International development

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For other forms of development, see Development (disambiguation).

World Development Indicators have improved relative to the year 1990

International development or global development is a broad concept denoting the

idea that societies and countries have differing levels of "development" on an
international scale. It is the basis for international classifications such as developed
country, developing country and least developed country, and for a field of practice and
research that in various ways engages with international development processes. There
are, however, many schools of thought and conventions regarding which are the exact
features constituting the "development" of a country.
Historically, development has often been largely synonymous with economic
development. More recently, writers and practitioners have begun to discuss
development in the more holistic and multi-disciplinary sense of human development.
Other related concepts are, for instance, competitiveness, quality of life or subjective
well-being.[1]
"International development" is different from the simple concept of "development".
Whereas the latter, at its most basic, denotes simply the idea of change through time,
international development has come to refer to a distinct field of practice, industry, and
research; the subject of university courses and professional categorisations. It remains
closely related to the set of institutions—especially the Bretton Woods Institutions—that
arose after the Second World War with a focus on economic growth, alleviating poverty,
and improving living conditions in previously colonised countries. [2] The international
community has codified development aims in, for instance, the Millennium Development
Goals and Sustainable Development Goals.
 Contents

 1History
o 1.1After World War 2
 2Theories
 3Global Goals
o 3.1Millennium Development Goals
o 3.2Sustainable Development Goals
o 3.3Other goals
 4Concepts
o 4.1International economic inequality
o 4.2Dignity
o 4.3Participation
o 4.4Appropriateness
o 4.5Sustainability
o 4.6Capacity building
o 4.7Rights-based approach
 5Practice
o 5.1Measurement
o 5.2Migration and remittance
o 5.3Sectors
 5.3.1Water and sanitation
 5.3.2Health
 5.3.3Education
 5.3.4Shelter
 5.3.5Human rights
 5.3.6Livelihoods
 5.3.7Finance
 6Concerns
 7See also
 8References
o 8.1Notes
o 8.2Bibliography
 9Further reading
 10External links

History[edit]
Although international relations and international trade have existed for thousands of
years, it is only in the past century that international development theory emerged as a
separate body of ideas.[3] More specifically, it has been suggested that 'the theory and
practice of development is inherently technocratic, and remains rooted in the high
modernist period of political thought that existed in the immediate aftermath of the
Second World War'.[4] Throughout the 20th century, before the concept of international
development became a common word, four aspects were used to describe the idea:

 political and economic liberalism, and the significance of "free markets"

 social evolution in extremely hierarchical environment
  Marxist critiques of class and imperialism
 anti-colonial take on cultural differences and national self-determination [2]
After World War 2[edit]
The second half of the 20th century has been called the 'era of development'. [5] The
origins of this era have been attributed to

 the need for reconstruction in the immediate aftermath of World War II[6]
 the evolution of colonialism or "colonization" into globalization and the
establishment of new free trade policies between so-called 'developed' and
'underdeveloped' nations[citation needed]
 the start of the Cold War and the desire of the United States and its allies to
prevent the Third World from drifting towards communism[7]
International Development in its very meaning is geared towards colonies that gained
independence. The governance of the newly independent states should be constructed
so that the inhabitants enjoy freedom from poverty, hunger, and insecurity. [8]
It has been argued that this era was launched on January 20, 1949, when Harry S.
Truman made these remarks in his inaugural address [9]
We must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific
advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of
underdeveloped areas. The old imperialism—exploitation for foreign profit—has no
place in our plans. What we envisage is a program of development based on the
concept of democratic fair dealing.

