GENERAL BIOLOGY REVIEWER
segregation, law of independent assortment and law
Review:
 Nucleus: DNA synthesis – Nucleolus: RNA synthesis
 SER : lipid synthesis – RER: protein syntehis
 Golgi Apparatus: temporary storage and transport
macromolecules
 Ribosomes- polypeptide (protein) synthesis
 Lysosomes: breaking/digestion of cells; “suicide bag
cells”
 Mitochondria- converts chemical energy of food
chemical energy of ATP
 Chloroplast: converts light energy to chemical energy
sugar/food
HI STO R Y O F T H E C E LL
1590: Hans & Zacharias Jannsen
 invented the first primitive microscope
1660: Marcelo Malphigi
 first to observe blood capillaries in fish tails
 observed RBC through capillaries and found the
connection between arteries (away from heart) and
veins (to the heart)
1665: Robert Hooke
 saw a multitude of tiny pores (looked like the walled
components of a honeycomb) in cork and discovered
cells
1668: Francesco Redi
 experimented to see if rotting meat turns into flies
 found out that flies can make other flies, but rotting
meat can’t
1683: Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
 first man to witness a live cell under the microscope
 described the algae Spirogyra and named the moving
organisms animal cules, meaning “little animals”
 first to see and describe bacteria, yeast, plants, the
life in a drop of water and the circulation of corpuscles
in capillaries
1831: Robert Brown
 discovered the nucleus in plants using epidermis of
orchid
 found that cell had an opaque spot called “areola”
(aka nucleus)
1839: Theodore Schwann
 Schleiden had found that all plants are composed of
cells and communicated his findings with Schwann
who had found similar structures in cells
 concluded “ All living things are made up of cells and
cell products”
1839: Matthias Jakob Schleiden
 different parts of plants are composed of cells and
communicated it with Schwann
 recognized the importance of cell nucleus and its
importance with cell division
1855: Rudolf Virchow
 “omni cellula e cellula”
 All cells come from a pre-existing cell
1865: Gregor Johann Mendel
 discovered the laws of inheritance which are: law of
of dominance
1882: Walter Fleming
of  was a pioneer of cytogenetics
 was the first to conduct systematic study of
chromosomes during division and called this process
mitosis
of
1915: Thomas Morgan
to  confirmed Mendelian laws of inheritance
 hypothesis that genes are located on chromosomes
of  did this by extensively breeding the common fruit fly
1953: Francis Crick & James Watson
 with Maurice Wilkins solved the structure of DNA
CE LL TH EO R Y
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
(Theodore Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden,
1838-1839)
2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life
(Schwann and Schleiden 1838-1839)
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells (Rudolf Virchow,
1858)
MO D E RN C E LL TH EO RY
1. The cell contains hereditary information DNA which is
passed on from cell to cell during cell division.
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
and metabolic activities.
3. All basic chemical and physiological functions are
carried out inside the cells. (digestion, movement etc.)
4. A cell depends on the activities of subcellular structures
within the cell (organelles, plasma membrane etc.)
E XC E PT IO N S FO R MO D ER N C ELL TH EO R Y
 Viruses are considered alive by some, yet they are
not made up of cells. Viruses have many features of
life, but by definition of cell theory, they are not alive
 The first cell did not originate from a pre-existing cell.
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own genetic
material, and reproduce independently from the rest
of the cells
TY P E S O F C ELL S
1. Prokaryotes (pro-KAR-ee-ot-es)
 from Old Greek pro (before) + karyon (nut or kernel) ,
referring to the cell nucleus, + suffix -otos, pl. -otes;
also spelled "procaryotes"
 are organisms without a cell nucleus (= karyon), or
any other membrane-bound organelles.
 Most are unicellular and have few internal structures
 Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes
2. Eukaryotes
 are organisms whose cells are organized into
complex structures by internal membranes and a
cytoskeleton.
 The most characteristic membrane bound structure is
the nucleus.
  This feature gives them their name, (also spelled
"eucaryote,") which comes from the Greek ευ, Why is it called “fluid mosaic”?
meaning good/true, and κάρυον, meaning nut,
referring to the nucleus.  It is fluid at room temperature
 Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes  Orientation of protein structure looks like a
mosaic
 Varied functions of protein
TH E C ELL

