HYDE, B, and HAKEN, P.D, The intoduction of an experimental bulksmining method at Phwikwe Mine, MASSMIN 92, Iobinnesburg, SAIMM, 1992. pp. 21-29 The Introduction of an Experimental Bulk-mining method at Phikwe Mine B. HYDE and P.D. HAKEN BCL Limited, Selebi-Phitowe, Botswana ‘The Selebi-Phikwe nickel-copper deposit is located in eastern Botswana, approximately 140 km by road from Francistown, BCL Limited operates three underground mines in the area, with a combined production output of 11,235 kt per day. Phikwe Mine is the northernmost operation, with Selebi North and Selebi situated 8 km and 15 km to the south respectively. Phikwe Mine currently accounts for two-thirds of the total production, employing post-pllar cut-and-fill and ‘underhand breast-face mining methods. The need to contain working costs and increase productivity has intensified with increasing working depths, deteriorating ore-reserve grade, and sustained inflation. A project was therefore initiated on the design of an alternative extraction system to post-pillar cut-and-fill in the erratically mineralized massive zone of the orebody. AA trial bulk-mining method was recently introduced so that the actual operating parameters and technical details could be determined. Despite the reduced selectivity and lower intial extraction ratio, significant advantages in safety, production, and cost have emerged. This paper describes the design constraints and reviews the ‘major anticipated benefits of implementation, By February 1992, 63,210 kt had been extracted by longhole blast and a low pressure hammer. Introduction ‘The Phikwe orebody was discovered in 1966 after widespread geochemical prospecting of the area (Figure 1) Detailed investigations confirmed the viability of a major mining operation despite the remote location. Equity in the operating company, BCL Limited, is 85 per cent by Boiswana RST and 15 per cent by the State of Botswana. ‘The former holding is split between AMAX Inc. of the USA (30 per cent), Anglo American Corporation of South Africa Group of Companies (30 per cent), and public shareholders. ‘The production of underground and open-cast ore at the Phikwe orebody started in 1973, Production is currently from three underground mines at the Phikwe, Selebi, and Selebi North orebodies. The Phikwe Mine produces approximately 190 kt per month and comprises two shafts, the deepest of which is 946 m. The Selebi and Selebi North shafts currently contribute a further 70 kt and 30 kt per month respectively to the millfeed (Figure 2). BCL Limited is an autonomous operation employing some 5000 citizen and 250 expatriate personnel, with an on-site concentrator and smelter producing nearly 40 kt of copper plus nickel in ‘matte per annum. Dedicated management and support departments include Administration, Engineering, Personnel, Medical, Materials, Projects, and Technical Services. ‘The mining methods include post-pillar cut and fill, undethand breast-face open stoping, and longhole open stoping, depending on the characteristics of the orebody. Since 1988, a substantial increase in cut-and-fll production from an extensive low-grade area at Phikwe Mine, known 4s the Thick Zone, has largely contributed to the concurrent using mine air at 45 kPa fall in the average nickel head grade from 0,78 to 0,68 per cent. The need to contain shaft-head costs using cheaper, ‘more productive extraction systems is vital to ensure long. term viability in the light of an uncertain outlook for metal prices. An increasing use of mechanized systems has assisted in improving the productivity, but has been partially offset by the need for costly skilled operators and expert back-up maintenance. Geology General Description of the Orebody ‘The Phikwe orebody occurs as one of three locally exploited magmatic nickel-copper sulphide deposits, which are enclosed in the complex folded and metamorphosed Archaean Central Zone of the Limpopo Mobile Belt, Pyrthotite, the predominant sulphide, is associated with nickel- and copper-bearing pentlandite and chalcopyrite ‘The orebody is confined within a stratiform mafic sill and can be divided into three distinct zones based on dip, thickness, and mineralization, The dip varies between 5 and 75 degrees, from the surface outcrop to the deepest borehole intersection at 1650 m, along a strike of over 2 km, The ore host, amphibolite, is enclosed in grey gneisses, which can exceed 50 m in thickness in the Thick Zone on the western margin. Unlike the southern narrow, tabular ‘massive sulphide and central semi-massive sulphide zones, the mineralization in the Thick Zone is extremely variable, being distributed throughout the host in erratic stringers, blebs, and disseminated