— Harry S. Truman, 1949

Before this date, however, the United States had already taken a leading role in the
creation of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (now part of
the World Bank Group) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), both established in
1944, and in the United Nations in 1945.
The launch of the Marshall Plan was another important step in setting the agenda for
international development, combining humanitarian goals with the creation of a political
and economic bloc in Europe that was allied to the U.S. This agenda was given
conceptual support during the 1950s in the form of modernization theory espoused
by Walt Rostow and other American economists.[citation needed] The changes in the 'developed'
world's approach to international development were further necessitated by the gradual
collapse of Western Europe's empires over the next decades; now independent ex-
colonies no longer received support in return for their subordinate role.
By the late 1960s, dependency theory arose analysing the evolving relationship
between the West and the Third World. [citation needed] In the 1970s and early 1980s, the
modernists at the World Bank and IMF adopted the neoliberal ideas of economists such
as Milton Friedman or Béla Balassa, which were implemented in the form of structural
adjustment programs,[10] while their opponents were promoting various 'bottom-up'
approaches, ranging from civil disobedience and critical consciousness to appropriate
technology and Rapid Rural Appraisal.[citation needed]
In response, various parts of the UN system led a counter movement, which in the long
run has proved to be successful.[citation needed] They were led initially by the International
Labour Organization (ILO), influenced by Paul Streeten, then by United Nations
International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF).[11] Then United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), even though headed by a conservative U.S.
republican, put forward the concept of Human Development, thanks to Mahboub ul Haq
and Amartya Sen, thus changing the nature of the development dialogue to focus on
human needs and capabilities.[citation needed]
By the 1990s, there were some writers for whom development theory had reached an
impasse[12] and some academics were "imagining a postdevelopment era." [13][14] The Cold
War had ended, capitalism had become the dominant mode of social organization, and
UN statistics showed that living standards around the world had improved over the past
40 years.[15] Nevertheless, a large portion of the world's population were still living
in poverty, their governments were crippled by debt and concerns about the
environmental impact of globalization were rising.
In response to the impasse, the rhetoric of development is now focusing on the issue of
poverty, with the metanarrative of modernization being replaced by shorter-term vision
embodied by the Millennium Development Goals and the Human
Development approach.[16] At the same time, some development agencies are exploring
opportunities for public-private partnerships and promoting the idea of Corporate social
responsibility with the apparent aim of integrating international development with the
process of economic globalization.[17]
The critics have suggested that this integration has always been part of the underlying
agenda of development.[18] They argue that poverty can be equated with powerlessness
and that the way to overcome poverty is through emancipatory social
movements and civil society, not paternalistic aid programmes or corporate charity. [19]
While some critics have been debating the end of development others have predicted a
development revival as part of the War on Terrorism. To date, however, there is limited
evidence to support the notion that aid budgets are being used to counter Islamic
fundamentalism in the same way that they were used 40 years ago to counter
communism.[20]

Theories[edit]
This section needs expansion. You
can help by adding to it. (November
2018)

Main article: Development theory

There are a number of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved.
Such theories draw on a variety of social scientific disciplines and approaches, and
include historical theories such as:
  Modernization Theory
 Dependency Theory
 World Systems Theory
 Neoliberalism
 Good governance
 Capability approach
 Postdevelopment theory

