889

An investigation of the tool–chip contact length and

wear in high-speed turning of EN19 steel

N A Abukhshim, P T Mativenga* and M A Sheikh

Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Manchester Institute of Science
and Technology, Manchester, UK

Abstract: In this paper, existing models for the tool–chip contact length are reviewed with regards to
high-speed machining theory. Results of an investigation into the tool–chip contact length and tool
wear of uncoated tungsten-based cemented carbide tools for dry high-speed turning of EN19 alloy
steel are presented. The tests were conducted at cutting speeds ranging between 200 and 1200 m/min
with feed rates of 0.14 and 0.2 mm/rev and a constant depth of cut of 0.1 mm. From measurements,
the effect of cutting speed on contact length and tool life has been determined and several
important relationships established. It was found that the contact length changes according to the
contact phenomena in the tool–chip interface zone, which is predominantly affected by the cutting
speed. Moreover, the influence of the cutting speed on the contact length changes significantly from
conventional to high-speed cutting environments. The study concludes that existing models are
quantitatively inadequate for predicting tool–chip contact lengths in high speed turning.

Keywords: high-speed turning, contact length, tool life

NOTATION production method in use today. It has been estimated

that 15 per cent of the value of all mechanical components
a depth of cut produced worldwide are manufactured by machining
Ar real area of contact processes [1]. Although high-speed machining (HSM)
As seized area of contact has been known for a long time, it has only started to
h undeformed chip thickness play a role of major importance in machining in the last
hc deformed or actual chip thickness two decades. During this period, HSM has started to
Lc total length of contact respond well to the increasing demands of high machining
Ls length of the sticking region complexity and very close tolerance requirements in
s tool feed (mm/rev) products. Consequently, it has found applications in
V cutting velocity three major industries: machining of aluminium parts in
VB flank wear land the automotive industry, finishing of hardened materials
in the die mould industry and machining of weight