1. Plasma Membrane 4. Cell Wall

 forms a boundary between the living cells and its  most commonly found in plant cells & bacteria
surroundings  supports & protects cells
 controls the traffic molecules into and out of the
cell
 semi-permeable (regulates what goes in and out Internal Organization
of cell)  Cells contain organelles
 The plasma membrane takes up substances the  Organelles are structures with specialized
cell needs and disposes waste functions

5. Nucleus
 repository for genetic material
 directs activities of the cell

6. Nuclear Membrane
 surrounds nucleus; made of 2 layers
 openings allow material to enter and leave nucleus

7. Chromosomes
2. Phospholipid Bilayer  in nucleus; made of DNA
 In water, phospholipid spontaneously form a  contain instructions for traits & characteristics
stable two-layer sheet called a phospholipid
bilayer
 Their hydrophobic heads face outward, exposed 8. Nucleolus
to the water and their hydrophobic tails point  inside the nucleus
inward, shielded from water.  contains RNA to build proteins

9. Cytoplasm
 Viscous fluid containing organelles
 components of cytoplasm
o Interconnected filaments & fibers
o Cytosol (fluid)
o Organelles (not nucleus)
o storage substances

3. Fluid Mosaic Model
 The kinked tails of many of the phospholipids,
resulting from double bonds in lipid tails.
 The kinks make the membrane more fluid by
keeping adjacent phospholipid from packing tightly
together.
 In a living cell, the phospholipid bilayer remains
about as fluid as salad oil at room temperature
 Outside surface of the plasma membrane has
carbohydrates (chains of sugars) bonded to
proteins and lipids in the membrane
 Glycoprotein – protein with sugar
Glycolipid - lipid with sugar
 Membrane proteins = attachment of the
membrane to the cytoskeleton and external fibers
providing identification tags and forming junctions
to adjacent cells
10. Ribosomes
 non-membrane bound organelles
 Site of protein synthesis.
 Protein factory of the cell
11. Endomembrane system
 network of membranous organelles that partition
the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells into functional
compartments.
 Compartmentalizes cell, channeling passage of
molecules through cell’s interior.
a) Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Largest internal membrane; transport
channel
 Storage and secretion
 SER: poison detoxification; no ribosomes but
has carbohydrates and lipids
RER: releases new protein; has ribosomes