Global Goals[edit]
Millennium Development Goals[edit]
Main article: Millennium Development Goals
In 2000, United Nations signed the United Nations Millennium Declaration, which
includes eight Millennium Development Goals to be achieved by 2015. This
represented the first time that a holistic strategy to meet the development needs of the
world has been established, with measurable targets and defined indicators. [21]
Because the MDGs were agreed as global targets to be achieved by the global
community, they are independent of, but by no means unrelated to, individual national
interests. The goals imply that every state has a set of obligations to the world
community to meet and that other states, who have achieved those goals, have an
obligation to help those who have not. As such they may represent an extension of the
concept of human rights.
The first seven Millennium Development Goals present measurable goals, while the
eighth lists a number of 'stepping stone' goals – ways in which progress towards the first
seven goals could be made. Each goal uses indicators based on statistical series
collected and maintained by respected organisations in each relevant field (usually the
UN agency responsible but also the OECD, IMF and World Bank)
The MDGs have catalysed a significant amount of action, including new initiatives such
as Millennium Promise. Most of these initiatives however work in small scale
interventions which do not reach the millions of people required by the MDGs.
Recent praise has been that it will be impossible to meet the first seven goals without
meeting the eighth by forming a Global Partnership for Development. No current
organisation has the capacity to dissolve the enormous problems of the developing
world alone – especially in cities, where an increasing number of poor people live – as
demonstrated by the almost nonexistent progress on the goal of improving the lives of
at least 100 Million slum dwellers.[citation needed]
The Institution of Civil Engineers Engineering Without Frontiers panel and its
recommendations, and the 2007 Brunel Lecture by the ICE's 2009–2010 president Paul
Jowitt, are representative of a change of approach in the UK at least to start drawing
together the huge capacity available to western governments, industry, academia and
charity to develop such a partnership.[22][23]
Sustainable Development Goals[edit]
Main article: Sustainable Development Goals
The MDGs served a successful framework to guide international development efforts,
having achieved progress on some of the 8 goals. For example, by 2015 the extreme
poverty rate had already been cut into half.[24] Other targets achieved include access to
safe drinking water, malaria, and gender equality in schooling. [25] Yet, some scholars
have argued that the MDGs lack the critical perspectives required to alleviate poverty
and structures of inequality, reflected in the serious lags to achieving numerous other
goals.[26]
As the MDG era came to an end, 2015 marked the year that the United Nations General
Assembly adopted a new agenda for development. [27] Former UN Secretary General Ban
Ki Moon referred to this as a "defining moment in history" calling on states to "act in
solidarity".[28] Succeeding the MDG agenda, 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
were created, with 169 indicators.[27] UN resolution 70/1 adopted on September 25, 2015
was titled "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development",
solidifying 17 new goals that had been in motion since 2014. [24][27] The goals came into
force in January 2016, focusing on areas of climate change, economic inequality,
democracy, poverty, and peacebuilding.[29]
Although the SDGs were built on the foundation of the MDGs, there are some key
differences in both processes. Before adoption, unlike the MDGs, the SDGs had been in
discussion for months, involving civil society actors, NGOs, as well as an opening
summit involving intergovernmental negotiations.[30] The new global development agenda
places a greater emphasis on collective action, combining the efforts of multiple
stakeholders to increase the sustainability of the goals. This emphasis on sustainability
has also led to more cross-sector partnerships, and combined international efforts
across areas of environmental, social, cultural, political, and economic development. [30]
Other goals[edit]
International development also aims to improve general government policies of these
developing countries. "State building" is the strengthening of regional institutions
necessary to support long-term economic, social, and political development. Education
is another important aspect of international development. It is a good example of how
the focus today is on sustainable development in these countries; education gives
people the skills required to keep themselves out of poverty. [31]

Concepts[edit]
International development is related to the concept of international aid, but is distinct
from, disaster relief and humanitarian aid.[citation needed] While these two forms of international
support seek to alleviate some of the problems associated with a lack of development,
they are most often short term fixes – they are not necessarily long-term solutions.
International development, on the other hand, seeks to implement long-term solutions to
problems by helping developing countries create the necessary capacity needed to
provide such sustainable solutions to their problems. A truly sustainable development
project is one which will be able to carry on indefinitely with no further international
involvement or support, whether it be financial or otherwise.
International development projects may consist of a single, transformative project to
address a specific problem or a series of projects targeted at several aspects of society.
Promoted projects are ones which involve problem solving that reflects the unique
culture, politics, geography, and economy of a region. More recently, the focus in this
field has been projects that aim towards empowering women, building local economies,
and caring for the environment.[32]
In context of human development it usually encompasses foreign
aid, governance, healthcare, education, poverty reduction, gender equality, disaster
preparedness, infrastructure, economics, human rights, environment and issues
associated with these.[33]
During recent decades, development thinking has shifted from modernization
and structural adjustment programs to poverty reduction. Under the former system, poor
countries were encouraged to undergo social and economical structural transformations
as part of their development, creating industrialization and intentional industrial policy.
Poverty reduction rejects this notion, consisting instead of direct budget support for
social welfare programs that create macroeconomic stability leading to an increase in
economic growth.
The concept of poverty can apply to different circumstances depending on context.
Poverty is the condition of lacking economic access to fundamental human needs such
as food, shelter and safe drinking water. While some define poverty primarily in
economic terms, others consider social and political arrangements also to be intrinsic –
often manifested in a lack of dignity.
International economic inequality[edit]
Main articles: Economic inequality and North-South divide
See also: South-South cooperation