sulphides. Three main folding phases have been identified in the area, the last of which gave rise to the dome and basin appearance.ieee Raney cevesn Sttondry road Figure 1, Location of Selebt Phikwe Ore Reserves Of the 93 Mt of total proven ore reserves at BCL, the Phikwe orebody contains 69 Mt. The lower-grade Thick Zone comprises over 50 per cent of the Phikwe reserves, of which up to 14 Mt may be left unmined at the end of the ‘mine's life. The selective mining techniques currently employed in the area sterilize an estimated 30 per cent of the declared reserves'. The long-term production strategy is ‘under serutiny to exploit this vast resource with a viable, alternative extraction system. Design Criteria Rationale ‘The need to overcome the shortcomings of the existing cut- ‘and-fill mining method (Figure 3) focused attention on the following objectives: + minimize the exposure of in-stope crews to hazardous ‘mining conditions + improve the labour productivity + optimize the utilization of the resource + reduce the unit cost of extraction + minimize the generation of waste rock + eliminate the dependence on load-haul-dump (LHD) stope cleaning. was arranged to several Canadian mines with orebodies similar to that of the Phikwe deposit. A vertical- bench method (VBM) was considered to be the most adaptable extraction system seen. A suitable mining block was therefore selected within the Phikwe Thick Zone and a preliminary design prepared. A Canadian expert was then consulted to vet the proposal and suggest further refinements? Rock Mechanics THE characteristics ofthe orebody and host rockmass were assumed tobe a follows: Compressive strengh 125 MPa Tensile strength 13 MPa Young's modulus 65 GPa Poisson ratio 024 Insita density 3,50 giem”. A detailed geotechnical assessment was carried out using. ‘mapping from a recently stoped-out area beneath the block and borehole information from the footwall development. Frequent joint spacing is exacerbated by major planes of structural weakness, particularly near the hangingwall contact. These had already resulted in several significant falls of ground in nearby cut-and-fill topes. The block chosen for the trial, 670 m below surface, is almost surrounded by stoped-out areas, which have considerably altered the stress distributions. Symptoms of high resultant stress were clearly evident in the footwall waste-ramp development, which is situated in an abutment zone. The stress field was modelled by finite-boundary clement analysis using the BESOL/S005 computer facility’ ‘The simulation for the initial and final geometry indicated induced stresses of up t0 60 MPa on the pillar field stress. ‘The program was also used for the simulation of sequential ‘mining and the modelling of non-linear effects, such as slip and separation, on joints. Monitoring points were established at critical positions identified both from underground observations and from the seuea severest 0m ile 2 Bod son “oi SP SELEBI BASIN ue ~PHIKWE DEEP ORE PROVEN = = = ORE Tose oRULED Fiore 2. Schematic section throush the BCL orehodies (not to scale)Figure 3, Footwall ramp cut-and-fil method of mining at Phikwe Mine simulation. Close scrutiny of displacements was necessary ‘owing to the potential for the occurrence of more rapid and less predictable changes as a result of the significantly higher planned extraction rate, Geometry ‘Two adjacent stopes, separated by a 10 m pillar, were laid cout with a strike width of 20 m and a span of 50 m. The final excavated void height of each, including the trough drives, was 30 m (Figure 4). The stopes were sited in the widest portion of the massive or Thick Zone orebody available for mining at that time, Based on previous steeply dipping open-stoping experience on the upper levels, the sitike span between the 10 m pillars was reduced from the initial computer simulation of 30 m to 20 m. ‘The ratio of inter-stope pillar height to width of 3 to 1 was not critical since the block was partially destressed by a combination of over- and under-stoping. Extraction Parameters On a first pass, an extraction ratio of 47 per cent is achievable. Subject to the successful placement of the ‘cementitious sandfil, it is expected that this ratio can be increased to 85 per cent through the subsequent removal of inter-stope pillars and by the undercutting of the trough drives. The average post-pillar cut-and-fill run-of-mine extraction is 63 per cent, varying by up to 15 per cent depending on selectivity. In-stope stub pillars account for 7 pet cent, and inter-stope pillars for a further 15 per cent, of the unmined ore. ‘Ata scheduled production rate of 15 kt per month (or 10 peer cent of the shaft production), the life of the