rake angle saving long/thin aluminium parts in the aerospace
 chip compression ratio industry [2–4]. The main advantages of high-speed
t shear stress machining over conventional machining come from
 shear angle higher feed rates and lighter depths of cut. The lighter
depths of cut were always possible but higher feed rates
have now made HSM processes more cost effective.
1 INTRODUCTION Moreover, with high-speed machining, light cuts do not
necessarily increase the cycle time.
Despite many recent developments in manufacturing The driving force behind the developments in HSM is
technology, machining remains the most important mainly the highly competitive environment associated
with industries that require an increase in productivity
The MS was received on 12 January 2004 and was accepted after and an improvement in quality of high-volume produc-
revision for publication on 15 March 2004. tion of parts made of new high-strength and difficult-
*Corresponding author: Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and
Manufacturing Engineering, University of Manchester Institute of Science to-machine materials such as titanium alloys. The main
and Technology (UMIST), PO Box 88, Manchester M60 1QD, UK. factors that enabled the use of high-speed machining
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890 N A ABUKHSHIM, P T MATIVENGA AND M A SHEIKH
Fig. 1 Cutting speeds for HSM [6]
technology in industry on a wider range are the develop-
ment of new spindles, which are capable of speeds higher
than 10 000 r/min in milling, thereby promoting the use
of higher feedrates, rigid low-mass machine tool struc-
tures, linear slideways that are capable of coordinated
linear motions at high speeds and advanced computer
numerically controlled (CNC) processors which can
optimize the machining operations in terms of velocity,
accuracy and surface finish.
The criteria for classification of HSM are highly
dependent on the type of workpiece material being
machined [5]. Schulz and Moriwaki have developed a
classification for HSM as shown in Fig. 1 [6]. Therefore,
an accurate definition of HSM should be based on its
comparative performance with conventional cutting
speeds. In general, machining at cutting speeds and
feed rates of 60 per cent or higher than the conventional
cutting speeds is considered to be in the high-speed
range. In this paper, cutting tool performance of
uncoated cemented carbide inserts in HSM will be
evaluated by considering some of the important
factors such as chip–tool contact length, tool wear and
tool life.
In high-speed machining the chip formation process
yields a very high strain rate and a very high non-
linear plastic deformation of the material in the
contact area. This generates highly localized stresses in
the cutting tool and a sharp rise in the temperature at
the interface. It is necessary, therefore, to consider the
tool–chip contact phenomena in HSM as it greatly
affects the tool life, cutting forces, machine tool stabi-
lity, required power consumption and heat generation,
which may compromise the accuracy of the process.
The driver for this research is that the availability of
sound machining process databases, especially the
tool–chip contact phenomenon, is an obstacle to the
application of finite element analysis (FEA) to process
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
development in the case of machining at high cutting
speeds.
2 TOOL–CHIP CONTACT LENGTH
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examination
of cutting tool inserts used in metal cutting processes
clearly shows superficial marks left on the cutting tool
surface. This is due to the continuous flow of the chip
over the tool rake face during the cutting process starting
from the cutting edge. It is also well known that the metal
cutting process is highly influenced by the secondary
shear zone at the chip–tool interface.
In the orthogonal cutting process, as the tool is forced
to cut into the workpiece, a chip is produced in the
shearing zone which moves along the rake face of the
tool until it curves off or breaks up. In this process the
power supplied by the cutting force is consumed in two
ways: by breaking down the workpiece metal bonds in
the sticking region and by overcoming friction in the
sliding region on the rake and clearance faces. Both
deformation and friction generate heat. The three heat
sources thus identified in the cutting process are plastic
deformation, the tool–chip contact area and the friction
created between the tool flank face and the workpiece
surface being machined [7, 8]. In the first case of plastic
deformation in the shear deformation zone, the shearing
force breaks the chemical and physiochemical bonds
along the shearing region and produces the chip, thereby
generating heat. As soon as the chip is formed, it is forced
to flow along the rake face of the tool undergoing
secondary sheared deformation, again generating heat.
This heat from the two sources is transferred to the
tool.
In the orthogonal cutting process, the chip contacts
the tool from the tip to where it leaves the tool. This
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Fig. 2 Factors related to the tool–chip contact length [10, 11]
distance defines the tool–chip contact length. The heat
flowing into the tool is dependent on this contact
length with larger contact lengths resulting in more
heat dissipating into the tool [8]. Controlling the contact
length can thus reduce this heat and the friction force.
This can be achieved by making a groove in the tool
rake face to restrict the contact length to a distance
from the tool tip to the chip breaker groove. The chip
breaker groove is a simple and most practical method
for controlling the contact length. A large selection of
tool inserts with different forms of chip breaker grooves,
and hence with restricted contact lengths, is available
nowadays [9]. Generally, the contact length in different
tools varies according to the cutting parameters, tool
materials, workpiece materials and tool geometry, as
shown in Fig. 2 [10, 11], where Lc is the total contact
length and Ls is the sticking length. A long contact
length is undesirable as it leads to higher heat transfer
to the tool. On the other hand, if the restricted length
on the insert is extensively increased so that the contact
length becomes smaller than the length of the sticking
region, then the maximum temperature zone moves
closer to the cutting edge. This leads to an unconven-
tional chip break, which shortens the tool life. Therefore,
for every combination of tool material, workpiece
material and cutting conditions, there is an optimum
contact length that should be used on the chip breaker
insert. It should also be noted that contact length
and chip form are affected by the same factors, which
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implies that the chip form is dependent on the contact
length.
3 THE TOOL–CHIP CONTACT PHENOMENA
IN METAL CUTTING
The tool–chip interface is divided into two regions. At
any instant during the cutting process a part of the inter-
face is exposed to full seizure while another undergoes
inter-facial sliding. Seizure (or full sticking friction) can
be defined as a solid phase weld between the primary
atomic bonds of absolutely clean metallic surfaces. Inter-
facial sliding, on the other hand, is due to the relative
movement between the last layer of chip material
(atoms) and the tool rake face surface. These interfacial
conditions are highly dependent on the cutting condi-
tions and properties of the tool and workpiece materials
[12–14].
The ratio of seized area As to the real area of contact
Ar is given by As ¼ CAr , where C is a constant controlled
by factors such as that shown in Fig. 2. It has been found
that at low cutting speeds, sliding tribological conditions
prevail at the tool–chip interface zone, but at high cutting
speeds these conditions change from sliding to seizure
[14]. In the metal cutting process, increasing the cutting
speed leads to an increase in the chip temperature and
the normal stresses. It appears that there is a critical
speed above which the resulting high temperatures
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
892 N A ABUKHSHIM, P T MATIVENGA AND M A SHEIKH

