT, dimmer, trimer and

tetramer are also present in the esterified product.
(b) When TPA and MEG are used as starting

materials direct esterification occurs.
HOOC- 0 -COOH + HO(CH 2 )PH-
HO(CH,)'OOC-o{ COO{CH,"OOC~ ] COO(CH,),OH

Esterified Product x + H0
2
where x = 0-4.
Here also the major portion in the esterified product

is DGT in which case x = o.
The second stage of preparation of PET polymer is

called polycondensation and is similar for both DMT
and TPA routes. In the polycondensation process DGT
containing some quantity of dimmer, trimer and
tetramer is heated at high temperature and under
vacuum to get PET with the liberation of MEG.
, Ho(CH,)'00c-otoocH,cH,QOc-o-1X)OCH,CH,oH
Catalyst (Anllmony triOXIde or Ant'mony tnacetate
heat (285°C)
1
vacuum
HO(CH,),ooc-O-{COO(CH,),OOC -O-]Coo(CH,),oH
PET n + HO(CH2 >PH
n = 80-100
The clear, colourless molten polymer is then

extruded out through a valve as the bottom of the
reactor on a chilled casting wheel. The polymer
solidifies into a endless ribbon which is then fed into a
cutter and chipped into small chips or granules.
4.4.3. Melt spinning
Chips of PET are dried before melting under a

blanket of nitrogen in the melting chamber wherefrom
the melt at 280-290°C is pumped into the spinneret.
Here spinning of the melt into fine filaments is
accomplished in a manner sinlllar to that used for melt-
spinning of nylon polyamides (Fig. 4.7).
t----lFtal
Extruder
Gtor_
f."r pClCk
Spinner..
Qucnt.h
chamber
Fig. 4.7. Melt spinning line for PEr

The filaments emerging from the spinneret readily
solidify on cooling in a vertical chamber and then they
are clustered together and wound on a reel or cylinder
as undrawn yarn, usually at a speed 2 1000 m/min.
The filament yarns are taken to draw-twist

machines for hot stretching to about 4-5 times their
original length and hence to about 1/ 4th - 1/ 5th of
their original denier. PET polyester yarns are normally
drawn hot. Hot-drawing of yarns gives a more uniform
product than cold-drawing. Heavy denier yarns or
monofilaments may, however, by drawn at or near room
temperature (Fig 4.8).
Drawing
Filament yarn
Fig. 4.8. Drawing of filaments
Staple fibre is produced by spinning a large number

of filaments and clustering them together to make a
thick tow which is then drawn to much longer lengths,
crimped mechanically and finally setting the crimp by
heat treatment (Fig. 4.9). The crimped tow is then cut
into desired staple lengths staple fibres and then

passed to the baling process.
Feed
rolls
Draw
roJIs
~~/~·,.r Crimper
Cutting'
~~
-II Heat setting
~~
Fig. 4.9. Production of staple PET fibre
4.4.4. Products made at different spin'ning speeds
1. Low spinning speed in the range 500-1500 mJ

min: the product is called low-oriented yam (LOY);
virtually amorphous and has very little strength. It is
highly deformable and typically must be drawn to four
to five times its original length to obtain a useful fibre.
2. Medium speed in the range 1500-4000 mJmin:

the product is called partially oriented yam (POY).
Because of its increased orientation, the crystallizability
of POY s many orders of magnitude higher than that of
SynthetIc Fibres 167
LOY. Consequently it allows for crystallisation to occur
in draw-texturing at a significantly lower temperature.
3. High speed in the range 4000-6000 m/min: the

product is call~d highly oriented yam (HOY);
4. Very high speed in the range above 6000 m/min:

the product is called fully oriented yam FOY).
4.4.5. Properties of polyester
(i) Tenacity:
Normal- 2.5-6 g/denier
High tenacity-7 -9 g/ denier
(ii) Elongational at break:
Normal- 15-20%
High tenacity- 7-12%
(iii) Elastic recovery
Normal- 97 at 2% elongation, 80 at 8%
elongation
High tenacity: 100% at 1% elongation
(iv) Specific gravity- 1.34-1.38 g/ cc.
(v) Moisture regain- 0.4%
(vi) Abrasion resistance: High but less compared to
Nylon.
(vii) Hot air shrinkage: 3% at 100°C while shrinkage
in boiling water is 6%. Shrinkage values are higher for
high tenacity fibres. Heat stabilized crimped fibres give
less than 1% shrinkage in hot water.
Strong acids and alkalies attack PET fibres and

weaken them by hydrolysis. PET is resistant to normal
laundering chemicals and is highly resistant to pest
and microorganism attack. It is good insulator and have
excellent heat setting properties.
4.4.6. Uses of polyester
Polyester fibres are prospective in virtually all types

of apparel end use either alone or in blends with cotton,
wool, flax and other fibres. It offers elegant look and
feel, wrinkle resistance, drip-dry character, wearing
comfort and improved dimensional stability. Polyester
fibre finds good share in suitings, shirtings carpets
and curtains. Polyester filament yarns and cords are
also strong options as reinforcing agents in the
construction of composites in the form of conveyor
belts, fire-fighting hose and in tyre construction,
particularly in radial ply tyres where the cords
providing reinforcement are required to have good
resistance to stretch. Polyester (PET) offers an
advantage over rayon and nylon.
4.5. Acrylic
4.5.1. Introduction
Youngest among the major synthetic fibres is poly-

acrylonitrile. Acrylic is a generic name given to fibres
which have a chemical base of acrylonitrile (at least
85%) plus a minor constituent which has been co-
polymerized to increase the dye affinity of the fibre. It
is the minor component of the fibre which gives
individuality to the fibre.
The acrylic fibres manufactured by different

producers have physical properties that vary over a
huge wide range. They are produced in a variety of
cross-sectional shapes depending on the type of
spinning systems employed. The dry-spun fibres (e.g.,
Acrian®, Creslan®, and Zefran®) have a round or
kidney-bean shaped cross section, whereas the wet-
spun fibres (e.g., Orlon®, Darlon®) have a dog-bone or
flat cross-sectional shape.
Acrylic fibres have replaced wool in many major
applications, specially in hand knitting and hosiery
garments. This chapter deals with the production,
properties and uses of acrylic fibre.
4.5.2. Modacrylic fibre
The exact composition of individual modacrylic

fibres is rather difficult to obtain. Modacrylic fibres fall
under the category of polyacrylonitrile fibres and
generally contain less than 85% by weight of
acrylonitrile. The proportion of the other components
may vary widely. VEREL®, fibre produced by Tennessee
Eastman Corporation, USA, is one example of this type
of fibre. This fibre is produced mostly in staple form
and in deniers ranging from 3 to 60.
Modacrylic fibres are easy to dye. They are spun

in 100% pure form as well as in blends with wool,
cotton, rayon, nylon, and polyester fibres. However,
they generally have slightly higher moisture regain than
the ordinary acrylic fibres. They have very good flame
resistance characteristics; self-extinguishing and do
not ignite easily.
4.5.3. Polymerization
At least 85 per cent of the mass of the acrylic fibre

must be composed of acrylonitrile monomers; that is,
H H
I I
C-C
I I
H CN
and no more than 15 per cent is complosed of the
copolymer; that is,
®- Regzstered trade mark

H H
I I
C - C
I I
H X
where X is usually an anionic radical, e.g. -Cl,
-OOCCH3 , -CONH2 , etc.
Modacry/ic
At least 35 per cent but no more than 85 per cent

of the mass of the modacrylic fibre polymer must be
composed of acrylonitrile monomers, and the
remainder is composed of the copolymer.
H- -t-~~-J-t-~~-]-
H eN
m
H X
P
-H
n
The values of m and p depend upon the mass of

copolymer present; hence, whether it will be an acrylic
or a modacrylic polymer fibre. The degree of
polymerisation is about 2000 units (i.e. n = 2000).
Polymerization of acrylonitrile along with other co-

monomers is carried out in water in the presence of
some catalysts. Three main steps in the
polymerisations of acrylic fibre is initiations,
propogation and termination.
After the desired polymerisation is reached, the

mass is converted into pellets after washing and finally
it is dried and converted into powder form.
4.5.4. Spinning
Dry or wet spinning is carried out after the

preparation of spinning solutions (20-40%) of the dried
powder in suitable solvent mainly (Dimethyl acetamide
(DMAC), dimethyl formamide (DMF), dimethyl
sulphoxide (DMSO) etc. and also in presence of some
quantity of organic catalysts. The solution is defrosted,
filtered and heated near to boiling point. The solution
can be spun by two methods-
(i) Dry spinning

(ii) Wet spinning.
(i) Dry spinning
In case of dry spinning the concentration of

solution used for spinning is 20-35%. The hot spinning
solution (dope) is made to pass through the holes of
the spinnerets (Fig. 4.10).
-PurqI
-Clndlafiller
Spinneret
h=~c:!'id-l
1lIetnlOlll8ler
Inlet lor
healing ftuid -
OutIi(Ifor
Outlellor
..r- dryintalr
filament bundle
Finish _"
applicator
WH1der
Fig. 4.10. A Dry spinning unit

The jets fall through a vertical tube allowing

passage of a hot gas/air at a high temperature (up to
400°C, for solvent removal). The solid filaments are
quickly drawn out from the hot zone clubbed together
at the bottom or base of the spinning unit. Then they
are stretched to 4-10 times their original length, twisted
and the filament yarns are wound on bobbins. For
formation of staple fibre, several yarns are twisted into
a tow, crimpled and then cut or chipped into desired
staple lengths.
(ii) Wet spinning
In the case of wet spinning the hardening of the

filaments takes place in the coagulation bath which
will extract the solvent part of the spinning solution
(Fig. 4.11). The speed of the spinning is kept slow (3-20
m/min) in the case of wet spinning as the both way
mass transfer takes place (as non solvent, water, enters
into the filaments and solvent leaves the filament). But
in the case of dry spinning only the solvent is leaving
the filaments. Slow speed in the case of wet spinning
is compensated by more number of spinnert holes, wide
spinnerts and more throughput rates.
Solnnl
DrClWlng cham"r SpIn
fV1?\f"'®
.... g. 4.11 ~ A wet spinning unit
4.5.5. Staple fibre production
Flow diagram for the production of staple fibre is

shown in Fig. 4.12.
Acrylonitrile Poly suspension

vinyl acetate
addi+· ..s Poly solution
Dry spinning
_---...tWet spinning
Stretching
To
Textile
Mills
Tops
Prepara-t---......
tion
Fig. 4.12. Acrylic staple fibre production
4.5.6. Differences and similarities between

acrylic and modacrylic
• Like acrylic fibres, modacrylic fibres are made

from acrylonitriles. However, more polymers of
other types are added to make the copolymers
of modacrylics.
• Acrylic fibres are stronger than modacrylic