Countries by 2018 GDP (nominal) per capita[34]

Global share of wealth by wealth group, Credit Suisse, 2017

International development institutions and International Organisations such as the UN

promote the realisation of the fact that economic practices such as rapid
globalisation and certain aspects of international capitalism can lead to, and, allegedly,
have led to an economic divide between countries, sometimes called the North-South
divide. Such organisations often make it a goal and to help reduce these divides by
encouraging co-operation amongst the Global South and other practices and policies
that can accomplish this.[35]
International development can also cause inequality between richer and poorer factions
of one nation's society. For example, when economic growth boosts development
and industrialisation, it can create a class divide by creating demand for more educated
people in order to maintain corporate and industrial profitability. Thus the popular
demand for education, which in turn drives the cost of education higher through the
principle of supply and demand, as people would want to be part of the new economic
elite. Higher costs for education lead to a situation where only the people with enough
money to pay for education can receive sufficient education to qualify for the better-
paying jobs that mass-development brings about. This restricts poorer people to lesser-
paying jobs but technological development makes some of these jobs obsolete (for
example, by introducing electronic machines to take over a job, such as creating a
series of machines such as lawn mowers to make people such as gardeners obsolete).
This leads to a situation where poorer people can't improve their lives as easily as they
could have in a less developed society. [citation needed] That is partially why institutions such as
the Center for Global Development are searching for "pro-poor" economic policies. [31]
Dignity[edit]
Main article: Dignity
Modern poverty reduction and development programmes often have dignity as a
central theme. Dignity is also a central theme of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, the very first article of which starts with:
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights."
The concept of dignity in development has been extensively explored by many, and
related to all of the development sectors. For example, in Development with
Dignity Amit Bhaduri argues that full employment with dignity for all is both important
and possible in India,[36] while the UN Millennium Project's task force on Water and
Sanitation links the sector directly to dignity in the report Health, Dignity and
Development: What will it take?.[37] The Asian Human Rights Commission released a
statement in 2006 claiming that:
Human dignity is the true measure of human development.

— Asian Human Rights Commission & People's Vigilance Committee for Human
Rights press release[38]

 Humanizing Development Global Photography Campaign

Participation[edit]
Main article: Participation (decision making)
See also: Orality
The concept of participation is concerned with ensuring that the intended
beneficiaries of development projects and programmes are themselves involved in
the planning and execution of those projects and programmes. This is considered
important as it empowers the recipients of development projects to influence and
manage their own development – thereby removing any culture of dependency. It is
widely considered to be one of the most important concepts in modern development
theory.[39][40] The UN System Network on Rural Development and Food
Security describes participation as:
one of the ends as well as one of the means of development

— UN System Network on Rural Development and Food Security [41]

Local participants in development projects are often products of oral communities.
This has led to efforts to design project planning and organizational development
methods, such as participatory rural appraisal, which are accessible to non-literate
people.
Appropriateness[edit]
See also: Appropriate technology
The concept of something being appropriate is concerned with ensuring that a
development project or programme is of the correct scale and technical level, and is
culturally and socially suitable for its beneficiaries. This should not be confused with
ensuring something is low-technology, cheap or basic – a project is appropriate if it
is acceptable to its recipients and owners, economically affordable and sustainable
in the context in which it is executed.
For example, in a rural sub-Saharan community it may not be appropriate to provide
a chlorinated and pumped water system because it cannot be maintained or
controlled adequately – simple hand pumps may be better; while in a big city in the
same country it would be inappropriate to provide water with hand pumps, and the
chlorinated system would be the correct response.
The economist E. F. Schumacher championed the cause of appropriate
technology and founded the organization ITDG (Intermediate Technology Design
Group), which develops and provides appropriate technologies for development
(ITDG has now been renamed Practical Action).
The concept of right-financing has been developed to reflect the need for public and
private financial support systems that foster and enable development, rather than
hinder it.
Sustainability[edit]
Main articles: Sustainable development and Sustainability
 Sustainable business practices lead to economic growth and empowerment for farming communities in
northern Uganda.