cause local plastic flow at the interface, resulting in

atomic contact and seizure. The intense shear localiza-
tion associated with seizure leads to an increase in
temperature at the tool–chip interface. This, in turn,
strongly influences the rates of physical phenomena,
such as chemical reactions, abrasive wear and diffusion,
which drive tool wear and lead to the failure of the
tool cutting edge by plastic deformation.
At cutting speeds less than the critical speed, very few
asperities are in contact and the interface is composed of
very weak secondary bonds, which can be easily broken
by elastic recovery of the chip. This is usually attributed
to the presence of the oxide layer on the cutting tool rake
surface, which prevents any strong adhesion between the
tool and the chip material. This allows a relative motion
(interfacial sliding phenomena) between the chip
material and the tool in the interface zone. The degree
of sliding, and hence the friction force, has been found
to be strongly dependent on the cleanliness, or otherwise,
of the binding surfaces between the chip and the tool
structures. Fig. 4 Concentration profiles for tungsten obtained from
SEM analysis of chips generated at different cutting
It has been reported that, at cutting speeds equal to the
speeds during machining of AISI 1045 grade steel
critical speed, when the compressive stress is almost equal
with a tungsten carbide tool [14]
to the yield strength of the workpiece material, the oxide
layer on the tool surface wears away due to the sliding
friction. This gradually generates a clean surface on the speeds using cemented tungsten carbide inserts [85%
tool rake face that is in contact with the chip, leading to WC, 11.5% Co and 3% Ta (Nb) C], the critical speed
the establishment of primary atomic bonds and strong was found to be 100 m/min. At this cutting speed the
adhesive junctions. This condition at the critical speed normal stress was 710 MPa, which is equal to the yield
represents seizure between the tool and the chip, and the stress of the workpiece material at 320 8C, as shown in
real and apparent contact areas become equal. Once Fig. 3. It was reported that diffusion started at this
seizure occurs, the temperature at the contact area rises speed and then continuously increased with the cutting
due to highly localized thermoplastic shear at the tool– speed as a result of the increase in the interface tempera-
chip interface and the tool material starts to transfer ture, as shown in Fig. 4 [14].
heat into the chip.
In an investigation to study tribological conditions at
the tool–chip interface, turning steel at different cutting 4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTACT
LENGTH AND STRESS

In metal cutting the tool–chip contact area is exposed

Fig. 3 Variation of the calculated compressive stress at the
tool–chip interface and the yield strength with the
calculated primary shear zone temperature during
machining of AISI 1045 steel [14]
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
to both shear and compressive stresses. Zorev’s model
suggests that the total contact length is composed of
a sticking (plastic portion) and sliding (elastic portion)
length, as shown in Fig. 5b. It would appear that the
models of Bobrov and Gordon do not represent such
a distinction. However, it is expected that at very low
cutting speeds, Bobrov’s model would work since
sliding is a main contact phenomenon [15]. Tay and
Murarka simplified the shear stress distribution in the
sliding region by assuming a linear trend, as shown
in Fig. 6 [16–18]. Tay went further by assuming that
the sticking contact length is equal to the sliding
contact length. In a separate study, though Woodward
did not comment on his results, they indicated that
the sticking and sliding contact lengths were almost
equal in dry machining of iron at low cutting speeds
[19].
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Fig. 5 Shear stress distribution according to (a) Bobrov, (b)
Zorev and (c) Gordon
Fig. 6 Simplified shear stress distribution according to (a) Tay
and (b) Muraka
Another striking finding from Woodward was that dry
machining of
-brass promoted a 100 per cent sticking
phenomenon in the total contact length compared to
machining in tetrachloride. It appears that there is an
absence of a comprehensive scientific investigation in
the literature of the relative magnitudes of sticking and
sliding lengths and their variation with cutting condi-
tions.
5 ESTIMATION OF CONTACT LENGTH
A number of theoretical and experimental estimators
have been proposed for the contact length in the ortho-
gonal cutting process [15]:
1. Based on the experiments conducted on different
types of steel using a tool with an unrestricted rake
face, a relationship between the chip–tool contact
length, chip thickness, the chip compression ratio
and the friction coefficient has been developed. It
suggests that the length of the sticking region is
approximately equal to the deformed chip thickness
hc , and in accordance with Tay’s assumption the
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total chip–tool contact length Lc is given as
Lc ¼ 2hc ð1Þ
2. Another experimental determination of the contact
length has been made from numerous cutting tests per-
formed on different types of ferrous and non-ferrous
metals including carbon steels. These experiments
were performed at different cutting conditions and
have shown that the tool–chip contact length is
strongly related to the chip thickness compression
ratio  and the depth of cut a. The contact length
was approximated as
Lc ¼ að2:05
0:55Þ ð2Þ
3. Another expression that has been used for the tool–
chip contact length is
Lc ¼ 2a½ð1
tan
Þ þ sec
 ð3Þ
where  ¼ hc =h is the chip thickness coefficient, hc is
the chip thickness and
is the tool rake angle.
4. Yet another relationship has been developed using a
slip-line solution to define the sticking region tool–
chip length for orthogonal cutting:
pffiffiffi
a 2
Lc ¼ ð4Þ
sin  sinð458 þ 