b) Golgi Apparatus
 Series of flattened sacs that modifies,
packages, and transports materials out of
the cell
 collection of Golgi bodies
 collect, package, and distribute molecules
synthesized at one location in the cell and
utilized at another location
o Front - cis , Back – trans
o Cisternae – stacked membrane
folds
c) Vesicles
 Lysosomes - membrane-bound vesicles
containing digestive enzymes – from Golgi –
 Microbodies - enzyme-bearing, membrane-
enclosed vesicles.
 Peroxisomes - contain enzymes that
catalyze the removal of electrons and
associated hydrogen atoms
 Peroxisome – named for hydrogen
peroxide produced as a by-product
 Enzyme breaks down to water and
oxygen
12. Lysosomes
 Recycling Center; Internal pH is 5.
 Digest food particles inside or outside the cell.
13. Vacuoles
 Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and
waste removal
 Osmotic balance of the cell
 Maintains plant shape
14. Centrioles
 In animal cells only
 paired organelles found together near the nucleus,
at right angles to each other.
 play a role in cellular reproduction
 mainly composed of microtubule [triplet
microtubule pattern: 9+3]
15. Cytoskeleton
 Framework of the cell
 Contains small microfilaments and large
microtubules.
 Supports the cell, giving it its shape and help with
the movement of its organelles.
a) Microfilaments
 Composed of globular protein (actin)
 Actin microfilaments can help change shape
and move
 Amoeboid/amoeba: pseudopodia (false feet)
b) Intermediate filaments
 Ropelike structure that anchor organelles
 Fibrous protein
 The nucleus is often held in place by a cage
of intermediate filaments.
c) Microtubles
 Composed of globular proteins (tubulins)
 For rigidity & shape; anchorage and tracks
organelles
 In lysosomes: getting nutrients & digests
 Phagocytosis: “cell eating”
 Pinocytosis: “cell drinking”
16. Cell Junctions
 To function in a coordinated a way as a part of a
tissue, the cells must have cell junctions,
structures that connect them to one another.
1. Tight Junction
 Binds the adjacent cells and provides a
leakproof sheet to avoid leakage
2. Anchoring Junction/ Desmosomes
 Attachment of the adjacent cells
3. Communicating Junction
 Circulatory and communication between
adjacent cells
 Gap junction for animal cells
Plasmodesmata for plant cells
17. Cilia and Flagella
 The role of cytoskeleton in movement is clearly
seen in eukaryotic flagella and cilia, the locomotor
appendages that protrude from certain cells Cilia
and flagella
 Cilia = short numerous appendages that propel
protists such as Trichodina and Paramecium
 Flagella = Longer, generally less numerous
appendages on other protists are called flagella.
 A cilium or flagellum is composed of a core
microtubules wrapped in an extension of the
plasma membrane
 Doublet microtubule [9+2 pattern]
 The nine doublets extend into an anchoring
structure called a basal body, which has a pattern
of nine microtubule triplets.
 The position of the two microtubule doublets in a
flagellum that is stationary (left) and in the process
of bending (right)
 Bending involves protein knobs attached to each
microtubule doublet – the dynein arm
 Using energy from ATP, the dynein arms grab an
adjacent doublet and exert a sliding force as they
start to walk “along” it.
 Structure Prokaryotes Animal Plants
Plasma
Cell wall X membrane

Plasma Type unicellular multicellular

membrane
Present in
May be May be
Flagella/cilia
present present
some sperm EN DO S Y MB IO T IC TH EO R Y
species
Multiple  An evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic
DNA Circular Multiple linear cells from prokaryotic organisms.
linear
80 s 80 s
Ribosomes 70 s 70 s sa 70 s sa  It holds that the organelles distinguishing eukaryote cells
organelles organelles evolved through symbiosis of individual single-celled
prokaryotic (bacteria and archaea).
Centriole X X

Chloroplast X

Mitochondria X

ER X

Microtubules X

Lysosomes X

Vacuole X Smaller Larger

Golgi body X

Nucleus X
Communicating Gap
X Plasmodesmata
Junction junction

Characteristics Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Definition Pro = ‘before’ True nucleus

Fungi, protists,
Example Archaea, Bacteria
plants, animals

DNA Circular Multiple linear

80 s
Ribosomes 70s 70 s sa
organelles
Bacteria: Plants: cellulose AD EN O SI NE T RI P HO S PH AT E
Cell Wall
Peptidoglycan/murein Fungi: chitin
 It is the major currency of the cell that provides the energy
Flagella/Cilia Usually single strand Microvilli for most of the energy consuming activity of the cell.
 The ATP regulates many biochemical pathways
0.2-0.4 micrometer 10-100
Size
1 – 10 micrometer micrometer
Membrane
bound X ATP
Added phosphate
organelles 3rd phosphate
group
group is removed
Nucleus X (nucleoloid only)