fibres, but modacrylics are adequately durable
for their end uses.
• Modacrylics have better heat retention and are

flame retardant. Acrylic fibres do not have these
properties.
• Modacrylic fibres, like acrylic fibres, are dry or

wet spun.
4.5.7. Modacrylic: Appealing characteristics
Characteristics of modacrylics include softness,

resiliency, colour fastness, abrasion resistance, flame
resistance, and shape retention. These fibres feel light,
yet theyn have good insulating qualities. And though
modacrylic fabrics have good dimensional stability and
retain their shape, shrinkage can occur because of their
sensitivity to heat. For example, drying modacrylics in
a hot dryer is not a good idea.
However light, moths, mildew and age do not affect

modacrylics, and their life expectancy is relatively high.
They are even self-extinguishing and excellent for
children's sleepwear and commercial draperies. In fact,
modacrylic fibres were the first flame resistant
synthetic fibres; "They do not support combustion, are
self-extinguishing, and do not drip."
Care: Though following the care instructions of any

fabric is very important, many fabrics made from
modacrylic fibres can be machine washed in warm
water and dried on a low setting. A hot iron shouldnever
be used on modacrylics, a.Tld dry cleaning is suggested
for deep-pile garments such as faux furs.
Uses: Modacrylic can be used for many purposes

including apparel, fabric, home furnishings, and other
goods. For example, modacrylic fibres are used in the
production offaux furs, wigs, fleece, carpets, blankets,
paint rollers and toys.
4.5.8. Properties of Acrylic fibre
(i) Tenacity: 15-3 g/d
(ii) Elongation at break: 20-50%
(iii) Elastic recovery: 90-95% at 1% elongation

50% at 10% elongation
(iv) Moisture regain: 15%
(v) Specific gravity: 1.14-1.17 g/ cc
Acrylic/ modacrylic fibres have excellent

photostability and are stable in diluted acid/alkali but
are attacked by strong concentrated acid/ alkali. Acrylic
fibres are resistant to attack by moth, insects and
micro-organism and high resistant to weather.
4.5.9. Uses of Acrylic fibre
Acrylic fibres are used for making knitwears,

sportswear, blankets, flocked velvets and simulated
fur fabrics, dress materials and suitings, wigs,
childreen's wear, underwear, swim-suits, pullovers,
draperies, furnishing and industrial fabrics.
Moreover, carpets clearly provide a large outlet for

the acrylic / modacrylic being heavy and durable fibres.
The qualities that make the acrylics suitable for carpets
are good photostability, good texture retention,
resistance to staining, good elastic recovery, resilience,
bounce, crush resistance and even more easy cleaning.
4.6. Polypropylene
4.6.1. Introduction
Polypropylene as a fibre was introduced in textile

arena in 1970s and now becomes the important
member of the fast growing synthetic fibres family.
Polypropylene enjoys fourth position behind the three
major synthetic fibres polyester, nylon and acrylic.
The use of polypropylene is limited in apparel and

furnishing; bulk of the fibre produced is used for
industrial applications. This chapter deals with the
production, properties and uses of polypropylene.
4.6.2. Polymerization
The raw material for polypropylene is
CH 2 = CH
I
CH3
(Propylene)
Propylene can not be polymerised to high molecular

weight by free radical mechanism. It was however, first
successfully polymerised using coordination catalysts
of the Ziegler-Natta type [TiC14 / Al(R)31 which curiously
led to formation of crystalline, mechanically strong,
heat resistant, sterically regular, isotactic
polypropylene. It can be directly obtained as petroleum
byproduct.
4.6.3. Spinning of polypropylene (PP)
It can be melt spun. Polymer pellets are melted

and the melt is forced through the spinnerette. The
process of melt-spinning of polypropylene to form
filaments is similar to those developed for melt-spinning
of some other synthetic fibres such as the nylons and
polyester but extrusion conditions are different. Mter
solidification the fibre can be stretched from 3-8 times
its original length.
4.6.4. Properties of polypropylene
Mechanical properties of the fibres can be altered

by varying spinning and processing conditions.
(i) Tenacity: 3.5-8 gl d

(ii) Elongation at break: 15-35%
(iii) Moisture regain: 0.04-0.10%
(iv) Specific gravity: 0.9 glcc
(v) Melting point: 170-175°C.
Polypropylene is highly resistant to strong acids

and alkali; oxidising acids may attack it slowly on longer
exposure.
4.6.5. Uses of polypropylene
Filament to filament coefficient of friction of

polypropylene (PP) is higher than any other textile fibre.
These blend easily and very effectively with other textile
fibres. These fibres are the lightest among all fibres
known. All these have proved advantageous for
development of PP blankets, carpets, apparel fabrics
and upholstery. Other competitive fields of application
include ropes, cordage, mosquito nets, fishing nets and
twines, bristle, tufted carpets, filter cloths and
protective clothing. Generally, crease resistance of PP

fibres is comparable with that of wool.
In blends, the high shrinkage ofthe PP component

may be used to create bulked, crimped or puckered
effects in yarns and finished fabrics. Lightness and
wider coverage, wear or abrasion resistance, firm, lofty
feel, resilience, soil or stain resistance and easy
washability with warm detergent water make PP a good
option for tufted carpets. Excellent stockings can be
made from blends of PP and acrylics in staple form.
Relatively low melting point limits consideration of PP
in construction of conveyor belts. Other applications
of importance are cord for reinforcement of hoses,
woven sacks, carpet backings and packing fabrics.
4.7. Miscellaneous fibres

There are various other types of man-made fibres
such as glass, ceramic, metallic and carbon. Most of
these fibres may be classed as specialty fibres, since
their applications are limited to very specific end-uses.
4.7.1. Glass and carbon
It is the extensively in home furnishings, industrial

(tyre cords) and apparel applications. Glass fibres used
for textile purposes are made in two main types, 'E'
glass and 'C' glass. Both types are similar in
composition. Carbon fibres are technically produced
from precursors such as polyacrylonitrile or rayon or
any other organic base fibres.
Union Carbide was the first company to use

viscose-rayon as a precursor to produce carbon fibres
commercially. The viscose rayon yarn is heated to about
2000°C and stretched up to 50% while at this brilliant
white heat. The Union Carbide fibres are marketed
under the trade names of Thornel 25, Thornel40 and
a subsequently improved yarn, Thornel 50.
When polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is used as a precursor,

the conversion process is carried out in three
successive stages:
1. Oxidation at 200-300°C.
2. Carbonisation at about 1000°C.
3. Graphitisation at 1500-3000°C, according to the
type of PAN.
Carbon fibres are characterized by extremely high

modulus and tensile strength depending on the
temperature employed in the graphitisation stage.
These are extensively used in industrial applications
such as aircraft structures and space applications. Due
to their high-performance structures, carbon fibres are
used as reinforcements embedded in a suitable resin
(such as epoxide, polyester, phenolic, polyphenylene
and polyimide).
4.7.2. Spandex
Elastomeric polyurethane fibres are known as

'Spandex'. It is formed by chain extension reaction
involving a relatively low molecular weight hydroxy-
terminated polyether, polyester and related prepolymer
and a diisocyanate.I
Spandex or elastomeric segmented polyurethane

is a thermoplastic elastomer which has ~uod tensile
strength than any other rubber. They exhibit excellent
resistances to tearing and abrasion, action of body oils
and lotions, heat and perspiration and to the action of
oxygen or ozone. However, they show relatively poor
resistance to acids, alkalis and to steaming (causing
hydrolytic degradation) than the conventional rubbers.
They find applications as oil seals, footwear soles and
heels, construction of conveyor belts, printing rollers,
fabric coatings, water-proof items, tank-lining in some
chemical plants, cable sheathing, pump impellers,
gaskets and diaphragms, industrial hoses etc. Heat-
setting treatment is used for ensuring dimensional
stability of fabrics and garments.
Properties
Tenacities of Spandex fibres are 0.55-1.1 g/ denier

as against 0.20-0.25 g/denier for natural rubber
filaments and elongation at break is of the order of
400-700%. They show snap-back rubber-like elasticity
though the recovery is not as complete as in the case
of natural rubber vulcanizates. The permanency of
setting is a matter of degree and the set gradually gets
diminished with time as the fibre is allowed to relax.
Recovery is faster at a higher temperature.
Specific gravity of Spandex fibres is about

1.20-1.25. They show a moisture regain of 1.0-1.2%.
Their resistances to dilute acids and alkalis are good.
Spandex fibres made by DuPont of USA bears the trade
name'Lycra'.

Polyamides and aramid

1. What is the raw material for Nylon 6 and Nylon
66?
2. In the manufacture of Nylon 6, VK stands for
what?
3. What is the degree of polymerizations of Nylon
6 and Nylon 66?
4. What is degree of crystallization of nylon?
5. What is melting point of Nylon 6 and Nylon 6,
6?
6. Match the following:
i) 2.5 g/ denier a) Nylon 6,6
ii) Caprolactam b) Spinning speed
iii) HA salt c) Elastic recovery
iv) m/min d) Specific gravity
e) Tenacity
g) ring opening
7. Fill in the blanks:
i) During polymerisation only per cent
of caprolactam undergo polymerization.
ii) Before polymerisation adipic acid and _ __
combine to form HA salt.
iii) For ring opening of caprolactam is done with
_ _ _ content.
iv) In the manufacture of Nylon 66 is
added as viscosity stabilizer.
v) Nylon 6 is in hand than Nylon 66.
vi) Specific gravity of Nylon is _ __
vii) Moisture regain of Nylon is _ __

1. List out the chemical properties of nylon.
2. Draw a flow diagram for the manufacture of
Nylon 6
3. List out the physical properties of nylon.
4. Draw a flow-diagram for the manufacture of
Nylon 66.
7. Write a short note on nomex fibre.

8. Write a short note on kevlar fibre.
9. What are the uses of aramid fibres?

1. Explain the manufacturing of Nylon 6 in detail.
2. How Nylon 6,6 is manufactured? List out some
differences with Nylon 6.
3. Discuss in detail about aramid fibres.
Polyester

1. What is the raw material for polyester?
2. Write the chemical formula of DMT and TPA.
3. What is transesterification or ester interchange
reaction
4. Name different products of PET made at different
spinning speed.
5. Name fibres with which PET is mostly blended
for apparel use.
i) PET is a regenerated fibre.
ii) PET is melt spun.
iii) Degree of polymerization of PET is 1000.
iv) PET is prepared by DMT and TPA.
v) Drawing of filaments is carried out for the
orientation of the molecules along the axis
of filaments.
vi) Spinning speed for POY is 800 m/min.
vii) PET is lighter than cotton.
SYnthetic Fibres 183
i) PET is prepared from TPA and _ _ _ __
ii) Prepolymer product in case of PET is _ _ .
iii) Melt spinning of PET is carried out at
_ _ _ _ _ _ °C temperature.
iv) Spinning speed for HOY, polyester in the
range _ _ _ _ ___
v) Moisture regain of PET is _ _ _ _ ___

1. Why two step reaction is carried out for
polymerization of PET?
2. Write down the chemical reactions of PET
preparation.
3. Explain the products made at different speeds
of PET melt spinning.
4. What are physical and chemical properties of
PET?
5. What are uses of PET?