Þ
where  is the shear angle.
5. Cutting tests performed on cold drawn 1018 steel
have shown that the tool–chip contact length varies
with the cutting speed given by the following equation
[20]:
Lc ¼ 0:485 þ 0:00280V ð5Þ
where V is the cutting speed in m/min.
While the model of Stephenson et al. shown in equa-
tion (5) predicts that contact length will increase with
cutting speed, it does not show any representation of
the known variation with rake angle and chip thickness.
The cutting tests used to derive this model were also in
the conventional machining range since the maximum
cutting speed used was 82 m/min for steel.
Based on different assumptions for the stresses distri-
bution on the tool rake face and the shear zone, Zorev
[21], Hahn [22], Klushin [23], Oxley [24] and Rubenstein
[25] have proposed different expressions for the contact
length derived on the basis of equilibrium considera-
tions. These models are not readily applicable to machin-
ing practice because the shear angle needs to be
determined from multiple tests. The models of Zorev,
Klushin, Oxley and Rubenstein also include a variable
m factor. This m value could be regarded as a factor of
uncertainty or at worst ignorance, which has been
shown to take values from
5 to 22 [16, 26]. These
models have been successfully applied in a qualitative
prediction of the effect of chip thickness and rake angle
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
894 N A ABUKHSHIM, P T MATIVENGA AND M A SHEIKH
on contact length [26]. The various models, however,
show significant quantitative differences in the predicted
value of contact length. However, there is disagreement
on the effect of cutting speed. Zorev and Oxley have
indirectly included the effect of speed by incorporating
the shear angle in their models. Gad suggests that the
contact length is best estimated by statistical curve fitting
and put forward an expression for the tool–chip contact
length as a function of cutting speed. The equation
predicts a reduction in the contact length with cutting
speed and was only tested up to 80 m/min. His model
was, however, derived for HSS tool materials which are
not recommended for HSM of steels. Examination of
the equation for the problem presented in this paper
led to unrealistically low contact length values.
5.1 Some comments on the works on tribological
conditions at the tool–chip interface in conventional
turning
1. The total tool–chip contact length is assumed to be
twice the sticking length but no analytical or scientific
evidence has been presented to support this assump-
tion. While this assumption has been made for
conventional machining its relevance to HSM has
not been validated.
2. In the slip-line solution for the tool–chip contact
length [equation (4)], it appears that the effect of the
tool edge radius was not taken into account. An
edge radius would modify the slip lines and probably
lead to a shorter tool–chip contact length.
3. There is no general agreement on an appropriate
model for the tool–chip contact length. The solution
given by equation (3), for example, oddly produces
a contact length for the zero chip thickness coefficient,
i.e. for no cutting.
4. The proposed models do not account for the influence
of the cutting speed on the contact length. Indeed,
most of the studies on steel were performed only at
cutting speeds less than 100 m/min with some studies
at 300 m/min, which lies in the conventional cutting
range where the effect of speed may be neglected.
5. The rake angle [in equations (3) and (4)] has been
found to influence the relative chip contact length
Fig. 7 Schematic of the experimental configuration for the orthogonal cutting tests
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
significantly. However, other factors such as tool
nose radius wear and the build-up edge also affect
the rake angle and hence the contact length may be
critical in HSM.
6. Many researchers have presented the distribution of
the stress along the contact length. Some have made
assumptions about the shear plane and the normal
stress distribution over the tool face, which has been
taken to be uniform. Others have assumed that the
deformation is confined to a shear plane and the
chip has been considered as a free body. Many have
assumed that the shear zone undergoes a constant
shear stress equivalent to the shear strength and a
constant normal stress. In recent years, the finite
element analysis has also been used to discuss the
tribological conditions along the tool–chip interface.
The major concern about this method comes from
the assumptions of a constant coefficient of friction
and a uniform stress distribution.
It is thus obvious that the issue of the tool–chip con-
tact length needs more scientific study and, in particular,
exploration for the HSM case. This paper investigates
this aspect for the case of machining at high cutting
speeds ranging from 200 to 1200 m/min.
6 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
6.1 Design of the experiments
The main objective of this research is to develop an
accurate data set for the tool–chip contact conditions
relevant to a common industrial machining process at
high cutting speeds. Serial experiments were carried out
to clarify the effect of cutting speed on chip morphology
and contact conditions. All the experimental tests were
conducted without a coolant and repeated for different
cutting times in order to establish statistically meaningful
behaviour (see Fig. 7).
6.2 Cutting conditions
A series of cutting tests were carried out on an MHP CNC
turning centre MT-50 under dry cutting conditions. The
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inserts were tested at cutting speeds of 200, 400, 600, 800,
1000 and 1200 m/min. The tests were conducted at two