Reproduction Binary fission Meiosis phosphorylation hydrolysis

Glycocalyx Capsule X

Energy from Energy is released

Cytoplasm
breakdown of ADP for cell functions
glucose molecules

1. ATP is a molecule with three phosphate groups
attached to the end
2. When ATP loses one of the phosphates it releases
energy for cell functions
3. Now it is ADP which is a molecule with only two
phosphates groups attached
4. Then energy is added from the breakdown of glucose
5. The energy helps add a phosphate group back on
making it become a group back on making it become an
ATP again and the process starts over

rd
Hydrolysis = removal of phosphate group (3 group bc
doon mas marami energy)
 Phosphorylation = addition of phosphate group
Synthesis of ATP
• ADP + Pi→ ATP + H2O
• requires energy: 7.3 kcal/mole
• occurs in the cytosol by glycolysis
occurs in mitochondria by cellular respiration
occurs in chloroplasts by photosynthesis
Consumption of ATP
ATP powers most energy-consuming activities of cells, such
as:
• Anabolic (synthesis) reactions such as:
 Joining transfer RNAs (tRNAs) to amino acids for
assembly in proteins
 Synthesis of nucleoside triphosphate for assembly
into DNA and RNA
 Synthesis of polysaccharides
 Synthesis of fats
 Active transport of molecules and ions
 Conduction of nerve impulses
• Maintenance of cell volume by osmosis
• Addition of phosphate groups (phosphorylation) to
different proteins (e.g. to alter their activity in cell
signalling)
• Muscle contraction
• Beating of cilia and flagella (including sperm)
• Bioluminescence
Extracellular ATP
In mammals, ATP also functions outside of the cells, is
released in the following examples:
• From damaged cells to elicit inflammation and pain
• From the carotid body to signal a shortage of oxygen in
the blood
• From taste receptor cells to trigger action potentials in the
sensory nerves leading back to the brain
• From the stretched wall of the urinary bladder to signal
when the bladder needs emptying
MI T O C HO N DR IA
 Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, the
metabolic process that uses oxygen to drive the
generation of ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats,
and other fuels
 The mitochondria are oval-shaped organelles found in
most eukaryotic cells.
• They are considered to be the ‘powerhouses’ of the cell
• converts chemical energy of food to chemical energy of
ATP
Structure of Mitochondria
• Double membranous
1. Outer membrane
 is a selectively permeable membrane that
surrounds the mitochondria.
 It is the site of attachment for the respiratory
assembly of electron transport chain and ATP
synthase.
 It has an integral proteins and pores for
transporting molecules just like the cell
membrane
2. Inner membrane
 folds inward (called cristae) to increase surfaces
for cellular metabolism
 It contains ribosomes and the DNA of the
mitochondria
 has restricted permeability like the plasma
membrane
 is loaded with proteins involved in the electron
transport and ATP synthesis
 The inner membrane creates two enclosed
spaces within the mitochondria:
 Intermembrane – space between the
outer and inner membrane
 Matrix – fluid where proteins are
suspended
CHLO RO PL A ST
• converts light energy to chemical energy of sugar/food
• found in plants and algae
• sites of photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis- converts solar energy to chemical energy
by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the synthesis of
organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide
and water
• derived from the Greek work chloros which means ‘green’
and plastes which means ‘the one who forms’
• cellular organelles of green plants and some eukaryotic
organisms.
• they absorb sunlight and convert it to sugar molecules
• they also produce free energy stored in the form of ATP
and NADPH through photosynthesis
• by product of photosynthesis is O2
  Cell cycle system is driven by a built-in clock that can be
adjusted by external stimuli

MI T O SI S

 is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus

divide to produce two new nuclei
 results in two daughter cells that are genetically identical
to each other and to the parental cell from which they
came.

1. Interphase
 cell’s metabolic activity is very high.
 Chromosomes duplicate
 Many cell parts are made
Structure of Chloroplasts  Cell does most of its growing
 Lasts for at least 90% of the total time required
• double membranous for the cell cycle