1. Explain the polymerization of PET in detail.
2. What is PET? Explain the melt spinning of PET.
3. Explain the production of PET staple fibre and
effect of spinning speed on the product.
Acrylic

1. What is acrylic fibre?
2. What is modacrylic fibre?
3. What is raw material for acrylic fibre?
4. Why acrylic is best suited for carpet industry?

5. What is the main difference between acrylic and
modacrylic?
i) Dyeing of 100% acrylic fibres is easy.
ii) Degree of polymerisation of acrylic fibre is
in the range of 500.
iii) Acrylic fibre is wet spun only.
iv) It is possible to go far melt spinning of acrylic
fibre.
v) Spinning solution concentration of acrylic
fibre is 60%.
vi) Acrylic fibre is heavier than wool.
i) Modacrylic fibres contain less than _ __
weight it of acrylonitrile.
ii) Tenacity of acrylonitrile is in the range _ __
iii) Specific gravity of acrylic fibre is _ __
iv) Moisture regain of acrylic fibres is _ __
v) DMF is a for acrylic.
(B) Medium answer type questions

1. Differentiate between acrylic and modacrylic
fibre.
2. What are the uses of acrylic fibres?
3. Explain the polymerisation of acrylonitrile.
4. Explain the dry spinning of acrylic fllaments.
5. Explain the wet spinning of acrylic fllaments.
6. Draw the flow diagram for the production of
acrylic staple fibre.
7. Explain the properties of acrylic fibre.
1. What is acrylic fibre? Explain the
polymerisations of acrylic fibre.
2. Explain the spinning of acrylic filaments.
Polypropylene

1. What is PP?
2. What is raw material for preparation of PP?
3. What is carbon fibre?
i) Elongations of polypropylene is in the range
ii) Specific gravity of PP is _ _ __

iii) Moisture regain of PP is _ _ __

1. What is PP and what is its raw material for
preparation?
2. Explain the properties of the PP fibre.
3. Describe the properties of polypropylene fibres.

1. Explain the production of PP fibre.
2. Write a detailed note on polypropylene fibres
describing its uses and properties.
CHAP1:ER 5
SPECIALITY FIBRES
There are various other types of man-made fibres

such as glass, ceramic, metallic and carbon. Most of
these fibres may be classed as specialty fibres, since
their applications are limited to very specific end-uses.
5.1. Glass and carbon

It is the extensively in home furnishings, industrial
(tyre cords) and apparel applications. Glass fibres used
for textile purposes are made in two main types, 'E'
glass and 'C' glass. Both types are similar in
composition. Carbon fibres are technically produced
from precursors such as polyacrylonitrile or rayon or
any other organic base fibres.
Union Carbide was the first company to use

viscose-rayon as a precursor to produce carbon fibres
commercially. The viscose rayon yarn is heated to about
2000°C and stretched up to 50% while at this brilliant
white heat. The Union Carbide fibres are marketed
under the trade names ofThorne125, Thornel40 and
a subsequently improved yarn, Thornel 50.
When polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is used as a precursor,

the conversion process is carried out in three
successive stages:
1. Oxidation at 200-300°C.
Specialltv Fibres 187
2. Carbonisation at about lOOO°C.
3. Graphitisation at lSOO-3000°C, according to the
type of PAN.
Carbon fibres are characterized by extremely high

modulus and tensile strength depending on the
temperature employed in the graphitisation stage.
These are extensively used in industrial applications
such as aircraft structures and space applications. Due
to their high-perfonnance structures, carbon fibres are
used as reinforcements embedded in a suitable resin
(such as epoxide, polyester, phenolic, polyphenylene
and polyimide).
5.2. Spandex
Elastomeric polyurethane fibres are known as
'Spandex'. It is formed by chain extension reaction
involving a relatively low molecular weight hydroxy-
tenninated polyether, polyester and related prepolymer
and a diisocyanate.
Spandex or elastomeric segmented polyurethane

is a thennoplastic elastomer which has good tensile
strength than any other rubber. They exhibit excellent
resistances to tearing and abrasion, action of body oils
and lotions, heat and perspiration and to the action of
oxygen or ozone. However, they show relatively poor
resistance to acids, alkalis and to steaming (causing
hydrolytic degradation) than the conventional rubbers.
Spandax find applications as oil seals, footwear

soles and heels, construction of conveyor belts, printing
rollers, fabric coatings, water-proof items, tank-lining
in some chemical plants, cable sheathing, pump
impellers, gaskets and diaphragms, industrial hoses
etc. Heat-setting treatment is used for ensuring
dimensional stability of fabrics and garments.
Properties
Tenacities of Spandex fibres are 0.55-1.1 gj denier

as against 0.20-0.25 gj denier for natural rubber
filaments and elongation at break is of the order of
400-700%. They show snap-back rubber-like elasticity
though the recovery is not as complete as in the case
of natural rubber vulcanizates. The permanency of
setting is a matter of degree and the set gradually gets
diminished with time as the fibre is allowed to relax.
Recovery is faster at a higher temperature.
Specific gravity of Spandex fibres is about

1.20-1.25. They show a moisture regain of 1.0-1.2%.
Their resistances to dilute acids and alkalis are good.
Spandex fibres made by DuPont of USA bears the trade
name'Lycra'.
5.3. Metallic fibres

Can you really spin a gold fibre? Yes, you can. It
isn't made out of straw but the minerals, gold and silver,
can be made into a fibre.
5.3.1. History
Since ancient times gold and silver have been used

as decoration in the clothing and textiles of kings,
leaders, nobility and people of status. Many of these
elegant textiles can be found in museums around the
world. However, today using gold or silver in our
clothing is impractical and expensive. Although some
couturiers still use it in their textiles the modern
substitute is metallic fibres. The Dobeckmun Company
produced the first modern metallic fibre in 1946.
Currently metallic fibres are manufactured primarily
in Europe and none are made in the United States. In
Specialltv Fibres 189
the past aluminum has always been used as the base
in a metallic fibre. More recently stainless steel has
become a base as well. It is more difficult to work with
but provides properties to the yarn that allows it to be
used in more high tech applications.
5.3.2. Production process
There are two basic processes used in

manufacturing metallic fibres. The most common is
the laminating process, which seals an aluminum layer
in between polyester or acetate film. These fibres are
then cut into lengthwise strips for yarns and wound
onto bobbins. The metal can be colored and sealed in
a clear film, the adhesives can be colored or the film
can be colored. There are many different variations of
color and effect that can be made in metallic fibres,
producing a wide range of looks.
Metallic fibres can also be made by using the

metalizing process. This process involves heating the
metal until it vaporizes then depositing it at a high
pressure onto the polyester film. Although this process
makes the fibres more flexible and durable it is less
commonly used.
The Lurex Company Limited has manufactured

metallic fibres in Europe for over fifty years. They
produce a wide variety of metallic fibre products
including fibres used in apparel fabric, embroidery,
braids, knitting, military regalia, trimmings, ropes,
cords and lace surface decoration. The majority of
Lurex® fibres have a polyamide film covering the metal
strand but polyester and viscose are also used. The
fibres are also treated with a lubricant called P.W., a
mineral based oil, which helps provide ease of use.
5.3.3. Characteristics
(i) True metal fibres are heavy in weight compared

to other fibres.
(ii) Coated metallic fibres do not tarnish.
(iii) The film on a metallic fibre makes it

insusceptible to salt water, chlorinated water or climate
conditions.
(iv) Metallic fibres can come in many forms

including braids, ribbons, and chains.
5.3.4. Uses
(i) The most common end use for metallic fibres is

upholstery fabric and textiles such as Lame and
brocade.
(ii) Many people also use metallic fibres in weaving

and needlepoint.
(iii) More commonly today it can be found in

clothing, anything from party and evening wear to club
clothing to everyday wear. The shiny effect that the
fibres create has become a symbol of the new
millennium.
(iv) Metallic fibres are also used in places that you

may encounter every day.
(v) Stainless steel and other metal fibres are used

in communication lines such as phone lines and cable
lines.
(vi) Stainless steel fibres are also used in carpets.

They are dispersed throughout the carpet with other
Speciality Fibres 191
fibres so that they are not detected. The presence of
the fibres helps to conduct electricity so that the static
shock is reduced. These types of carpets are often used
in high volume computer areas where the chance of
producing static is much greater.
(vii) Other uses include tire cord and missile nose

cone, work clothing such as protective suits, space
suits, cut resistant gloves for butchers.
5.3.5. Care instructions
The best way to determine how to care for a

particular metallic fibre in a fabric is to read the care
instruction label. If you cannot locate the label you
should have the item dry-cleaned if at all possible. Be
careful when ironing metallic fibres or fabric because
the heat from the iron, especially at high temperatures,
can melt the fibres.
Metallic fibres are becoming very popular in today's

fashion industry and in technical applications. Many
designers have been using more metallic fibres and
fabrics in their modern designs. Clothing that
resembles space suits and other futuristic ideals have
started to gain popularity. Modern advances in
technology reflect into our daily lives. One of these ways
is the common use of synthetic and metallic fibres.
5.4. Reflective materials

It has always been a rule to wear white during early
morning walks or evening jogs to keep us visible to
oncoming traffic. But technology now offers an even
safer way to be outdoors when it is dark. The solution:
reflective fabrics. We commonly see reflective materials
on our tennis shoes, bicycle wheels, and road signs.
But did you ever think you would have reflective
materials in your shirts and shorts? They are becoming

more and more common in today's sports and
activewear, and they will continue to affect the way we
dress, work, and play.
Reflective fabrics, films, yarns, and trims contain

thousands and thousands of tiny glass beads that
refract light. These beads act like mirrors reflecting
light back to the original source. When a car's lights
hit the glass beads, your clothing and accessories
become highly visible allowing you to be seen on even
the darkest night. Some reflective materials such as
3M's Scotchlite Silver Reflective Material are 1,500
times brighter than your favorite white tee shirt. And
not only are you visible, but your clothing fabric is
possibly water resistant, resistant to environmental
agents, and stronger than ever before.
Fabric manufacturers are now using DuPont's