different feed rates s of 0.14 and 0.2 mm/rev. A low but
constant value of the depth of cut a of 0.1 mm was used
throughout the tests.
6.3 Cutting inserts
Commercially available tungsten-based uncoated flat-
faced cemented carbide inserts (grade: Sandvik gray
CNMA 433 H1P) were tested. These inserts have geome-
tries identical with the ones designated by ISO as CNMA
120412 H1P (rhombus shape insert 808, square shank
negative inserts with 1.2 mm nose radius). During the
tests the inserts were rigidly mounted using a Coroturn
RC rigid clamp system on a left-hand style tool holder
(designated by ISO as DCLNL 2020 K12) with a rake
angle of
68.
6.4 Workpiece material
All cutting tests were performed on EN19 alloy steel
(AISI 4140H) with a hardness of 600 Hv. This material
was chosen for its well-known properties and for its
relevance to the automotive and heavy equipment
industries. EN19 has many diverse applications in the
manufacture of automobile components such as crank-
shafts, piston rods, steering components, axles, gears
and high-resistance screws. The workpiece used for the
tests was in the form of a solid cylindrical bar of
200 mm length and 150 mm external diameter.
6.5 Experimental techniques
Each of the twelve inserts was used for four cutting tests
at cutting lengths of 200, 400, 600 and 800 mm for the
Fig. 8 Variation of the tool–chip contact length with the cutting speed for four different values of the cutting
length (s ¼ 0:14 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)
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same cutting speed, giving a total of 48 tests. The bar
was prepared by removing about 4 mm from the outside
surface to eliminate any effect of workpiece surface
inhomogeneities on the experimental results. A chamfer
was also created at the end of the workpiece prior to
the actual turning tests to prevent any entry damage to
the cutting tool edge at the beginning of the cut.
The measured response variables were tool–chip
contact lengths Lc , tool–chip contact area Ac , tool
flank wear VB and the crater wear area. These variables
were measured from SEM images of the worn inserts.
The usual methods of coating the insert with copper or
Prussian blue were found not to be practical for aiding
distinct contact length measurement since at high cutting
speeds the coating is oxidized [11]. Conversely, the high-
temperature signature on the uncoated inserts was found
to enhance clarity of contact length examination in
HSM. The chips produced during the cutting tests were
also examined using SEM and the chip thickness was
measured using a centre micrometer.
7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
From the series of machining tests conducted several
important relationships have been established.
7.1 Tool–chip contact length
The experimental chip–tool contact length was estimated
by measuring the length of the contact track on the insert
rake face after the machining tests. Figures 8 and 9 show
the plots of the average contact length Lc against the
cutting speeds for different machining lengths, for two
different feeds of 0.14 and 0.2 mm/rev respectively. It is
evident from these plots that the variation of the contact
length with cutting speeds is quite similar for different
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896 N A ABUKHSHIM, P T MATIVENGA AND M A SHEIKH
Fig. 9 Variation of the tool–chip contact length with the cutting speed for four different values of the cutting
length (s ¼ 0:20 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)
cutting lengths with experimental data points confined to
a relatively narrow band. These plots also show that
cutting speed strongly influences the tool–chip contact
length and hence tool wear and tool life. Another obser-
vation from the plots in Figs 8 and 9 is that when the
cutting speed increased from 200 to 400 m/min, i.e.
within the conventional cutting speed region, the contact
length decreased. This behaviour within the conventional
cutting speed region is well known and has been reported
in the literature [10, 26]. This can be explained from a
close examination of SEM images. At 200 m/min, the
chip flow is almost pure up-curl and there is evidence
of localized sliding at the tool–chip interface in the
form of longitudinal grooves in the peripheral region of
the contact area and in the direction of the chip flow.
This localized sliding leads to an irregular sliding flow
of the continuous chips formed during the process over
the tool rake face, thereby producing a long tool–chip
contact length which is almost five times the depth of cut.
As the cutting speed increased to 400 m/min, the
nature of the contact changed and the tribological
phenomenon of seizure took place. A zone of localized
elastic deformation parallel to the under-surface of the
chip, adjacent to the contact area, was observed on the
tool rake face. This clearly indicated the disappearance
of the sliding region, with the contact length becoming
almost equal to the length of the sticking region. It can
be seen from the plots in Figs 8 and 9 that the minimum
contact length for all cutting lengths was obtained at the
cutting speed of 400 m/min. This condition most likely
corresponds to the critical temperature shown earlier in
Fig. 3, where the compressive stress acting on the cutting
tool at the contact area is equal to the yield stress of the
workpiece material and full sticking occurs.
The contact length does not show a significant increase
when the cutting speed increases from 400 to 600 m/min.
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
It may be noted here that in spite of the increase in the
cutting speed from 200 to 400 and then to 600 m/min,
the flank wear progression was significantly slow and