1. Outer membrane 2. Gap 1

 A semi-porous membrane and is permeable to small  Cells start to grow continuously and proteins are
molecules and ions which diffuse easily. synthesized
 Not permeable to larger protein  Spans from the time of cell division to the S phase
(DNA Synthesis)
 Replication of organelles (mitochondria and
2. Inner membrane ribosomes)
 Forms a border to the stroma.
 Regulates passage of materials in and out of the
chloroplast. G1 checkpoint – ensures that the cells are large
enough to divide and that enough nutrients are
3. Intermembrane
available to support daughter cells
 Space between outer and inner membrane
 10-20 nanometers
 Regulates most of the chloroplast’s activities such as o If cell receives go ahead signal at G1
fatty acids, lipids, carotenoids (orange pigments checkpoint, it will continue to cell cycle,
found in carrots) otherwise, it will switch to G0 (non-
dividing stage)
4. Stroma o Most body cells are in G0
 Fluid portion
 Alkaline aqueous fluid/liquid solution 3. S Phase
 Chloroplast DNA is suspended here and  DNA synthesis occurs
also ribosomes, starch granules, & free  At the beginning of the S phase, each
floating proteins chromosome is single.
 At the end of this phase, the chromosomes are
5. Thylakoid double, each consisting of two sister chromatids
 are small stacks that are interconnected -
 are the sites for the light reactions of the
photosynthesis to take place. 4. Gap 2
 Light harvesting structure  spans the time from the completion of DNA
 “thylakos’ = sack synthesis to the onset of cell division
 essential proteins for cell division are synthesized
6. Granum/Grana
 10-20 thylakoids per granum
G2 checkpoint – ensures that DNA replication in S
***plants are green bc they absorb blue violet & red/ red phase has been completes
orange light