Cordura® fabric to create reflective fabrics that increase
visibility and safety in low light conditions such as
snow, fog, and darkness at night. Some manufacturers
weave reflective yarns into this soft, comfortable fabric
while others use an IlluminNITETM coating-based on
thousands of metallic microparticles. Both methods
allow clothing to be ideal for play such as snowboarding
and cycling, and work such as police and roadside
emergency work. The possible uses are endless, and
people from all walks of life can benefit from them in
someway.
Activewear, sportswear, children's wear, and even

pet wear is being enhanced by the safety features of
reflective materials. With the use of technology,
designers and manufacturers are making safety more
fun and fashionable. In many situations, the safety
features cannot be seen during the day as colors and
accents disguise the reflective material.
Technology allows reflective materials to come in
different shapes and sizes and meet the needs of any
active lifestyle. Now that these materials are available
in craft and fabric stores nationally, it is easier than
ever to take advantage of this high-tech safety gear.
Fabrics, films, yarns, trims, sheeting, and transfers
can now be produced with reflective qUalities. This
means that you can sew or peel-and-stick reflective
materials to your clothing, accessories, and equipment.
Caring for these materials is also easy as most of them
can be machine laundered and ironed on a low setting.
Clothing and accessories in which reflective

materials are commonly used include caps, shoes,
uniforms, helmets, leg and arm bands, and carrying
cases such as backpacks. Everyone benefits from the
use of reflective materials including children, adults,
the elderly, athletes of all types, and even pets.
Pet products containing reflective materials are

becoming increasingly popular with pet lovers. Glow
Dog, Inc. and Neo-Paws International are just two
examples of companies now offering reflective comfort,
safety and performance for your loyal friend. Reflective
merchandise includes jackets, leashes, shoes, life vests,
dog and cat collars, and logowear for pet owners.
5.4.1. Transportational uses of reflective

materials
Reflective materials are not only taking apparel into

the new millennium, but the way we travel as well. We
often take the air and roadways for granted and do not
realize how reflective materials keep us moving safely.
For example, signs along the roads we travel everyday
are visibly enhanced with reflective sheeting and films.
Traffic signs, traffic control devices such as markers,

tractor trailer decals, and commercial signs would be
impossible to see at night without the use of these
powerful, reflective materials. Available in colors such
as red, yellow, blue, white, green, and orange, reflective
materials can easily be used to make traveling safe
and easy.
Considering the role of reflective materials in our

lives, they have many benefits and advantages. Wearing
and using them is an easy and inexpensive way to keep
yourself, your family, and your pets safe at night. So
next time you think the oncoming car can see you, or
you stop as you see the stop sign at the intersection,
think about how easily visible your world is with the
power and safety of reflective materials.
5.4.2. Possible characteristics
• Soft
• Safe
• Breathable
• Attractive
• Wind resistant
• Comfortable
• Water Repellent
• Self-adhesive
• Strong
• Easy to sew
• Durable
• Inexpensive
5.5. Silicate fibres
These fibres are of commercial importance in high-
temperature applications. This group includes fibres
such as silicates, spun mineral silicates, or mixtures
of minerals containing silicates; silica fibres are spun
from silicon dioxide; quartz fibres are spun from
naturally occurring silica in the form of quartz; silica
(G) is obtained from the treatment of glass fibres.
After removing all substances other than silica, the

fibres are produced by dispersing silica or its derivatives
in viscose dope, then spinning the filaments and
subsequently burning the combustible products to
leave a fibre composed essentially of silica.
Silicate and silica fibres are very strong, non-

flammable, and highly resistant to chemicals and
solvents. None of these fibres absorbs moisture. These
fibres are extensively used in boilers, high-temperature
electrical and thermal proofing, in socket insulation,
missile technology, etc.

1. Explain in brief the preparation of carbon fibre.
2. What is spandex?
3. List out the applications of spandex.
4. List out the uses of reflective materials.
5. What are speciality fibres?
i) Glass fibres are of E and _ _ type.
ii) Carbonisation is carried out at _ _ oC.
iii) Lurex is a _ _ fibre.

iv) IlluminNITE is a _ _ material.
v) _ _ fibres are used for thermal applications.
7. Match the following-
i) Snap-back fibre a) Moving safety
ii) 1500-3000°C b) Quarts
iii) Silica fibre c) Lyocell
iv) Reflective material d) Carbon fibre
v) Precursor e) Graphitisation
f) Lycra
g) Glass fibre

1. What are the different properties of spandex
fibres?
2. Explain in brief the uses of carbon fibres.
3. Briefly explain the characteristics of metallic
fibres.
4. What are the uses of metallic fibres?
5. What are reflective materials?
6. What do you meant by silicate fibre?

1. What are metallic fibres? Explain its production
process?
2. Explain in detail the spandex. List out the
characteristics of reflecting materials.
3. How carbon fibre is prepared? List out its uses.
CHAPTER 6
IDENTIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBRES
6.1. Introduction
Textile fibres such as cotton, wool, silk, rayons,
nylon, polyester, polyacrylonitrile fibres etc. have frrmly
established themselves to different extents in the
apparel and household fields, even though newer and
newer fibres are appearing on the textile horizon.
The development of new fibres and the modification

of the existing ones make the identification of textile
fibres more difficult. With common fibres, the
identification is easy because of the diverse physical
and chemical properties and the appearance of the
fibres. For example, wool is more rough and curly than
any other fibre, whereas nylon and cotton have a
smooth surface. The difference between the animal and
vegetable fibres is more marked chemically than
physically. Vegetable fibres (composed mainly of
cellulose) burn readily when ignited and they leave very
little or no ash. Different fibres dissolve in various
solvents and this property may also be used to identify
them. At last longitudinal view and cross-sectional view
provide a sure way of identifying the fibres with
certainty.
Thus one or more of the different tests such as

burning tests, staining tests solubility and
microscopical tests are used to identify most of the
common textile fibres. Even though many fibres may

be identified and differentiated from one another using
these tests, main difficulties arise with blends
containing different fibres or dyed fibres or fibres from
fabrics, which have been chemically treated or 'finished'
to impart some of the useful properties.
Hence it is always necessary to find out unknown

textile fibres. The following tests are carried out to
identify the textile fibres-
(a) Burning test

(b) Staining test
(c) Chemical solubility test
(d) Microscopical test
(e) Elemental analysis for fibres
(1) Melting point- of fibres
(g) Infrared spectroscopy of fibres
The combination of results obtained from the above

tests will give a positive identification of the unknown
textile fibres. Systematic identification of fibres have
been shown in Fig. 6.3 given at the end. It will be helpful
for the students to understand the complete methods
of identification as a quick review.
6.2. Burning test

This is the simplest test, which can be used to
identify common fibres. In this test, a bundle of fibres
are ignited at one end and the odour, colour and shape
for the ash or bead are noted. Further, other·
characteristics such as burning slowly or rapidly,
melting, not melting etc,. are observed. The behaviour
of fibres when approaching flame, when inside flame
and after removal from the flame is also observed.
Based on these observations, fibres may be roughly
identified. The burning characteristics of some
individual fibres are summarised in Table 5.1.
Identification of textile fibres 199
6.3. Staining tests
This method is based on different colouration

produced when different fibres are treated with a
mixture of certain dyes. Thus providing a means to
distinguish between textile fibres.
Identification of an unknown fibre can be carried

out by the general and specific staining tests. This test
is based upon a partiCUlar functional group present in
the fibre, or a particular class of fibres is stained by
certain dyes from the mixture of dyes.
6.3.1. Specific staining test
(i) Zinc chloride-iodine reagent
Take fibres in a test tube and add zinc chloride-

iodine reagent. Steep the fibres for 5 minutes at room
temperature. Remove the fibres, wash thoroughly with
cold water and observe the colour.
Blue-purple: Mercerised cotton and regenerated

cellulose.
No effect: Unmercerised cotton.
(ii) Conc. Nitric acid
Take fibres in a test tube and add conc. nitric acid

till it immersed. Heat for one minute on a boiling water-
bath.
Yellow colour: Protein fibres
Addition of ammonia (NH 4 0H) changes these yellow

fibres to orange.
N
Table 6.1. Identification of textile fibres by burning test 0
0
Sr. Fibre Approaching In flame After leaving Odour Residue
No. flame the flame (smell) (Ash/Beed)
l. Cotton Does not shrink Burns Continues Burning Very little, soft,
away, ignites on quickly burning, has paper grey ash
contact afterglow
2. Wool Curls away from Burns Self- Burning Brittle, small,
flame slowly extinguishing hair black bead, easily
crushable
3. Silk Curls away from Burns, melts Usually se1f- Burning Shiny black ash,
flame slowly, sputters extinguishing hair easily crushable
4. Viscose Does not shrink Burns Continues Burning Light fluffy residue
away, ignites on quickly burning, no paper very small amount
contact after glow
5. Cupram- Does not shrink Burns Continues Burning Light fluffy residue
monium away, scorches quickly burning after paper very small amount
Rayon contact glow
6. Acetate Fuses and melts Burns Continues to Acrid (Hot Irregular shaped, (jjI
)(
Rayon away from flame quickly burn rapidly vinegar) hard, black bead i
~
turns black III
~
7. Tri-acetate Fuses and melts Burns Continues to Acrid (Hot Irregular shaped,
rayon away from flame quickly burn rapidly vinegar) hard, black bead ~
<ir
~.
1ii
8. Polyester Fuses, melts and Burns slowly Self- Slightly Hard, round, ~
::I
black, g
shrinks away from with melting extinguishing sweetish or brown bead ~
g.
flame ::I
9. Nylon 6,6 Melts away from Burns slowly Self- Amine Hard, tough, grey, Q.
flame, shrinks with continuous extinguishing (celery) or brown bead ~
& fuses melting ~
10. Nylon 6 Melts away from Burns slowly Self- Amine 6!
Hard, round, grey iil
flame, shrinks bead en
with continuous extinguishing
& fuses melting
11. Acrylic Fuses away from Burns rapidly Continuous to Burning Hard, black, brittle
flame, melts, without flame burn and melt, meat irregular bead
ignites readily and sputtering, hot molten
melts polymer will
drop off while
burning
N
o
......
(iii) Million's reagent
Take fibres in a test tube and add Million's reagent

till it immersed. Heat for one minute on a boiling water-
bath.
Pink or red colour: Protein fibres

Brown colour: Regenerated protein fibres
(iv) Alkaline lead acetate
To a saturated solution of lead acetate add

drop-wise 10% sodium hydroxide solution till the
precipitate formed begins to dissolve. Allow to settle
the precipitates and add decanted solution to the fibres
taken in an another test tube. Heat for 2 minutes on a
boiling water-bath. Remove the fibres, wash thoroughly
with cold water and observe the colour, fibres, wash
thoroughly with cold water and observe the colour.
Dark brown to black: Wool and hair fibres