trial stopes ‘would last for 8 months after the start of stoping. The planned extraction rate is at least 50 per cent below the potential output of the two stopes. Output flexibility between the two stopes was a further consideration 10 smooth the fluctuations in grade and ore flows. Development Access An existing footwall haulage and a 12-degree ramp were used as arterial access to the designated block, where the (690/240 cut-and-fill stope had already been started. The stope was stopped and tight-filled, and a 10 m crown pillar ‘was left to stabilize the future bulk stope above it ‘Two trough drives were developed, 10 m apart, across each stope from the footwall ramp system (Figure 4). A. lower scraper (scram) gulley was established 3 m below, ‘midway between the twin trough drives. Drawpoints angled, at 55 degrees were alternately holed through from the scraper gulley to each trough drive, at 8 m centres. A short lofepass was holed into the footwall end of each scraper gulley from a gathering stusher. Fluctuations in ore feed could thus be controlled from either stope, contained in a centralized haulage otepass, and trammed to the main shaft system, Development-end shot holes (38 mm in diameter) were primed using 6D detonators and 22 mm diameter gelignite stick powder. Dynagel was used in preference to Anfex for, uupholes, the cut, lifters, and places where fissure water was intersected. Slow igniter cord was used to time holes initiated by a starter from a central blasting point. ‘The development schedule started in June 1990 and was largely completed within 7 months, Preparation of the Stope A.3,0 m high uppercut was mined horizontally across the top of each stope 30 m above the trough drives to facilitate+10" 222071 alg a8 620M. UPPER CUT. ‘SCRAPER GULEY 590 HAULAGE NORTH LOOKING EAST TT [Sea0n.1. UPPER cur yneresg TROUGH DRIVE SCRAPER GULLEY TOWER SCRAPER GULLEY 0 M.L. HAULAGE NORTH Figure 4. The 690/2400 bulk-mining stope (scale 1:1000) Grilling of large-diameter downholes. Stub pillars (3,0 by 3,0 m) were left at 15 m centres as an interim safety ‘measure until cable anchoring of the hangingwall span had been completed. Pre-placed 8 m long grouted anchors, installed on @ 3 m square pattern, were used to stabilize the ‘wider-than-normal span and resist joint separation before ‘mining strains developed. On completion of the uppercut, a slot parallel to the hangingwall contact was started for each stope by drop-raising at 65 degrees to hole the southern trough drives. These will provide a free-breaking face and through-ventilation to enable stoping to begin. The slot raise was sited 5 m from the hangingwall contact to ‘minimize dilution from sloughing. A connecting cross-cut was holed between the ends of each trough drive, andtrough or cone preparation was commenced. A vertical slot 2m wide was mined 10 m from the west end of each trough drive and sliped to an angle of 60 degrees. The development and stoping arrangements are shown in Figures 5 108, ‘Ring blasting of the troughs is being carried out using the following design parameters : Hole diameter Simm Length 5-10m Dip 90° Burden ‘ 15m Spacing 12m Explosives (45mm dia. and 60 mm long) Energex Powder factor 0,9 kg/m SPD fuse (70 ms) Nonel No.3 25 ms Powercord Holes are being drilled in a fan pattern using an Atlas Copco Simba H254 hydraulic rig. Energex of high charge density will be used in preference to Dynagel, which tends to give a decoupled charge and produce large rocks. It is expected that the easiest way to time rings, without toe priming, will be to use Nonel SPD fuses, which have a scatter similar to their delay period. This should avoid simultancous detonation and ensure that shots are delayed to prevent cut-off’ Figure 6. Development of slot-raise and drill area (not to scale) F/W = footwall | J Xd HW = haneinewallFigure 7. Development of slots (not to scale) F/W = footwall_ H/W = hangingwall Ss VAAN N Figure 8, Driling and blasting ofthe stope (aot to scale). F/W = footwal Environment ‘An upcast ventilation system will be used to confine the fumes from secondary blasting to the drawpoints and to keep the service areas in fresh air drawn up from the haulage via a ventilation raise and the main 12-degree up- ramp. At the design production rate of 15 kt per month, a ‘minimum of 50 m/s of air will be required for each stope. ‘Air will enter each scraper gulley and be drawn up by an uupcast booster fan, through the drawpoints, into the troughs ‘and main open stapes. A top-cut access ramp will be used to exhaust return air, which will flow through old workings to the main upcast Shaft adit on the 330 m level. Chilled HW = hanging service water will be reticulated to the stopes, from