5. Mitosis
CE LL C YC L E  the nucleus and its contents, including the
duplicated chromosomes, divide and are evenly
 Orderly sequence of events from the time a cell divides to distributed to form two daughter nuclei
form daughter cells to the time those daughter cells divide
again a) Prophase
 Eukaryotic cells that divide undergo a cell cycle while – In the nucleus, chromatin fibers become
prokaryotes undergo binary fission more tightly coiled and folded forming
discrete chromosomes
 – The nucleoli disappears
– Each duplicated chromosome appears as
two identical sister chromatids joined
together
– In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle begins
to form as microtubules rapidly grow out
from the centrosomes
– The nuclear envelope break into fragments
– Within the nuclear envelope gone,
microtubules emerging from the
centrosomes at the pole (ends) of the
spindle can reach the chromosomes
– At the centromere region, each sister
chromatid has a protein structure called
kinetochore
– Some of the spindle microtubules attach to
the kinetochore , throwing the
chromosomes into agitated motion
b) Metaphase
– The mitotic spindle is fully formed, with its
poles at opposite ends of the cell
– The chromosomes convene on the
methaphase plate, an imaginary plane
equidistant between the two poles of the
spindle
– The centromeres of all the chromosomes
are lined up on the metaphase plate
– For each chromosome, the kinetochores of
two sister chromatids face opposite pole of
the spindle
– The microtubules attached to a particular
chromatid all come from one pole of the
spindle and those attached to its sister
chromatid come from the opposite pole
Metaphase checkpoint – ensures that
chromosomes are attached to a spindle fiber via
kinetochore
c) Anaphase
– Anaphase begins when the two
centromeres of each chromosome come
apart, separating the sister chromatids.
– Once separate, each sister chromatid is
considered a full-fledged (daughter)
chromosome.
– Motor proteins of the kinetochores,
powered by ATP, “walk” the daughter
chromosomes centromere-first along the
microtubules toward opposite poles of the
cell
– As this happens, the spindle microtubules
attached to the kinetochores shorten.
– However, the spindle microtubules not
attached to chromosomes lengthen.
– The poles are moved farther apart,
elongating the cell
– Anaphase is over when the equivalent and
complete chromosomes have reached the
two poles of the cell
d) Telophase
– is roughly the reverse of prophase
– The cell elongation that started in anaphase
continues
– Daughter nuclei appear at the two poles of
the cell as nuclear envelopes form around
the chromosomes
– Meanwhile, the chromatin fiber of each
chromosome, uncoils, and nucleoli
reappear.
– At the end of the telophase, the mitotic
spindle disappears
– Mitosis, the equal division of one nucleus
into two genetically identical daughter
nuclei is now finished
6. Cytokinesis
 The cytoplasm is divided into two
a) Animal cell
– Occurs by the process known as cleavage
– First sign of cleavage is the appearance of
cleavage furrow/ groove
– The cytoplasm has a ring of microfilaments
which contracts which forms the groove
b) Plant cell
– Membrane-enclosed vesicles containing
cell wall material collect at the middle of
parent cell
– Fusion of vesicles forms a membrane-
enclosed disk called cell plate
– Cell plate grows outward accumulating
more cell wall materials as more vesicles
fuse with it
– Result: 2 daughter cells each bounded by
its own continuous plasma membrane and
cell wall
 Mitotic Promoting Factor/ Mitotic Promoting
Kinases
 Initiates mitosis
 Aggregates of CDKs & cyclin
 Later in mitosis, MPF switches off non-cyclin part
destructing cyclin
 Non-cyclin part of MPF which is inactive form
 Cyclin-dependent Kinases (CDK)
 Cyclin – molecule which initiates the kinases
 Kinases – go-ahead signal protein which initiates
cell cycle; “ases” = protein
 Absence of CDK = G0 stage
 a) Leptonema
Somatic Cells Gametes  replicated chromosomes have coiled
and already visible.
Body cells Sex cells
 The number of chromosomes present is
the same as the number in diploid cell.
Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)
23 pairs of chromosomes (46 23 chromosomes b) Zygonema
chromosomes)  homologue chromosomes begin to pair
Ex: muscle cells, liver cells, Ex: Sperm cell, egg cell and twist around each other in a highly
neurons specific manner.
Produced through mitosis Produced through meiosis  The pairing is called synapsis. And
because the pair consists of four
chromatids it is referred to as bivalent
Results in 2 daughter cells Results in 4 haploid cells that
tetrad
that are identical to each are genetically different from
other and to the parent cells each other (meiosis)
c) Pachynema
(mitosis)
 chromosomes become much shorter
and thicker.
 A form of physical exchange between
ME IO S I S homologues takes place at specific
regions.
 reduces the amount of genetic information.  The process of physical exchange of
 produces haploid gametes or spores with only one set of a chromosome region is called
chromosomes. crossing-over.
 During sexual reproduction, gametes combine in the  Through the mechanism of crossing
fertilization to reconstitute the diploid complement found in over, the parts of the homologous
parental cells. chromosomes are recombined
 The process involves two successive division of a diploid (genetic recombination)
nucleus.
 Results in 4 haploid cells that are genetically different from d) Diplonema
each other and to the parent cells  the two pairs of sister chromatids
begin to separate from each other.
 It is at this point, where crossing-over
FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION (reductional) is shown to have taken place.
 The area of contact between non-
 The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of sister chromatids, called chiasma,
chromosomes (reduction division). In most cases the become evident.
division is accompanied by cytokinesis
e) Diakenesis
 the four chromatids of each tetrad are
1. Interphase even more condensed and the
 At the end of this interphase, each chromosome chiasma often terminalize or move
consists of two genetically identical sister down the chromatids to the ends.
chromatids, attached together  This delays the separation of
 The chromosomes are not yet visible under the homologous chromosomes.
microscope except as a mass of chromatin
 The cell’s centrosome has also duplicated by the
end of this interphase 3. Metaphase I
 The chromosome tetrads are aligned on the
metaphase plate, midway between the two
2. Prophase I poles of the spindle
 Is the most complex phase of meiosis  Each chromosome is condensed and thick with
 Typically occupies 90% of the time required for its sister chromatids still attached at their
meiotic cell division centromeres
 Early in this phase, the chromatin coils up  Spindle microtubules are attached to
 In a process called synapsis, homologous kinetochores at the centromeres
chromosomes, each composed of two sister  In each tetrad, the homologous chromosomes
chromatids, come together as pairs are held together at sites of crossing over
 The resulting structure, consisting of four  For each tetrad, the spindle microtubules
chromatids, is called a tetrad attached to one of the homologous
 During synapsis, chromatids of homologous chromosomes come from one pole of the cell,
chromosomes exchange segments in a process and the microtubules attached to the other
called crossing over has been subdivided into five homologous chromosomes come from the
substages. opposite pole
 With this arrangement, the homologous
chromosomes of each tetrad are poised to
move toward opposite poles of the cell
5 substages of Prophase I
  The spindle apparatus is completely formed
and the microtubules are attached to the
centromere regions of the homologues.
 The synapsed tetrads are aligned at the
metaphase plate ( the equatorial plane of the
cell ) instead of only replicated chromosomes.
3. Anaphase II
 The centromeres of sister chromatids finally
separate
 The sister chromatids (monads) of each
pair,now individual daughter chromosomes,
move toward opposite poles of the cell