Pale brown: Casein fibres
No effect: Silk fibres
(v) Diphenylamine-sulphuric acid reagent
Take fibres in a test tube and add few drops of

diphenylamine-sulphuric acid reagent. Heat f9r few
minutes on a boiling water-bath.
Blue colour (due to nitrile group): Acrylic and

Modacrylic fibres
(vi) Iodine solution (0.1%)
Take fibres in a test tube and add 75% sulphuric

acid (M : L = 1 : 100). Fibres soluble after 15 minutes
and then add 0.1 % iodine solution.
Deep blue colour: Viscose and Vinylal fibres
Light blue colour: Cuprammonium fibres
Yellow colour: Acetate fibres
6.3.2. General staining test
Shirlastains A, D and E (a proprietary product,

mixture of dyes) give much more information for the
identification of a specific fibre or a class of fibres.
Take small amounts of textile fibres in a test tube,

add ether to degrease, dry at room temperature, wash
thoroughly with cold water and immerse in Shirlastain
for one minute at room temperature or heat for 2
minutes on a boiling water-bath. Remove the fibres,
wash thoroughly with cold water and observe the
colour.
Shirlastain A Fibre
Pale purple Cotton
Mauve Mercerised cotton
Yellow orange Regenerated protein
Bright blue Cuprammonium
Bright pink Viscose
Greenish yellow Diacetate
Off white or Triacetate
slight yellow
Bright yellow Wool, Hair
Cream to yellow Nylon
White Saran, Vinyon HH,
Absestos, Glass
No colour Teflon, Polpypropylene
Shirlastain D Fibre
Bright blue Cotton
Bright green Viscose
Shirlastain E Fibre
(2 min boiling)
Orange brown Diacetate
Light brown Triacetate
Dark brown Nylon 6·
Brown Nylon 66
Bright yellow Terylene
Bright red Orlon
6.4. Chemical solubility test

The solubility test can be used to distinguish fibres
of the same group as well as one fibre from another.
Take about 50 mg of small threads of unknown

fibre in a test tube and add about 5 ml of the solvent
(M : L = 1 : 100). Shake occasionally for 10 to 15
minutes at room temperature. Boil the solvent (required
in some cases). Observe very carefully whether the fibre
is soluble, partly soluble, insoluble or soluble on
boiling. The solubility characteristics of some individual
fibre are summarised in following Table 5.2.
6.5. Microscopical tests

If all the other methods fall to distinguish fibres,
microscopical examination of textiles provides a rapid,
accurate and confirmatory test for their identification.
With this method even yarns containing fibre blends
can be easily identified. It has an additional advantage
that when even small amounts of the samples are
available, the test can be carried out easily.
The fibres are identified under a microscope with

a high magnification (e.g. x 500). The fibres are
examined in longitudinal view and in cross-section.
The longitudinal view and in cross-section. The
longitudinal views and cross-sections of some of the
fibres are shown as under-
Table 6.2. Identification of fibres by chemical solubility test ~
::;,
~
Reagents Acetic Acetone Sod. hypo- Hel Formic DMF H2SO4 H2SO4 m-cresol H2F2 ~.
acid chlorite. acid g.

::;,
Conc. (%) 100 100 5 20 85 100 60 75 100 50 .....
0
CD
Temp (cC) 20 20 20 20 20 90 20 38 139 20 ><
~
Time (Min) 5 5 20 10 5 10 20 20 5 20
5!
Fibres Cil
(I)
Acetate S S S S S S S
Acrylic I S P
Cotton I I I S I
Nylon I S S N S S S
Polyester I I I S
Viscose I S S
rayon
Silk S I I S S I
Wool I S I I I I I
Glass I I S I I S
1- Insoluble, S- Soluble, N- Nylon 6 is soluble and Nylon 6,6 is insoluble, P - Plastic type substance is
formed
N
0
(]1
(a) Cotton
Longitudinal view: A
collapsed, spirally twisted
(convolutions) tube with a rough
surface.
Cross sectional view: Flat,
elongated or bean shaped with
lumen parallel to the larger
direction
(b) Mercerised cotton
Longitudinal view: A smooth

surface almost cylindrical more
than cotton. Sometimes show
convolutions.
Cross sectional view: Round
to oval with no or less lumen
(c) Tussar silk fibre (Wild silk)
Longitudinal view: Flat

irregular ribbons sometimes
separate, sometimes twisted
with longitudinal striations
Cross sectional view: Very
elongated triangles normally
separate
(d) Mulberry silk fibres

(cultivated silk)
Lognitudinal view: Irregular

elliptical ribbons. Sometimes
separate, some times twisted,
no striations
Cross sectional view:
Triangular with rounded
comers in pairs, cemented by'
silk gum
(e) Wool fibres
(f) Viscose rayon fibres
Longitudinal view: Uniform

dameter with striations running
parallel to the fibre axis
Cross sectional view: Differ
in cross sectional appearance
according to the manufacturing
process. Basically has a irregular cross section vary
from circular and oval to ribbon
like forms.
(g) Acetate rayon fibres
Longitudinal view: Distinct

lengthwise striations, 2-3 in
numbers, no cross markings.
Irregular shape like 'clover leaf
with serrated outline.
(h) Cupraammonium rayon
Longitudinal view: Rod like

appearance, uniform surface
having no markings
Cross sectional view: Smoth,
round and bean shaped cross
section.
(i) Polyamide fibres (Nylon)
Longitudinal view: These

fibres are cylindrical in shape,
ver'y regular, rod like
appearance with smooth
surfaces and without having
any markings. The fibres are
uniform in diameter.
Cross sectional view: Round
(j) Polyester fibres
These fibres are uniform in

diameter, have smooth,
structureless surfaces and are
highly transparent.
Longitudinal view: Very

regular, rod like appearance
Cross sectional view: Circular
in cross section
(k) Acrylic fibre
Longitudinal view: Straight

rod like with smooth surface.
Cross sectional view: Nearly
round or bean shape.
(I) Mod acrylic fibre
Longitudinal view: Length-

wise striations, no cross
markings
Irregular or ribbon-like.
6.6. Elemental analysis for fibres
The classification of fibres can also be made on
the basis of the elements present in it. The following
tests are carried systematically-
(i) Sodalime test for nitrogen
Take small amount of fibres in a test tube and add

sodalime to cover it. Put a cotton plug in the mouth of
the test tube. Heat the test tube strongly from top to
downwards and test the vapour with most red litmus
paper. Litmus paper turns blue because of ammonia,
indicates presence of nitrogen in the fibre (Fig. 6.1).
-----J-R'ed litmus
~ paper
Blue if nitrogen
Soda lime present
Fibre sample
Fig. 6.1. Test for Nitrogen
(ii) Alkaline lead acetate test for s'ulphur
To a saturated solution of lead acetate add drop-

wise 10% sodium hydroxide solution till the precipitate
form begins to dissolve. Allow to settle the precipitates
and add decanted solution to the fibres taken in
another test tube. Heat for two minutes on a boiling
water bath. Dark brown to black colour of the fibres
indicates presence of sulphur in the fibre.
(iii) Beilstein test for chlorine
Heat a copper wire in a flame till the green colour

21 0 Textile Raw Materials
in the flame disappears. Remove the wire and touch
quickly the red hot end to the fibres so that few fibres
stick to it. Again introduce the wire in a flame. A green
colour in the flame indicates presence of chlorine in
the fibre (Fig. 6.2).
Green colour if
chlorine present
Fig. 6.2. Test for Chlorine
Observations
Nitrogen present: Protein fibres, regenerated

protein fibres, polyamide fibre~, acrylic fibres,
elastomeric fibres.
Chlorine present: Chloro fibres.
Sulphur present: Wool and hair fibres
Nitrogen and chlorine present: Modacrylic fibres.
Nitrogen and chlorine absent: Cellulose,
acetates, polyester and polypropylene.
6.7. Melting point of fibres

Small threads of unknown fibres are cut to about
5 mm lengths. On one cover slip spread them evenly
in a single layer and put another cover slip over it.
Take the melting point on Kofler type simple instrument
or on an inverted L-shaped copper block. Melting point
is useful as confirmatory test and is slightly variable
depending upon the manufacturer.
I Unknown fibre
I
I Heat
I
I Non-thermoplastic I r Thermoplastic I
I I
I Microscopy
I I Elemental Analysis 1
I I
Protein with
surface
Protein with
no surface
Cellulose
with
Cellulose with
striations (no
Cellulose with
striations
INitrogen1rChlorine II Nltrog~n
Chlorine
& I~ No nitrog.en,
No chlorine
scales scales convolutions delustrant (delustrant
I
I I
I
Wo,?11
Hair
8 I
I
Cotton I I
I
Bast!
Leaf
I I
I
Regen.
Cellulose
Solvents
soluble in
IChlorofibre I rModacrylic I
LYiacetate
Solvents
soluble in
Acetone
Formic Acid Polyamide Irlacetate Acetic Acid
Dimethyl -P-0IY0Ief1n Xylene
sulphoxide Acrylic Polyester Insoluble
N
Fig. 6.3. Flow chart for fibre identification ......
......
Natural fibres and regenerated natural fibres do

not melt.
Fibre Melting point (0C)

Cellulose acetate
Diacetate 250-255
Triacetate 290-300
Polyamide
Nylon 6 210-215
Nylon-66 260-265
Aramid Decomposes above 370
Polyester 250-260
Acrylic 230-290
Modacrylic 185-190
Chloro
Saran 165-168
Vinyon NH 135-150
Fluoro
Teflon FEP 285
Teflon TFE Decomposes
Polyolefin
Polyethylene 133
Polypropylene 163-170
Elastomeric
Lycra 230-270 (variable)
6.8. Infrared spectroscopy of fibres
The infrared spectra of an unknown fibre is

compared with that of a known fibre. If it matches
exactly in the finger-print region, identification is
confirmed. The interpretation of spectra can also
determine the functional groups and ultimately the
identification of fibres.
Sample preparation of fibres are prepared to a mull

or potassium bromide disc. The latter method is more
advantageous. By using ATR-Attenuated Total
Reflectance or MIR-Multiple Internal Reflectance the
fibre sample can be mounted directly in instrument.
Fibre Functional groups
responsible for absorption
bands
Cellulose and Re- -OH -C-O-C- -CH 2 -
generated cellulose
Protein and Re- -CONH- -CO- -NH-
generated protein -COOH -NH 2
-C=C- -CH- -CH 2 - - CH 3
Cellulose acetate -OH -C-O-C- -COO-
-CO- -CH3
Nylons -CONH- -CO- -NH-
-COOH -NH 2
Polypropylene -CH- -CH 2 - -CH 3
Acrylic -C=N -CH2 - -CH-
Chloro -C-CI -CH 2 - -CH-
Fluoro -C-F
Polyester -COO- -CO- -CH2 - -C=C-
Polyethylene -CH2 -
Elastomeric -CONH- -CO- -NH- -COO-
-CH 2- -CHa -C=C-
EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE

1. Name two methods of identification of textile
fibres.
2. Which is the most accurate and best method
for identification of fibre?
3. What does ATR stand for?
4. What is meant by MIR?
5. Name four fibres which do not melt.
6. The mixture of dyes used in general staining
test is called _ _ _ __
7. Name various reagents used in specific staining
test.
8. Which elements are detected in elemental
analysis for fibres?
9. Match the following fibres for solubility-
Fibre Solvent
Cotton m-Cresol
Wool 60% H 2S0 4
Viscose H2F2
Glass Sodium hypochlorite
Polyester 75% H 2 S0 4
Formic acid
10. Match the following for melting-
Fibre Melting point (OC)
Nylon 6 133
Nylon 6, 6 165
Polyethylene 260
Polypropylene 250
Polyester 210
i) Natura and regenerated fibres do not melt.
ii) Cotton do not have convolutions in its
structure.
iii) Polyester dissolves in sulphuric acid.
iv) Wool has prominent scale marking on its
surface.
v) Polyamide melts at IS0 a C.
vi) The presence of sulphur in elemental
analysis confirms wool and hair fibres.
12.Briefly define longitudinal and cross-sectional
structure of following fibres-
(a) Cotton (b) Wool
(c) Silk (d) Mulberry silk
(e) Mercerised cotton (f) Viscose rayon
(g) Polyester (h) Nylon 6
(i) Acrylic (j) Modacrylic
(B) Medium answer type questions

1. What is importance of identification of textile
fibres?
2. Enlist different test employed for identification
of textile fibres.
3. What are various observations in burning test
of fibres? Explain with examples.
4. How chemical solubility test is carried out to
identify fibres?
5. Explain staining test for identification of textile
fibres briefly.
6. Write a note on identification of a fibres by
melting point method.

1. What are various tests carried out for
identification of textile fibres. Explain briefly
each of them.
2. Write a detailed note on identification of textile
fibres using burning test.
3. Discuss in detail the chemical solubility test for
identification of textile fibres.
4. How does microscopic test is helpful in
identifying textile fibres? Explain in detail with
suitable examples.
0::::0
REFERENCES
1. Dr. V.A. Shenai: Technology of Textile
Processing, Vol. 1, Textile Fibres.
2. A.A. Vaidya: Production of synthetic fibres.
3. Premamoy Ghosh: Fibre science and technology.
4. J.B. Rattan: Modern textile technology.
5. S. Jayaprakasam & R. Gopala Krishnan: Fibre
science and technology.
6. E.P.G. Gohl & L.D. Vilensky: Textile science,
Second edition.
7. A. Wynne: The motivate series- Textiles.
8. M. David Potter and Bernard P. Corbman: Fibre
to fabric.
9. R.W. Moncrieff: Man made fibres.
10. Mary L. Cowan & Martha E. Jungerman:
Introdution to textiles.
11. Ann. M. Collier: A hand book of textiles.
12. V.B. Gupta & V.K. Kothari: Manufactured fibre
technology .
13. M. Lewin and J. Preston: Handbook of fibre
science and technology.
14. Marjory L. Joseph: Essentials of textiles.
15. Jules Labarthe: Elements oftextiles.
16. A.J. Hall: The standard hand book of textiles.
17. Encyclopaedia of textiles, American Fabric
Magazine.
( APPENDICES)
(A) Important dimensional, physical, mechanical and chemical properties of fibres i
Forms and
Dimensions
Properties
Physical and Mechanical Chemical
Ii
1. Length 1.
Colour 1. Response to moisture
i. average length 2.
Luster i. moisture regain
ii. length distribution 3.
Specific heat ii. swelling
4.
Specific gravity iii. drying
2. Cross-section 5.
Refractive index 2. Chemical change on heating
i. total area 6.
Conductivity 3. Solvent action
ii. uniformity i. electrical 4. Resistance on weathering agents
iii. shape ii. thermal i. oxygen
3. Crimp 7. Softening temperature ii. light and heat
i. frequency and glass transition iii. microorganism
ii. amplitude temperature 5. Resistance to common chemicals
4. Surface character 8. Mechanical properties i. acids
5. Spirality i. tensile strength/tenacity ii. alkalis
ii. extensibility iii. oxidizing agents
iii. stiffness 6. Dyeability
iv. elasticity
v. resilience
vi. toughness I\)
______________________9__
._A_b_i1_it~y_t_o_l_·m~p~a~rt__
st_r~e~n~gt~h~_______________________________________ ~
N
(8) Physical and mechanical properties of textile fibres N
0
Fibre Name Range of Density Initial Tenacity Breaking Moisture Melting Attack by
Type diameter (gjcm2) modulus (gmjtex) extension regain point chemicals
(Mlc:ron) (gm/tex) ("/6) 65% r.h. roC) dissolved
("/6) degraded by
Natural Cotton 11-22 1.52 500 35 7 7 Strong acid,
(Vegetable) Flax 5-40 1.52 1830 55 3 7 strong alkalis
Jute 8-30 1.52 1750 50 2 12 mildew,
Sisal 8-40 1.52 2500 40 2 8 light
Natural Wool 18-44 1.31 250 12 40 14 Strong alkalis,

(Animal) Silk 10-15 1.34 750 40 23 10 acids, light
Regenerated Viscose rayon 12+ 1.46-1.54 500 20 20 13 Acids, alkalis

Acetate 15+ 1.32 350 13 24 6 230 Acids, alkalis,
Triacetate 15+ 1.32 300 12 30 4 230 light, acetone
acids (j)I
><
Syntheti:: Nylon ~
6 14+ 1.14 250 32-65 30-55 2.8-5 225 Strong acids, ~
6,6 14+ 1.14 250 :lE
32-65 16-66 2.8-5 250 oxydizing agents,
light ~
CD
Polyester al·
e;;
I
Dacron l2+ 1.34 1000 25-54 12-55 0.4 250 Strong alkalis
Acrylic
OrIon 12+ 1.16 650 20-30 20-28 1.5 Sticks Strong alkalis
(Dupont) at 235
Acrilan 12+ 1.17 650 18-25 35-50 1.5 Strong alkalis
(Monsanto)
Polyolefm .
Polypropylene 0.91 800 60 20 0.1 105 light
Polyethylene 0.95 30-60 10-45 0 115 Very resistent
Spandex
Lycra 1.21 6-8 444-555 1.3 230 Resistent
Inorganic
Glass 5+ 2.54 3000 76 2-5 0 800 Very reSistent
Asbestos 0.01-0.30 2.5 1300 1500 very resistent
I\)
I\)
I\)
(C) Composition of vegetable fibres
Ingredients (%) Fibre

Cotton Jute FZax Ramie SisaZ Coir
Cellulose 89-92 58-60 60-63 78-81 60-62 48-52
Hemicellulose 20-23 12-14 21-24 10-12

,
Lignin 11-14 3-4 Traces 6-8 30-34
Fats and Waxes 0.6-0.8 0.6-0.8 2-3 0.2-0.3 0.5-0.8 0.6-1.8
Pectinous and 2.0-2.8 1.5-3.0 6-8 4-7 2-4 2-3

nitrogenous matters
Aqueous extract 0.5-0.8 0.8-1.2 5-7 6.7 1-2 1-1.5 Ci)I

><
Mineral matter 0.8-1.2 0.6-1.2 1-1.5 1.8-2.2 ~
0.5-0.9 1-2
~
:e
Water 6-7 8-10 8-11 7-9 6-10 3-5 ~
<ii
al'
e;;
Appendices 223
(0) HOW TO BUY COTTON?
corrON BUYING is the most important function
that will contribute to optimum profit of a Spinning
Mill.
EVALUATION of cotton quality is generally based

more on experience rather than scientific testing of
characteristics only.
TIMING of purchase depends on comprehensive

knowledge about various factors which affect the prices.
CHOOSING the supplier for reliability of delivery

schedules and ability to supply cotton within the
prescribed range of various parameters which define
the quality of Cotton.
BARGINING for lowest price depends on the buyer's

reputation for prompt payment and accept delivery
without dispute irrespective of price fluctuations.
ORGANISING the logistics for transportation of

goods and payment for value of goods will improve the
benefits arising out of the transaction.
PROFIT depends on producting high quality Yarn

to fetch high prices. Influence of quality of raw material
is very important in producing quality Yarn. But,
quality of yam is a compound effect of quality of raw
material, skills of work-force, performance of
machines,- process know-how of Technicians and
management expertise.
A good spinner is one who produces reasonably

priced yarn of acceptable quality from reasonably priced
fiber. Buying a high quality, high priced cotton does
not necessarily result in high quality Yarn or high
profits.
GUIDELINES FOR COTTON CONTRACTS
Buyer and seller should clearly reach correct

understanding on the following factors.
1. Country of Origin, Area of Growth, Variety, Crop

year
2. Quality- Based on sample
(a) description of grade as per ASTM standard
or sample for grade only and
(b) specifying range of staple length, range of
Micronaire, range of Pressley value, uniformity,
percentage Of short fiber, percentage of non-lint
content, tolerable level of stickiness.
3. Percentage of Sampling at destination
4. Procedure for settling disputes on quality or

fulfillment of contract obligations.
5. Responsibility regarding contamination or

stickiness.
6. Price in terms of currency, Weight and place of

delivery.
7. Shipment periods
8. Certified shipment weights or landing Weights
9. Tolerances for Weights and Specifications
10. Port of Shipment and port of destination, partial

shipments allowed or not, transshipment allowed or
not, shipments in containers or Break-bulk carriers
11. Specifications regarding age of vessels used

for shipment, freight payment in advance or on delivery
Appendices 225
12. Responsibility regarding Import & Export duties
13. Terms of Insurance cover
14. Accurate details of seller, buyer and broker
15. Terms of Letter of Credit regarding bank

negotiation, reimbursement and special conditions, if
any.
Choose Correct Supplier or Agent
Apart from ensuring correct terms of Contract,

Buyer should ensure that purchase is made from
Reliable Supplier or through a Reliable Agent. Some
suppliers evade supplies under some pretext if the
market goes up. Otherwise, they supply inferior quality
Either way buyer suffers.
By establishing long term relationship will reliable

Suppliers~ Buyers can have satisfaction of getting
correct quality, timely deliveries and fair prices.
CHOOSING SUPPLIER
It is good to establish long term relationship with

a few Agents who represent reputed Tra<iL.'1.g Companies
in various Cotton Exporting Countries. They usually
give reliable market information on quality, prices and
market trends so that buyer can take intelligent
decision. As cotton is not a manufactured Commodity,
it is good to buy from dependable suppliers, who will
ensure supply of correct quality with a variation within
acceptable limits at correct price and also deliver on
due date.
CHOOSING QUALITY
In a market with varying market demand situation.