did not reach the wear limit (0.3 mm) over the cutting
time, as will be seen later. This can be attributed to the
decrease in the tool–chip contact length from its natural
size, comprising both sliding and sticking zones at
200 m/min speed, to the sticking zone only at the higher
speeds. This implies that the flank wear could be corre-
lated to the contact length.
At the engagement of the cutting tool for speeds from
600 m/min, a further reduction in the contact length
occurs and as a result the sticking region moves to its
limiting position towards the cutting edge. This, in
turn, results in a shift of the maximum temperature
area on the tool rake face towards the cutting edge.
Due to a relatively small contact area the localized con-
tact stress generated as a result of the very high strain
rate and the high temperature non-linear plastic defor-
mation involved in the chip formation process increases
rapidly, enlarging the contact area over the time of
machining. In addition, a reduction in the rake angle
that is brought about by tool edge wear also promotes
a longer contact length.
7.2 Comparison of experimental results with previous
estimations of contact length
The tool–chip contact lengths have been calculated
according to the available solutions presented in
equations (1) to (5) using the chip thickness compression
ratio obtained from the chip thickness measurements.
These are plotted in Fig. 10 for comparison with
the experimental average tool–chip contact length
values.
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Fig. 10 Variation of the tool–chip contact length with cutting speed (s ¼ 0:20 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)
It can be seen from Fig. 10 that the average tool–chip
contact length values obtained from the experimental
tests are in good qualitative agreement with the ones
predicted by previous solutions in the conventional
cutting speed region of up to 600 m/min. All the plotted
curves in Fig. 10 except equation (5) show a decrease in
the contact length when the cutting speed is increased
from 200 to 400 m/min, which is attributed to the
absence of the sliding region.
As the cutting speed exceeds 600 m/min, the experi-
mental contact length measurements begin to diverge
from the values calculated by using equations (1) to (5).
As shown in Fig. 10, the two experimental curves for
the contact length rise quite steeply after the cutting
speed of 600 m/min while all the other solutions produce
a constant contact length beyond this cutting speed. It is
clear from these results that all the previous models
presented in section 5 are applicable only to the conven-
tional cutting conditions region. These results suggest
that the temperature field may affect the tool–chip con-
tact length at high cutting speeds. The only tool chip con-
tact length model reviewed that expresses this parameter
as a function of cutting speed [i.e. equation (5)], showed
an overestimation of the trend for the present test
material. Thus the empirical relationship is not robust
enough for all tests. It is also not expressed in terms of
chip dimensions, which makes it less useful for qualitative
predictions. Figure 10 shows clearly that the tool–chip
contact length estimation model for HSM has to be a
function of chip dimensions as well as cutting speed.
7.3 Tool wear
Tool wear is an extremely important factor to be
considered in HSM. High cutting speeds considerably
affect the temperature field in HSM, which is character-
ized by very high temperatures. This temperature field
strongly affects the physical properties of the cutting
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tool material such as the toughness, chemical resistance
and hot hardness. Hot hardness is the most critical
property for resisting abrasive wear. At high tempera-
tures the tool material becomes soft and thus its ability
to resist particle penetration and abrasive wear decreases
significantly.
The worn tool inserts used in the cutting tests of the
present study were examined using SEM. These images
have identified the different wear areas on the tool rake
and flank faces and have also shown that the tool wear
mode changes when the cutting conditions change from
conventional to HSM.
The flank wear (VB ) was measured in this investigation
using the conventional measurement technique accord-
ing to ANSI/ASME B94.55M-1985–1995 [27]. Figures
11 and 12 present the maximum flank wear plotted
against cutting time, for cutting speeds ranging from
200 to 1200 m/min, for the uncoated cemented carbide
tool inserts. For the tests conducted here, the rate of
flank face wear was found to be slow when machining
at the lower cutting speeds of 200–600 m/min. The
flank wear land observed under the cutting edge was
regular and increased with time but it did not reach the
wear limit over the cutting time for 200 and 400 m/min
speeds. At these lower cutting speeds, three stages for
flank wear can be identified: a primary stage followed
by a steady state stage and finally a tertiary (or failure)
stage. This pattern is consistent with the typical conven-
tional machining flank wear behaviour reported by other
researchers. The maximum flank wear was doubled,
however, when the cutting speed was increased to
600 m/min. When cutting at 800, 1000 and 1200 m/min,
the width of the flank wear increased rapidly as a conse-
quence of increasing temperatures, and was accompa-
nied by the formation of severe abrasive marks (severe
chipping) which substantially modified the tool geome-
try. Increasing the cutting speed in the HSM region
from 600 to 1200 m/min led to an increase in the flank
wear by a factor of five. After reaching a certain level,
Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
898 N A ABUKHSHIM, P T MATIVENGA AND M A SHEIKH