4. Anaphase
 is marked by the migration of chromosomes
toward the two poles of the cell
 In contrast to mitosis, the sister chromatids
making up each doubled chromosome remain
attached at their centromeres.
 Only the tetrads (pair of homologous
chromosomes ) split up
 Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and
migrate toward the opposite poles.
 The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached
at their respective centromere regions.
5. Telophase I and Cytokinesis
 The chromosomes arrive at the poles of the
cell
 Each pole of the cell has a haploid
chromosome set, although each chromosome
is still in duplicate form at this point
 In other words, each chromosome consists of
two sister chromatids
 Usually cytokinesis occurs along with
Telophase I and two haploid daughter cells are
formed
 In some organisms, the chromosomes uncoil
and the nuclear envelope re-forms and there is
an interphase before Meiosis II begins
 In other species, daughter cells produced in
the first meiotic division immediately begin
preparation for the second meiotic division
 In either case, no chromosome duplication
occurs between telophase I and the onset of
Meiosis II
4. Telophase II
 Nuclei form at the cell poles
 There are now four daughter cells, each with
the haploid number of (single) chromosomes
 The monads are at the poles, forming two
groups of chromosomes. A nuclear
membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes.
5. Cytokinesis
 The two nuclei are compartmentalized into
separate daughter cells and complete the
mitotic cell division process.
 In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the
formation of the constriction in the middle of
the cell until two daughter cells are formed.
The constriction is often called cleavage, or
cell furrow.
 However, in most, plant cells, this
constriction is not evident. Instead, a new
cell membrane and cell wall are assembled
between the two nuclei to form a cell plate
 Each side of the cell plate is coated with a
cell wall that eventually forms the two
progeny cells.

SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION (equational)

 The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar

to mitotic divison
 The difference lies, however, in the number of
chromosomes that each daughter cell receives.
 While the original chromosome number is maintained in
mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.

1. Prophase II
 In organisms having an interphase after meiosis I
 The chromosomes condense again
 The nuclear envelope breaks down
 A spindle forms and moves toward the middle of
the cell
 The dyads contract

2. Metaphase II
 The chromosomes are aligned on the metaphase
plate with the kinetochores of the sister
chromatids of each chromosome pointing toward
opposite poles.
 centromere - region sa chromatid kung saan nagiintersect
yung sister chromatids, meron siyang dna

 centrosomes - organelle that contains the centrioles

 centrioles – organelle mainly composed of microtubules;

where spindle fiber is located

 chromatin - genetic material found in nucleus during

prophase and interphase; made of dense dna and protein
walang coiling, walang chromosomes

 chromatid - sila yung chromatin na nagcoil and condense

into a rod shaped figure - also called monad (can already
be called a chromosome) [all chromatids are
chromosomes, not all chromosomes are chromatids]

 chromosome - genetic material made of dna and proteins

tightly packed into a rod shaped figure - can either be a
monad (unduplicated chromosome) or a dyad (duplicated
chromosome)

(c) Sean Red sa last part

6 CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Photosynthesis)

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6H2O (Cellular respiration)