Buyers should decide which counts of Yam to spin.

Buyer can call for samples suitable for spinning Yam
counts programmed for production. Many spinners
plan to do under-spinning. For Example, cotton
suitable for 44s is used for spinning 40s. Some spinners
do over-spinning. They buy cotton suitable for 40s and
spin 44s count. But, is advisable to spin optimum count
to ensure quality and also keep cost of raw material at
minimum level as for as possible. Some spinners also
buy 2 or more varieties and blend them for optimum
spinning. For' this purpose, a good knowledge to
evaluate cotton quality and co-relate with yarn
properties of required specifications. Cotton buyer
should develop expertise in assessing cotton quality.
Machine tests must be done only to confirm manual
evaluation.
TAKING RIGHT OPTION
It is not advisable just to look at price quoted by

supplier. Correct costing should be done to work out
actual cost when the cotton arrives at Mills. Further
lowest price does not always mean highest profit for
buying. Profitability may be affected by anyone or more
of the following factors.
• If the trash is higher, more waste will be

produced reducing the Yam out- tum and hence
profit.
• If the uniformity is less, end - breakages will be

more reducing productivity and profitability.
• If grade is poor or more immature fibers are

found in cotton, the yam appearance will be
affected and Yarn will fetch lesser price in the
market.
Appendices 227
• If the transit period for transport of cotton is
longer, then also profitability will be reduced
due blocking of funds for a longer period and
increased cost of Interest.
• Rate of Sales Tax varies from State to State. This

must be taken in to account.
• Hence, thorough costing should be worked out

before deciding on the quoted pnce onlv
The margin of profit in spinning cotton should be

calculated before deciding on The various options
available depending on market conditions should be
studied.
The factors to be considered for taking options are

as follows.
• Count for which demand is good in market
• Prices for various counts for which demand

exists.
• Cost of manufacturing various counts.
• Adequacy of machinery for the selected count.
• Various varieties of cotton available for spinning

the selected count.
• Profit margin for each count using different

varieties.
• Price quoted by different Agents for same variety

of selected cotton.
• Reliability of supplier for quality and timely

delivery.
COST CONSIDERATION
Apart from the price quoted by the seller, other

incidental costs must be taken into consideration
before buying.
a) Duration for goods to reach Buyer's godown from

the seller's Warehouse. Ifthe duration is longer, buyer
will incur higher interest charges.
b) Cost of Transportation and taxes.
RESOLUTION OF DIFFERENCES
If any discrepancy arises in the quality, weight and

delivery periods, sellers should be willing to resolve
the differences amicably and quickly. In case the matter
is referred to Arbitrator, the award of the Arbitrator
must be immediately enforced.
BENCH MARKS FOR EASY REFERENCE
It is better if quality bench marks are established

for different varieties so that buying decisions are easy
for buyers Following standards have been found to be
appropriate for Strict Middling Grade Cotton of staple
1.3/32".
1. Staple Length ( 2.5% Spun Length): Minimum

1.08" or 27.4 mm
2. Micronaire: Minimum 3.8, Maximum-4.6

Variation within bulk sample should not be more than
± 0.1
3. Colour: Rd not less than 75 not more than 10
4. Nep Content: Less than 150 per gram

Appendices 229
5. Strength: More than 30 gramsftex
6. Length Uniformity Ratio: Not less than 85%
7. Elongation: More than 8%
8. Short Fiber Content: Less than 5%
9. Seed Count Fragments: Less than 15 per grams
Commercial Bench marks can be given as follows:
1. Price Competitiveness
2. Price Stability
3. Easy Availability throughout year
4. Uniform Classing and Grading system
5. Even- running Cotton in all Characteristics
6. Reliable deliveries or Respect for sanctity of

contract.
QUALITY EVALUATION
The need for quality evaluation is for following

purposes
a) To get optimum quality at lowest price.
b) To decide whether cotton bought will can be

processed to spin Yam of desired specifications.
c) To check the quality of sample cotton with quality

of delivered cotton.
d) To estimate profitability of purchase decisions.

Knowing the cotton properties is only half the battle

for profits. It needs expertise to know how to get best
of its value.
Currently popular instrument called HVI gives

ready information on various parameters to make
correct purchase decisions.
If may not be possible to get all the desired qualities

in one variety or one lot of Cotton. In such case, an
intelligent decision to select J?est combination of
different varieties or lots to get desired Yam quality is
necessary to get optimum yarn quality at optimum cost.
If correct evaluation is made, profits are large.

Hence, evaluation of quality is essential for optimum
profit making and also make the customers happy with
supply of correct quality of Yarn.
Expert dassers can manage to achieve reasonable

level of correct evaluation. Now, with availability of
better instruments, it is better to check qUalities to
make sure that desired quality of cotton is procured.
These details should give cotton buyer reasonable
guidance to make correct evaluation of cotton quality
and ensure its suitability for producing required quality
of yarn.
Quality evaluation Characteristics co-relation to

yam
1. Staple Length Spinning Potential
2. Fiber Strength Yarn strength, less Breakages
3. Fineness Finer Spinning Potential
4. Maturity Yarn Strength and even ness,
better dyeing
5. Non-Lint.content Reduced Waste
(Trash)
Appendices 231
6. Uniformity Ratio Better productivity and
Evenness
7. Elongation Less end Breakages
8. Friction Cohesiveness
9. Class Yarn Appearance
10.Stickiness Spinning problem by lapping &
Dyeing quality
11. Grey Value Yarn lustre
12. Yellowness Yarn Appearance
13.Neppiness Yarn neppiness
14. Moisture Content 8.5% moisture content
optimum for spinning at 65%
Quality testing instruments
Instrument Measurements
Fibrogaph Length
Pressley Apparatres Fiber Bundle Strength
HV I Instrument Length, Strength, Uniformity,
Elongation, Micronaire, Color
and Trash
Stelometer Instrument Strength, Elongation
Micronaire Combined test of fineness &
maturity
Shirley Trash Analyser Trash Content
Manual Test Class & staple length
Moisture Meter Moisture
Colorimeter Grey value & yellow ness.
Brightness
Polarised light Maturity
microscope or
causticare test
Photographic film Neppiness
GLOSSARY
Keywords and definitions
Auxochrome: It is responsible for intensifying and

deepening colour.
Acid: A compound which liberates hydrogen ion (H+)

when dissolved in water.
Alcohol: Organic compound contain one or more

-OH groups.
Alkali: A compound which liberates hydroxyl ion

(OH-) when dissolved in water.
Amino group: A radical group with the formula -HN 2 -
Aromatic: Organic molecules containing one or more

benzene rings 0 or C6 H 6 •
Anion: A negatively charged ion or radical e.g. OH-,

CI-.
Atom: The smallest particle of an atom.
Acrylic: Defined as manufactured fibre in which fibre

forming substance is any long chain synthetic
polymer composed fo at least 85% by weight of
acrylonitrile units.
Glossary 233
Abrasion resistance: The ability of the textile to resist
the affects of wear in use.
Backwashing: Wool scouring treatment after carding

to remove surface dirt.
Bast fibre: Natural cellulosic fibre taken from the stem

of a plant e.g. flax and jute.
Batch processing: Here material is arranged in distinct

lots (batch) for processing purposes rather than
being processed continuously.
Beam: It is a multi-end package containing a large

number of parallel threads usually several
thousands metres long.
Bicomponent fibre: A fibre manufactured from two

d.ifferent polymers.
Blending: Process of mixing of component fibres to

form a uniform blend of raw materials.
Bleaching: A wet processing treatment used primarily

to improve whiteness of textile material.
Count of yam: System to express the length per unit

mass or mass per unit length.
Indirect (length per unit mass)

• Cotton count: Number of hanks of 840 yds
weighing one pound.
• Metric count: Number of kilometre length
weighing one kilogram.
• Woolen Count: No. of hanks of 256 yards
weighing one pound.
• Worsted count: No. of hanks of 560 yards
weighing one pound.
Direct (mass per unit length)

• Denier: Weight in grams of 9000 metres.
• Tex: Weight in grams of 1000 metres.
• Decitex: Weight in grams of 10000 metres.
Continuous filament: A yarn composed of one or more

fllaments that run the whole length or indefinite
length.
Cover factor: Defmed as the area covered by yarn when

compared with the total area covered by fabric.
Cake: A package of continuous fllament yarn.
Cabled yam: A yarn consisting of two or more ply yarns

twisted together. It requires minimum two
separate twisting operations.
Carbonising: Process of removal of cellulosic impurities

from wool by acid treatment followed by
neutralisation with alkali.
Cellulosic fibre: Fibre formed from cellulose, may be

natural (e.g. cotton or flax) or regenerated
(viscose rayon).
Cellulose acetate: Modified regenerated fibre.
Chromophore: Responsible for colour in a dye

molecule.
Coagulating bath: It is a chemical bath used to solidify

filaments extruded during wet extrusion.
Colouration: It is process of application of colour to a

textile (by dyeing or printing).
Cone: A single end wound package with taper angles.

Glossary 235
Co-polymer: A polymer consisting of two different
monomers.
Crimp: The waviness or distortion in a yarn caused by

interalacement in fabric.
Crimp (%)= Straightened length - Crimp length x 100

Crimp length
Combing: Removal of a pre-determined percentage of

short fibres prior to the spinning operation.
Cotton: Natural cellulosic fibre formed on coat of the

seed of bush.
China grass: The ribbons of fibres obtained after retting

the stem of plant is called china gra~s specially
referred for Ramie fibre.
Catalyst: A substance (compound or element) which

influences the rate of a chemical reaction, but
itself remains chemically unchanged at the end
of reaction.
Cation: A negatively charged ion or radical e.g. Cl-,

OH-.
Cotton: Defined as white fibrous substance covering

seeds hruvested from cotton plant.
Degree of polymerisation: The number of monomer

molecules which are connected to each other in
a polymer molecule.
Denier: Direct system, defined as the weight in gms of

nine thousand metres of the material.
Denier = Weight (gm) x 100

Length (mt)
Dead cotton: A term used for immature cotton fibres.
Draw texturing: A texturing process combined with

the drawing stage of filament yam manufacture.
Desizing: Removal of size (mainly starch) applied at

the weaving preparation stage.
Dimensional stability: Ability of fabric to ret..... its

dimensions.
Drafting: It is stretching out of a fibre assembly to

align fibres.
Drawing: Process involving drafting of slivers

accompanies by doubling, combines two or more
intermediate products to make final product,
improves blending and regularity.
Dye: An organic chemical which is able to absorb and

reflect visible light.
Dyeing: Process of colouration of material.
Dry spinning: A fibre forming process in which a

solution of polymer dissolved in solvent is
extruded; the fibre coagulates as solvent
evaporates.
Extrusion: Process of manufacture of man-made

fibres/filaments, sometimes called spinning. In
this polymer is forced through spinneret (a plate
like a shower head) to form filament.
• Melt extrusion: Simplest form of extrusion.