Fig. 11 Growth of maximum flank wear (s ¼ 0:14 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)

Fig. 12 Growth of maximum flank wear (s ¼ 0:2 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)

the flank wear was almost constant and then increased

abruptly. This can be clearly seen from the wear plots
in Fig. 11 for 800 and 1200 m/min cutting speeds and
in Fig. 12 for cutting speeds of 1000 and 1200 m/min.
Primary, secondary and tertiary wear stages were
distinctly evident at speeds of 200, 400 and 600 compared
to 800, 1000 and 1200 m/min. The low speeds led to
increased wear rates and a very short secondary (uniform
wear) zone. It would appear that the effect of HSM is a
modification of the conventional wear regime and a
near-merging of the three wear zones. The interface Fig. 13 Flank wear on worn inserts after 800 mm cutting at
temperature and contact zone temperature also cutting speeds of (a) 800 m/min and (b) 1000 m/min
increase with cutting speed. Figure 13 shows evidence (a ¼ 0:1 mm, s ¼ 0:2 mm/rev)

Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs Vol. 218 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture B01404 # IMechE 2004
 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE TOOL–CHIP CONTACT LENGTH AND WEAR IN HIGH-SPEED TURNING 899

Fig. 14 Variation of flank wear land length with cutting speed for (a) s ¼ 0:14 mm/rev and (b) s ¼ 0:2 mm/rev

of longitudinal flow grooves on the clearance (flank)
face. This could be attributable to a number of factors,
e.g. the abrasive action on the flank face and the effect
of ploughing aided by some weakened slip lines. Figure
14 presents the plots of the flank wear land length against
cutting speed for various cutting lengths.
Figure 15 presents the plots of tool life versus cutting
speed for the uncoated cemented carbide inserts used
in the cutting tests performed at 0.14 and 0.2 mm/rev.
The tool life was measured in accordance with the
ANSI/ASME B94.55M-1985–1995 standard [27] for
tool life testing with single-point turning tools for a

Fig. 15 Variation of tool life with the cutting speed

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900 N A ABUKHSHIM, P T MATIVENGA AND M A SHEIKH

Fig. 16 Variation of contact length and flank wear with the cutting speed

flank wear criterion of 0.3 mm. It can be seen that at high
cutting speeds the tool life is severely limited. Also, at the
higher cutting speed localized wear was found to be very
significant.
7.4 Relation between the contact length and flank wear
Figure 16 plots the average experimental contact length
and the maximum flank wear versus the cutting speed.
It appears that an increase in contact length is also asso-
ciated with the progress of flank wear.
7.5 Crater wear area
Figures 17 and 18 show the SEM images of the rake faces
of the worn inserts. An examination of these images
clearly shows that crater wear strongly depends on the
process parameters, in particular the cutting speed, but
its influence on the integrity of the tool increases with
time. The wear mechanism along the tool–chip contact
area at the cutting speed of 200 m/min takes the form
of localized sliding. The crater wear on the rake face of
the insert at this speed was found to start at a distance
of 100 mm from the cutting edge and grew in the direction
of chip flow.
The observed failure modes when machining at the
cutting speed of 200 m/min were microchipping of
the cutting edge and formation of grooves due to the
removal of particles of the tool material by the irregular
chip flow over the tool rake face. This was caused by the
localized tensile and shear contact stresses imposed by
the stick-slip action during the irregular chip flow over
the tool during the machining process.
When the cutting speed was increased to 400, 600 and
800 m/min the crater wear on the rake face started at the

