1.

Psychology in Linguistics

Some linguistic figures who are interested in studying language psychologically are Von
Humbolt, Ferdinand de Saussure, Edward Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, and Otto Jespersen.
Von Humbolt (1767-1835) was a linguist from Jeman who compared languages between
different languages and the characteristics of language speakers. The results of his research
indicate that the grammar of a nation shows the nation's view of life. Von Humbolt is
strongly influenced by the flow of rationalism which considers that language is a part that
cannot be cut into pieces or classified as in the opinion of empiricism. Ferdinand de Saussure
(1858-1913), in his lecture introduced three important terms in linguistics, namely langue,
langage and parole. Langue means certain languages which are still abstract, langage means
general language, while parole is a concrete speech language. Saussure asserted that the study
of linguistics is langue, while the object of psychological study is parole. Therefore, the
Swiss linguist argues, if you want to study the language as a whole, then the science that can
study it is linguistics and psychology. Edward Sapir (1884-1939), examines the relationship
between language and mind.

Based on his studies, this American linguist and anthropologist concluded that language,
especially its structure, is the element that determines the structure of the human mind. He
also added that linguistics can contribute to Gestalt psychological theory, and vice versa.
Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949), the development of his knowledge was much influenced
by two conflicting schools of psychology, namely behaviorism and mentalism. Initially, the
American linguist studied language with an mentalism approach. He argues that language
starts from giving birth to extraordinary experiences, mainly because of the very strong
manifestation of emotional pressure. Because of the emotional pressure that will emerge
speech or sentence in the form of reclamation, then out the desire to communicate in the form
of a declaration.

If the desire for this declaration comes out in the form of curiosity then the questioning comes
out. In 1925 Bloomfield abandoned the flow of empiricism and turned to the flow of
behaviorism, which led to the theory of language "structural linguistics" and "taxonomic
linguistics". Otto Jesperson, mentalistic and behaviorism. Jesperson argues that language is
not a form of understanding of one thing but symbolic functions in the human brain that
symbolize the mind. According to him, one word can be realized in behavior.
2. Linguistics in Psychology

In its development, there are a number of psychologists who also study psychology
linguistically. The experts were John Dewey, Karl Buchler, Wundt, Watson, and Weiss. John
Dewey (1859- 1952) was an American national psychologist who embraced pure empiricism.
He interpreted children's language based on psychological principles. He suggested that
children be grouped into words based on the meaning that the children understood. Karl
Buchler, is a German national psychologist. He wrote a book entitled Sparch Theorie (1934)
which stated that human language has three functions called Organon Modell
 
der Saprch is Kungabe (Ausdruck) Appell (Auslosung) and Darstellung. Kungabe is a verbal
communicative act.

Appell is a request made to others. Darstellung is a depiction of the underlying issues that are
communicated. Wundt (1932-1920), was the first German psychologist to develop the theory
of mentalistic language. Wundt describes language as a tool for expressing thoughts. This is
because there are feelings and gestures that give birth to the language. According to Wund,
one sentence is a common sense event. Wundt is also known for language performance
theory. This theory explains two aspects, namely the external phenomena (sound imagery)
and the inner phenomena (mental imagery). Watson (1878-1958), parallels between speaking
and other behaviors such as eating, walking, etc. Watson's language behavior is a stimulus-
response (S-R) relationship that equates the behavior of words with things.

Thus, these American psychologists follow the pathology of psychological behaviorism.

Weiss, recognizes the mental aspect of language. Simply, because a language does not appear
physically it is difficult to study and establish it unless the language is in its social context.
Weiss played a large part in the early development of psycholinguistics, some of the issues
that Weiss successfully solved psychologically-linguistically, were:

a. language is a group of responses whose number is not limited to a stimulus.

b. basically, the language behavior unites members of a society into neural organization.
c. language behavior is a tool to change and diversify one's activities as a result of inheritance
and revenue.

d. Language can be a stimulus to a response.

e. language response as a substitute stimulus for things and circumstances actually enables us
to bring back something that has happened, and to analyze this event in parts.