Polymer is hearted, extruded and cooled.
• Solvent dry extrusion: Here polymer is
dissolved in a solvent before extrusion then
drying.
Glossary 237
• Wet extrusion: Polymer is dissolved in a
solvent, extruded into a chemical bath (called
coagulating bath) to solidify into filaments.
Elasticity: The ability of a material to resume its

original form, size or shape after forces which
caused its deformation have been removed. It
is the ability to return from stretch.
Electrons: These are negatively charged particles

surrounding the positive nucleus of an atom.
Endothermic: Chemical reaction which absorbs heat

energy.
Fibre: A unit of matter characterised by flexibility,

fineness and a high length to width ratio.
Filament: A fibre of indefinite length.
Flat yam: A multifilament yarn with no twist. Also

used for those yarns in which small amount of
twist is introduced by subsequent processing.
Finishing: Processes carried out on a textile material

to make it more suitable for its end use.
Flexural rigidity: Resistance of a material to bending.
Fancy yarn: Irregularities such as slubbs are added

deliberately to create textured effect.
Feet: Original non-woven fabric.
Filature: The establishment In which cocoon is

unwound.
Frison: Coarse and uneven silk fibre at the beginning

and end of each cocoon.
Geotextiles: A flexible material used by civil

engineering e.g. construction of roads.
Ginning: Removal of cotton fibre from seed.
Grey fabric: Piece of cloth in the condition in which it

leaves the loom.
Homopolymer: A polymer consistipg of one type of

monomer.
Hydrophilic: Water absorbent, having a strong affinity

for water.
Hydrophobic: Water repellent, having an aversion to

water.
Hygroscopic: Ability of a fibre to absorb moisture from

the atmosphere.
Intermolecular forces: Those forces which hold

molecules together. With reference to textile
fibres there are three-
• Hydrogen bonds (strongest bonds)
• Polar bonds
• Vander Wall's forces (weakest bonds)
Ion: A positively or negatively charged atom e.g.

Cl-, Na+
Keratin: The protein that wool fibres are composed of.
Lap: A continuous sheet of staple fibres used to feed a

card.
Lea: A length of 120 yards in hank.
Linen: A yam or fabric made from flax (bast fibre).

Glossary 239
Lint: Good cotton fibres removed from seed during
ginning process.
Loose stock: Term used in wet processing to describe

mass of fibre.
Lustre: The degree of which a material reflects light

(shine).
Liquor: Term used in textile processing for water based

solutions. It may contain several dissolved,
suspended and undissolved substances.
Moisture content: The amount or weight of water

contained in the fibre or textile material
expressed as a percentage oftotal weight of fibre
or textile.
Morphology: With reference to textile material it is the

study of the size, shape, structure and
composition of the fibre and their influence on
fibre properties and fibre end use.
Multifilament yarn: A yarn composed of two or more

continuous filament.
Monomer: The repeat unit of a polymer.
Monofilament yarn: Yarn with one filament.
Mercerised cotton: Cotton fibre treated with

concentrated solution of caustic alkali to
increase lustre, strength and dye affinity.
Milling: Deliberate action of felting a fabric which cause

irreversible entangling of fibres.
Mineral fibre: Formed from mineral, only one naturally

occurring is Asbestos.
Modified regenerated fibre: Fibre of natural original

which has been both physically and chemically
modified.
Modacrylic: A manufactured fibre in which fibre

forming substance is any long chain synthetic
polymer composed ofless than 85% but at least
35% by weight of acrylonitrile unit.
Moisture regain: The amount or weight of moisture in

a material expressed as a percentage of oven
dry weight of the material.
Molecular orientation: The arrangement of molecular

within a fibre.
• Crystalline regions: Areas of high molecular
orientation responsible for tensile strength
to fibre.
• Amorphous regions: Less ordered regions,
confer properties such as flexibility and
reactivity to fibres.
Mole: Molecular weight of a substance expressed in

grams.
Mer: A combining form used in the names of molecules,

chemical compounds, etc.
Non-wovens: A manufactured web of directional or

randomly oriented fibre bounded by friction or,
cohesion or adhesion:
Nano-metre (nm): One hundred millionth of a metre

(lO-9 m ).
Oleophillic: Having strong affinity for oil.
Oleophobic: Having an aversion to oil.

Glossary 241
Orientation: Fibres are oriented by drawing
(stretching) which aligns the molecules within
filament
• FOY (Fully Oriented Yarn): Fully drawn to
achieve maximum tensile properties.
• POY (Partially oriented yarn): not fully drawn.
Ply yarn: A yarn in which two or more single yarns are

twisted together in one operation also called
Double yarn or Folded yarn.
Polymerisation: The process of joining together small

molecules end to end termed monomers is called
polymerisation.
• Addition polymerisation: All atoms present

in monomer are also present in polymer.
• Condensation polymerisation: Small
molecules are eliminated during reaction.
Pigment: Substance used to add colour which is not

water soluble and which usually adheres to the
surface of the fibre.
Polymer: A long chain molecule consulting of monomer

units.
Relative humidity: It is the amount of water vapour

in air expressed as a percentage of the maximum
amount that the air can hold at the particular
temperature. The higher the temperature, the
more moisture the air can hold.
Ramie: A bast fibre (from the stem of plant) which is

specially known for its lustre.
Regenerated fibre: Fibre of natural origin that has

been physically modified.
Resiliency: Term used in textile having same meaning

as elasticity. It is ability of a material to return
to its original from after compression.
Spun yarn: A yarn that consists of fibres of regular or

irregular length usually bound together by twist.
Staple fibre: Any natural or manufactured fibre

produced or cut to a short length measured in
inches or centimetres. A fibre of definite length
(usually 10-500 millimetres).
Silk: Only natural continuous filament. A protein fibre

formed by larvae of moth (silk worm) to form its
cocoon.
Substrate: A material to which dye and chemicals may

be added.
Synthetic fibre: A fibre made from chemicals.
Substantivity: Attraction between fibre polymers and

dye molecules.
Sericulture: The systematic rearing of silkworm is

called sericulture.
Textured yarn: Yarns that have been processed to

introduce durable crimps, coils, loops or other
fine distortion along the length of the fibres or
filaments. It is of three types-
• Stretch yarn
• Modified stretch yarn
• Bulk yarn
Tex: 'tex' is defined as the mass in grams of 1000

metres of material.
Glossarv 243
Torsional rigidity: It is resistance to twisting of a fib~e
defined as force required to put unit twist
between the ends of a specimen of unit length.
Texturing: Permanent deforming of continuous

fIlament yarns to give properties and appearance
similar to staple spun yarns.
Thermoplastic: Material that deforms in heat without

changing chemically.
Top: A term used in worsted industry for sliver.
Tow: A large assembly of fi1lament fibres (extremely

long fibres) to facilitate handling and processing
during the production of manufactured staple
fibre; a row of continuous filaments.
Trash: Term for impurities in cotton.
Twist: Spiral turns given in a yarn to hold the

constituent fibres together.
Tussar: Originally a light brown, fawn or natural

coloured plain woven silk fabric; also made in
cotton yarns and mercerised and dyed to imitate
the colour of silk fabric.
Tenacity: Maximum stress that is developed to rupture

the textile material expressed in grams per tex,
also called tensile strength or specific strength.
Viscosity: A measure of free flow of liquid. Too viscous

liquid wi1l not flow easily.
Viscometer: instrument used for measuring viscosity.
Weave: refers to the order of interlacing of the warp

ends and weft picks.
Wool: A natural protein fibre obtained from the fleece

of sheep.
Woollen: A processing system, originally for wool fibres,

where no attempt is made to align fibres thus
giving a bulky, soft warm yarn.
Worsted: A processing system (originally used for best

quality fine wool) in which fibres are aligned to
give a compact, smooth, regular fine yarn for
weaving into fine suiting.
Wet spinning: A fibre forming process in which the

polymer is dissolved in a solvent and the solution
is extruded into a chemical bath.
Yam: Assembly of substantial length and relatively

small cross-section of fibre or filaments with or
without twists.
Yield: Amount of good wool fibre gained from scouring

process as compared to total greasy wool,
usually expressed as percentage.
a:o

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Chapter Title Page

1. INTRODUCTION OF TEXTILE FIBRES

6. IDENTIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBRES

References ....................................................... 217

Till about the turn oftlle nineteenth century, only

In recent years, this list has been supplemented

made possible many of the major advances in product

This chapter is concerned with general description

1.2. Fibre and its characteristics

1.2.1. Characteristics of a fibre

(i) Length to diameter ratio

For a fibre to be suitable for textile purposes, its

A fibre for textiles must be strong, Its inherent high

A fibre should be essentially flexible. Flexibility

Fibre-length is an important physical parameter.

(v) Elasticity and resilience

Besides having good strength and flexibility, a

The density of the fibre largely influences its

1.2.2. Textile fibre and filament

Fibres have been defined by the textile institute

A filament is a very long fibre. The length of

1.3. Classification of fibres

During the past two decades, there has been a great

The natural fibres have been classified into thre

1. Animal fibres- wool, silk, hair fibres etc.

2. Vegetable fibres- cotton, jute, flax, hemp etc.

3. Mineral fibres- Asbestos

vegetable fibres are further divided into four sub-

Silk Wool Hair

(a) Seed fibres- cotton

(b) Bast fibres- flax-hemp

(c) Leaf fibres- manila, sisal

(d) Fruit fibres- coir

The maTl-made fibres are divided into two broad

(a) regenerated (natural polymer)

(b) synthetic fibres

The regenerated fibres are those in which the fibre-

The regenerated fibres are further divided into the

1. Cellulose fibres- rayon, such as viscose;

2. Cellulose esters- acetate and triacetate.

3. Protein fibres- casein

4. Miscellaneous- alginate, natural rubber etc.

Synthetic fibres are classified according to their

2. Polyesters: Dacron, Terylene

5. Polyurethanes: lycra or spandex

6. Miscellaneous synthetics: glass and metallic,

Thermoplast and non-thermoplast

Fibres may also be classified into- (a) Thermoplasts,

(a) Thermoplasts- When appropriately heated, the

Cellulose acetate rayon, nylons, vinyl chloride- or

(b) Non-thermoplasts- Most non-thermoplastic

All cellulosic fibres available in nature together with

Monomers are usually chemically reactive, whereas

The length of the polymer is most important. All

average molecular weight of polymer

(A) Addition polymerisation

With this type of polymerisation the monomers add