Fig. 17 Crater wear area after 800 mm cutting at different cutting speeds (s ¼ 0:14 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)

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 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE TOOL–CHIP CONTACT LENGTH AND WEAR IN HIGH-SPEED TURNING
Fig. 18 Crater wear area after 800 mm cutting at different cutting speeds (s ¼ 0:2 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)
cutting edge because of a low ratio of depth feed to the
cutting edge radius. For these speeds, the SEM images
indicated the absence of the sliding region and the contact
condition of seizure. As a result, the high contact tempera-
tures and stresses at the interface led to significant crater
wear on the tool rake face in the form of highly localized
elastic deformation. This elastic deformation enlarged the
contact area between the rake and clearance faces of the
tool insert and the chip.
At the beginning of the cutting process with cutting
speeds of 1000 and 1200 m/min, a further decrease in
the contact length occurred, thereby shifting the
maximum temperature and stress area very close to the
cutting edge. This could be inferred from Fig. 9 by
comparing the contact length at the beginning to that
at the end of the cut. As a result, the crater wear started
at the cutting edge and its rate increased gradually with
plastic deformation. As the tool engagement time
increased and both the flank and crater faces of the
tool were heated up to high temperatures, the yield
stress of the tool material at the cutting edge decreased
Fig. 19 Chip flow mechanism at 1000 and 1200 m/min cutting
speeds
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901
sharply and the tool failed due to highly localized but
deep flank wear and rapid localized plastic deformation
of the cutting edge.
Due to the backward movement of the cutting edge,
the chip was obstructed and deflected sideways at cutting
speeds of 1000 and 1200 m/min, as shown schematically
in Fig. 19. As a result, the chip flow mechanism changed
to a predominantly side-curl combined with a relatively
small up-curl, resulting in the growth of the crater wear
area and localized plastic deformation. The evidence of
the chip side-curl movement towards the trailing edge
in the direction of the flank wear growth can be seen
clearly in Figs 17 and 18.
Figures 20 and 21 show the variation of crater wear
area with the cutting speed for different cutting lengths.
In general, the crater area also increased with cutting
speed. These plots clearly indicate the significance of
crater wear in HSM.
8 CONCLUSIONS
1. The prediction of tool–chip contact length in HSM
needs a model that is dependent on chip morphology
and cutting conditions, especially cutting speed.
Reviewed models qualitatively predict the effect of
chip thickness and rake angle on contact length but
have not adequately addressed the contribution of
speed in HSM operations.
2. For the tests reported in this paper the contact length
is found to increase for cutting speeds from 400 m/
min onwards to 1200 m/min.
3. While sliding friction is common in conventional
machining, at HSM seizure takes place and the stick-
ing contact length is the mode of heat transfer.
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902 N A ABUKHSHIM, P T MATIVENGA AND M A SHEIKH

Fig. 20 Crater wear area at different cutting speeds (s ¼ 0:2 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)

Fig. 21 Crater wear area at different cutting speeds (s ¼ 0:14 mm/rev, a ¼ 0:1 mm)

4. At cutting speeds of 200, 400 and 600 m/min conven-
tional wear regimes of primary, secondary and tertiary
wear modes could be identified. At 800, 1000 and
1200 m/min the secondary (uniform) wear zone
almost disappears. Thus the effect of HSM is a near-
merging of the wear zones when cutting with uncoated
carbide tools.
5. Characteristic chip curl could account for a significant
increase in the chip contact width observed in HSM.
6. The accurate prediction of the tool–chip contact area
is at the centre of successful application of FEA
models to the development of HSM technology.
This study sets a foundation for subsequent research
to predict the contact conditions and wear mechanism
in HSM for various tool materials.
work is concentrating on the effect of advanced PVD
coatings on contact conditions, temperature fields and
tool wear in HSM. Since this later investigation is
broader and more relevant to real cutting practice the
interaction of cutting force components is an integral
part of the study and will be reported later.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Dr George Barrow for his
expert advice during the early part of this investigation.
They express their gratitude to Sandvik Coromant for
the supply of cutting inserts and the tool holder for this
investigation.

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