3. Psychological and Linguistic Cooperation

The collaboration of the two disciplines first took place in 1860. At that time, Heyman
Steinthal, a psychologist who turned to a linguist and Moritz Lazarus, a linguist who turned
to a psychologist, published the journal "Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie und Sparch
Wissenschaft" (Journal of social Psychology and Linguistics). According to Steinthal, the
science of psychology is impossible to live without linguistics. In 1901, Albert Thumb
(ahlilinguistik) and Karl Marbe (psychologist) published a book entitled Experimentelle
Untersuchungen iiber die Psychologishen Grundallen der Sparchichen Analogyebieldung.
The two experts used the rules of experimental psychology to examine linguistic hypotheses
that produced a very strong influence on the birth of psycholinguistics. An American social
institution called the Social Science Research Council held a seminar in 1951 bringing
together experts in linguistics, psychology, pathology, information theorists, and
 
language learning. They formulated a cooperative relationship between psychology and
linguistics. Then in 1953, Osgood (linguist), Sebeok (linguist), and Caroll (psychologist) met
at a seminar at Indiana University in the United States. This meeting produced the book
Pscholinguistics: A Survey of Theory and Research Problems. This book was later edited by
Osgoods and Sebeok. This is the first psycholinguistic book to use the term psycholinguistics.

Previously Albert Thumb and Karl Marbe did not use that name. 1946, N.H. Pronko in his
article entitled "Language and Psycholinguistics: A Review" was published in the journal
Psychological Bulletin. Pronko claimed that the term psycholinguistics was obtained from his
teacher Jacob Robert Kantor in the book An Objective Psychology of Grammar (1936). The
basics of psychology according to Osgoods and Sebeok are:
a. Psycholinguistics is a linguistic theory based on language that is considered a system of
elements that are closely interconnected.

b. Psycholinguistics is a learning theory (according to behaviorism) based on language that is

considered a system of nature.

c. Psycholinguistics is an information theory that considers language as a tool to convey an

object.

4. Psycholinguistics as an Independent Discipline

The opening of a special psycholinguistic program in 1953 by R. Brown is a formal sign that
this science is an independent discipline. The first scholar of this discipline was Eric
Lenneberg. Other experts who later emerged were Leshley, Osgoods, Skinner, Chomsky, and
Miller, all of whom were instrumental in the development of psycholinguistics. In 1957
Skinner published the book Verbal Behavior. In the same year Chomsky released the book
Syntactic Structure.
Then Leshley argues that the birth of a speech is not a connection of a series of respeons but
is a simultaneous event, and indirectly the syntactic structure of the speech is related to the
shape of the sequence. George Miller in his article entitled "The Psycolinguistics" (1965)
explained that the birth of psychology was due to the contribution of psychology which
acknowledged that human reason accepted linguistic symbols, whereas linguistics recognized
that psycho-motor-social was needed to move grammar. Miller also introduced the generative
theory of Chomsky's transformation which assumes that language is a very complicated
human ability.

Therefore, the task of peikolinguiatik is to examine the complex abilities in detail. Miller also
stressed that language is not only a question of meaning but of how the ability of humans to
regulate nerves or new sentences is very useful. If concluded, at first, psycholinguistic
behaviorism. However, based on its mentalist development and trying to explain the nature of
the hypothesized formula, the study of psycholinguistics is also increasingly developing in
the cognitive direction.
The birth of generative grammar by Chomsky is an innovation in itself. Therefore, Chomsky
is referred to as "the Father of Modern Linguistics" while Wilhem Wundt is referred to as
"the Father of Classical Psycholinguistics".

5. Three Generations of Psycholinguistics

 
The development of the discipline of psycholinguistics has stimulated Mehler and Noizet to
write the article "Vers une Modelle Psycholinguistique du Locuter" (1974) published in the
Textes Pour une Psycholinguistique. In this article it is explained that there are three
generations of psycholinguistic development.