surface cooling ponds, at an ambient temperature of 24°C. Regular wetting of the working places should maintain wet-bulb temperatures below 27°C. A portable jet fan (570 mm diameter, 18 kW) will be used to facilitate re-entry to the scraper gullies after secondary blasting, Selection of Equipment ‘The major equipment selected for the tral is summarized in Table I. ‘All the equipment, except the DTH drill rig, will be made available from other operating sections. The procurement ofTable 1 ‘Major equipment No.of units Item “Applicaton ] 1 —HI27 Atlas Copco Development drifting, rough single-boom rig* diving, and secondary blasting | 1 Hao Mero DTH Large-imeter (105 mm) bast ell cig holes 3 $8kWdouble-drum Cleaning of sraperstusher ‘winch allies 1 Taro 350 LHD" Cleaning of development dis * Indicates used in other mining sections a suitable rig was hampered by the following constraints: + amaximum feed length of 3 m + the necessity for a dust-reduction facility + asection air pressure of 500 kPa * the need for the unit to be of robust and manoeuvrable construction, A Halco Micro DTH rig is being purchased. The rig ‘could subsequently be used for other mining applications such as drop raising or drain holes should the bulk-mining experiment prove unsuccessful. A modified undercarriage has been fabricated to replace the crawler tracks for ‘movement between holes and drilling sites. A separate 100 ‘kPa compressor will be hired to assess the benefits of high- pressure versus low-pressure hammers, and 10 obtain the optimum rotational speed and bit force for the drilling cycle. Dry drilling, with an efficient dust collector, is considered at least 50 per cent more productive than wet drilling in most Canadian operations®, This is mainly due to the reduction of secondary grinding that takes place at the bottom of the hole. Longhole Blasting The design of the large-diameter stoping holes was optimized as follows from the estimated values of the rock- strength characteristics discussed earlier: Hole diameter 102 mm Hole dip 70° Length am Burden 3,75 m Spacing 30m Bottom stemming. ism Top stemming 20m Explosives Anfox Primer (90 mm dia. and S60 mm long) _Energex Fuse Powercord Initiation Nonel 70 ms SPD ‘Charge length 175m Charge mass 6,64 kein Total charge mass 13,1 kg, Powder factor 0,5 kg/m Drilling pattern Rectangular Fragmentation 80% passing 45cm 50% passing 22cm. Comparisons were made between Anfo and repumpable emulsion explosive in an assessment of unit costs and fragmentation variance. It was found that the anticipated ‘marginal improvement in fragmentation by the use of repumpable Powergel did not justify the significant additional cost. Waterproof Powergel would be necessary only if the holes did not break through into the loading troughs. ‘A millisecond delay system is proposed to ensure an optimum balance between the fragmentation, heave, and throw characteristics (Figure 9). Nonel SPD detonators are considered far more immune to accidental initiation than 8D detonators used in cut-and-fill stoping, and are compatible with the centralized blasting system’, Performance Safety Over 30 per cent of the underground disabling-injury accidents at Phikwe Mine occur during barring or collaring beneath newly exposed hangingwall. The bulk-mining system should eliminate this hazard during stoping owing to the remote drilling from the stable uppercut excavation. Other advantages over cut-and-fill mining include the following: + improved supervisory control (fewer employees in a ‘more concentrated area) + dual stope access + lower ambient temperatures * healthier environment. Productivity ‘The average efficiency for cut-and-fill mining in the Thick Zone is 8,5 t per underground manshift. This is based on an ore production rate of 70 t per pneumatic rackdrill, and includes development labour. In comparison, the bulk- ‘mining method is expected to produce 11,9 t per man-shift in spite of the additional development required and the limited output rate during the trial. There are indications that this efficiency could be substantially increased to over 30. per manshift through several operational refinements. ‘A summary of the proposed manpower allocation is given in Table II. The main labour reduction is realized in the supervision, rockdrill, and construction crews. XX 26m oeronae meLes Figure 9. Initiation of stope blastholesTablet cont, However, the waste generate is 34 percent lower. Proposed production manpower for a production rate of 1S kt It is assumed that the bulk stopes will be sandfilled to per month permit subsequent pillar reclamation, Costs for a suitable enna Casas Balk-wining binding agent to stiffen the fll, and thus maximize the as sd