First Generation Psycholinguistics

The first generation of psycholinguistics was marked by the writing of the article
"Psycholinguistics: A Survey of Thery and Research Problems" edited by C. Osgoods and
Sebeok. So these two figures were named the first generation of psycholinguistic figures.
Osgoods and Sebeok's point of view is influenced by the flow of behaviorism. According to
Parera (1996) in the first generation Abdul Chaer has no weaknesses:

a. the reactive nature of psycholinguistics about language which views language as not a
human action or act but as a stimulus-response.

b. psycholinguistics are atomistic. This trait is evident when Osgoods expressed the theory of
language acquisition that the amount of language acquisition is the ability to distinguish
words or different forms, and the ability to generalize. c. individualistic. His theory
emphasizes the language behavior of individuals who are isolated from society and real
communication. Another psycholinguistic figure of this first generation is Bloomfoeld and
Skinner.

Second Generation Psycholinguistics

The first generation theories were rejected by some figures such as Noam Chomsky and
George Miller. According to Mehler and Noizet, second generation psychology has overcome
the atomistic characteristics of psycholinguistics. This generation of psychology argues that
in the language process is not the points of language obtained, but the rules and system of
rules. Here, psychological orientation is replaced by linguistic orientation. The merger
between Miller and Chomsky is the incorporation of Chomsky's grammatical linguistic
models that are relatively different from psychological processes. In fact Mehler and Noizet
say that second-generation psychilinguistics are anti-psychology. This phase figure leads
more to the manifestation of speech as a form of linguistics. G.S. Miller and Noam Chomsky
stated a few things about this second generation psycholinguistics in the article "Some
Preliminaries to Psycholinguistics":

a. In verbal communication, not all physical characteristics are clear and clear, and not all the
characteristics that are etrang in speech have a physical representation.

b. the meaning of a speech should not be confused with what is indicated. Meaning is
something very complex that involves the relationship between symbols or symbols. A
severed response over-simplifies the overall meaning.

c. The syntactic structure of a sentence consists of units of interaction between the meaning
of the words contained in the sentence. The sentences are arranged hierarchically, but not
enough to explain the outer linguistic form.
 
d. The number of sentences and the number of meanings that can be translated are unlimited.
One's knowledge of languages must be related to one's ability to arrange language in
syntactic and semantic systems.

e. A distinction must be made between language description and language use description. A
psycholinguistic expert must formulate language manifestation models that can include
knowledge of language rules.

f. There is a large biological component for determining language skills. This language
ability does not depend on intelligence and the size of the brain, but depends on "humans".

Psycholinguistics Third Gegeration

The second generation of psycholinguistics states that their analysis recognizes language as
having exceeded sentence limits. However, in reality, their analysis has only reached the
sentence stage, not yet in the discourse. Lack of analysis on second generation
psycholinguistics was later updated by third generation psycholinguistics. G. Werstch in his
book Two Problems for the New Psycholinguistics gives the new characteristics of this
science as "new psycholinguistics". Some of the characteristics of this third-generation
psychlonguistic are:

a. Their orientation is psychology, but not behavioral psychology. As revealed by Fresse and
Al Vallon (France) and Soviet psychologists, there has been a simultaneous process of
psychological and linguistic information.

b. Their escape from the "psycholinguistic sentence" framework, and more towards
"psycholinguistic situations and contexts".

c. There is a shift from the analysis of abstract speech processes to a psychological analysis
of communication and thought. Actually, psycholinguistics in Russia developed earlier than
in Western countries. This happens because from the beginning psycholinguistics in Russia
has taken into account communication and thought behavior in psycholinguistic analysis. In
addition, psycholinguistics in Russia is known as the "Speech Activity Theory" which bases
itself on the postulate that human behavior is active, porpusive, and innovative. This postulate
in the Batar state has not yet been achieved.