extraction, are not yet available. A summary of the ‘expected major stoping-cost elements i given in Table TV. Mine Capi 3 oa “The additional cost benefits of bulk mining, such as the ows (RBS) 10 as faster extraction rate, reduced ventilation, and reduced ‘Shift Boss (Other) o2 02 ‘waste, arg not included in the costs shown in Table IV. The _— 2» 13 total unit cost of ble mining is expected to be atleast 17 mastruction) st x than that for cut-and-fil ining, san & | Sst een ae LD Operator 50 2 : Ualty Operator 10 as et Crew Bas (er) 20 nated stoping cost pla per tonne BLH (Other) 50, eee eee ree eee Leading Hand ao Biment ‘cand fill Bulk mining Vance Machine Operator 130 a Winch Driver Labour 373 2,09 (64) Spnnermen 10 Sel ot oo ats) SovmavMagzine uw Tinder x0 os) Workman 0 Cement asd ant oot (a0) a —— plosives a: 033 ‘a “Ts 705 sos Aesores 035 0a at | rte 026 oat ans * Rsk eaking ee ne om + Blasting-ticence holder Hoses: 0,09 0.04 (0,05) . Root sppot ou oo (a7) = ity Pipes 0,10 0.04 (0,06) “The impact ofthe lower feed grade (0,44 per cent nickel) | Sey equipment ns co aap on the average shaft head grade (0,68 per cent nickel) will | Engnccsing si aor Gan be closely monitored sinc the shaft hoisting capacity is, — already fully utilized. During the tial, itis intended to limit | Sobol 1066 su aD the contribution ofthe bulk slopes to 10 per cent of the total shaft tonnage and so to minimize dilution. An important |_Otereos 5st 334 influence may be the apparent drop in grade towards the footwallofthestopes Toul 16,20 108s 639, ‘Ore sorting is considered essential to any large-scale bulkemining operation. Intensive feasibility studies undertaken during 1990 indicated that a significant Tablev jt mining cost could make ore sorting, Comparison of total costs _ ly in conjunction with an uprating of the shaft hoisting capacity, a viable approach to the extraction of ore aan iit from the Thick Zone. Output | Cost. | Cost | Output | Cost | Cost | — : | _ pan [poat| | pus [putt ‘A comparison of development requirements jn the Thick Desor- B80 13060 Zone fora strike length of 120 m is shown in Table Ill ‘ | ert 38467) 514560 162 “The cut-andcfill stope development does not require asi! |" | ss9n4 | oon200| 162260310 | 2900014 109, drive to be mined from the stope ramp onthe first cu. The linear development for bulk mining is almost double that | roat qea9970 | 18 47636 150 for cut-and-fill mining, increasing the total cost by 63 per | ‘Table tt Development requirements nthe Tick Zone Cutan Balk nining oe Mosty é ‘cost, pula Ore, Cost, pula Waste, ¢ Ore, m Cost, pul Waste, t Ramp 1070 ys wor 13500 20 21500-9000 | taslge 10s 120 1s 3380 0 asm 3780 Stop mp 1070 16 171200 370 0 aso 248 Galey t9 2 m3s0 Deve 7 560 486240 | borase un 100 um 1200 0 3936) 0 Shae 107 10 156380 Tost 155 575024200 180 aston 16620Conclusions : The bulk-mining method offers an inherently safer, more cost-effective extraction system in selected massive-mining blocks. The possible advantages identified by the experiment are as follows. + The risks of employee exposure to a hazardous working environment are significantly lover. + There isa 17 per cent reduction in overall mining costs, + The rte of extraction is more than doubled. + The labour productivity is over 40 percent higher. + The waste that is generated is 30 per cent less. + The reliance on LHD stope cleaning is eliminated. + The volumes of air requited for the removal of heat and the dilution of diesel-engine fumes ar lower. + The production output is smoother, without off-line delays for sandfilling. Further analysis and development are envisaged in regard tothe following longer-term objectives: + grade cutoff limits based onthe lower mining cost * the removal of pillars to maximize extraction, use being made of cementitious backfill forthe mined-out siopes + optimum stope width to minimize dilution from hangingwall sloughing + small-scale introduction of ore sorting to offset the loss in selectivity. Acknowledgements ‘The authors thank the major shareholders of BCL, Anglo American Corporation of South Africa Limited, AMAX Inc., and the State of Botswana, for their permission to submit this paper. References 1. HAKEN, P.D. Selective mining in the Phikwe Thick Zone, Internal document, 1991, 2. PELLEY, C.W. Visit to Geco Division, Noranda Minerals Inc. Internal document, 1990, 3. COGGAN, J.S. Application of rock mechanics at BCL Limited. Internal document, 1991 4, MUTSINYA, N.P. Mechanised open stoy Kamat 1990. 5. BEATTIE, M, Stope blasting at Selebi-Phikwe Mine. Blastconsult report, 1991. 6. WELLS, B.R. In-the-hole drilling equipment and techniques. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Rock Breaking Symposium, 1978,