A sustainable approach to development is one which takes account

of economic, social and environmental factors to produce projects and programmes
which will have results which are not dependent on finite resources. Something
which is sustainable will not use more natural resources than the local environment
can supply; more financial resources than the local community and markets can
sustain; and will have the necessary support from the community, government and
other stakeholders to carry on indefinitely.
It is one of the key concepts in international development, and is critical in
removing dependency on overseas aid.
Capacity building[edit]
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Main article: Capacity building
Capacity building for some is concerned with increasing the ability of the recipients
of development projects to continue their future development alone, without external
support. It is a parallel concept to sustainability, as it furthers the ability of a society
to function independently of external factors. For others it has had a wider
connotation for several decades.
For example, the lead within the UN system for action and thinking in this area was
given to UNDP and it has offered guidance to its staff and governments on what was
then called institution building since the early 1970s. This involved building up the
ability of basic national organizations, in areas such as civil aviation, meteorology,
agriculture, health, nutrition to do their tasks well. All UN specialized agencies were
supposed to be active in support of capacity building in the areas for which they
were technically qualified e.g. FAO for the rural sector and agriculture, WHO for
health etc., but they achieved mixed results. USAID UK/DFID and some of the
Nordic donors were also active in the area, as were some of the Soviet bloc
countries, but the success of their efforts were affected by the perception that
national political interests motivated their efforts.
By 1991, the term had evolved and become 'capacity building'. UNDP defined
'capacity building' as the creation of an enabling environment with appropriate policy
and legal frameworks, institutional development, including community participation
(of women in particular), human resources development and strengthening of
managerial systems, adding that, UNDP recognizes that capacity building is a long-
term, continuing process, in which all stakeholders participate (ministries, local
authorities, non-governmental organizations and water user groups, professional
associations, academics and others).
By 1995, the UN General Assembly had commissioned and received (1998)
evaluations of the impact of the UN system's support for capacity building. These
evaluations were carried out as part of the UN General Assembly's triennial policy
review during which it looks at and provides overall guidance of all UN system
development activities (http://www.un.org/esa/coordination/public_multi.htm 2nd&
3rd entries). It remains a protean concept used by different agencies in different
ways to serve their respective agendas. One essential element common to most
serious organisations working in the field is that it covers much more than training.
Rights-based approach[edit]
Main article: Rights-based approach to development
Rights-based approach to development has been adopted by
many nongovernmental organizations and the United Nations as the new approach
to international development. Rights-based approach combines many different
concepts of international development, such as capacity building, human rights,
participation, and sustainability. The goal of the rights-based approach to
development is to empower the rights-holders, or the group that does not exercise
full rights, and strengthen the capacity of the duty-bearers, or the institution or
government obligated to fill these rights.

Practice[edit]
Measurement[edit]

World map indicating Human Development Index in 2006.

The judging of how developed a country or a community is highly subjective, often

highly controversial, and very important in judging what further development is
necessary or desirable.
There are many different measures of human development, many of them related to
the different sectors above. Some of them are:

 National GDP
  Literacy rates
 Life expectancy
 Human Development Index
 Gini coefficient
 Human Security Index – see external link and mention on Human security
 Per capita income
 Maternal survival rate
 HIV infection rates
 Number of doctors per capita
An interesting way of seeing development in Third World countries is through
modernization. This includes electronification of households and increases in phone
plans. This does not accurately convey social development although it is hard to
precisely measure, and institutions differ greatly in their methods. [42] This goes into
the debate on whether economic growth causes social growth or vice versa.
Indicators of social change can be used to complement economic factors as
indicators of development and in formulating development policies. [8]
In a multi-country review of development progress, improved outcomes on these
measures has generally been found to be driven by a combination of smart
leadership, policies, institutions, and friends, according to the Overseas
Development Institute.[43]
Migration and remittance[edit]
See also: Codevelopment
Migration has throughout history also led to significant international development. As
people move, their culture, knowledge, skills and technologies move with them.
Migrants' ties with their past homes and communities lead to international
relationships and further flows of goods, capital and knowledge. The value
of remittances sent home by migrants in modern times is much greater than the total
in international aid given.[44]
Sectors[edit]
International development and disaster relief are both often grouped into sectors,
which correlate with the major themes of international development (and with the
Millennium Development Goals – which are included in the descriptions below).
There is no clearly defined list of sectors, but some of the more established and
universally accepted sectors are further explored here. The sectors are highly
interlinked, illustrating the complexity of the problems they seek to deal with.
Water and sanitation[edit]
See also: Water supply and Sanitation
In development, this is the provision of water and sanitation
(toilets, bathing facilities, a healthy environment) of sufficient quantity and quality to
supply an acceptable standard of living. This is different from a relief response,
where it is the provision of water and sanitation in sufficient quantity and quality to
maintain life.[45]
The provision of water and sanitation is primarily an engineering challenge, but also
often includes an education element and is closely connected with shelter, politics
and human rights.
The seventh Millennium Development Goal is to ensure
environmental sustainability, including reducing by half the proportion of people
without sustainable access to safe drinking water and achieving significant
improvement in lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers, by 2020. UN-Water, a
body of 26 UN agencies that work on water issues, is responsible for the
triennial UN World Water Development Report which monitors progress towards
the Millennium Development Goals related to water. The World Water Assessment
Programme, which produces the Report, has articulated how eight of the MDGs are
linked to water resources.[46]
Examples of organisations specialising in Water & Sanitation are:

 Oxfam
 Water 1st International
 WaterAid
 WaterPartners International
 Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council
 Living Water International
 Partners in aid (watershed management in India, and sanitation in the
Philippines)
 Charity: water
 EcoCARE Pacific Trust
Health[edit]
See also: Public health and Reproductive health
This is provision of access to quality healthcare to the population in an efficient and
consistent manner and according to their needs. The standard and level of provision
that is acceptable or appropriate depends on many factors and is highly specific to
country and location. For example, in large city (whether in a 'developing' country or
not), it is appropriate and often practical to provide a high standard hospital which
can offer a full range of treatments; in a remote rural community it may be more
appropriate and practical to provide a visiting healthworker on a periodic basis,
possibly with a rural clinic serving several different communities.
The provision of access to healthcare is both an engineering challenge as it
requires infrastructure such as hospitals and transport systems and an education
challenge as it requires qualified healthworkers and educated consumers.
The fourth Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by two thirds the mortality
rate among children under five.
The fifth Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by three quarters the maternal
mortality ratio.
The sixth Millennium Development Goal is to halt and begin to reverse the spread
of HIV/AIDS and to halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other
major diseases.
Reaching these goals is also a management challenge. Health services need to
make the best use of limited resources while providing the same quality of care to
every man, woman and child everywhere. Achieving this level of services requires
innovation, quality improvement and expansion of public health services and
programs. The main goal is to make public health truly public.
Examples of organizations working in health are:

 World Health Organization

 Partners in Health
 Results for Development Institute
 Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance
Education[edit]
Main article: Education
The provision of education often focuses on providing free primary level education,
but also covers secondary and higher education. A lack of access to education is
one of the primary limits on human development, and is related closely to every one
of the other sectors. Almost every development project includes an aspect of
education as development by its very nature requires a change in the way people
live.
The second Millennium Development Goal is to Provide universal primary
education.
The provision of education is itself an education challenge, as it requires
qualified teachers who must be trained in higher education institutions. However,
donors are unwilling to provide support to higher education because their policies
now target the MDG.[citation needed] The result is that students are not educated by qualified
professionals and worse, when they graduate from primary school they are inducted
into a secondary school system that is not able to accommodate them. [citation needed]
Shelter[edit]
The provision of appropriate shelter is concerned with providing suitable housing for
families and communities. It is highly specific to context of culture,
location, climate and other factors. In development, it is concerned with providing
housing of an appropriate quality and type to accommodate people in the long term.
This is distinct from shelter in relief, which is concerned with providing sufficient
shelter to maintain life.[45]
Examples of organisations specialising in shelter are:

 UN-HABITAT (development)
  UNHCR (relief)
 Shelter Centre (relief)
 Architecture for Humanity (relief and development)
 Article 25 (relief and development)
 ARCHIVE Global (development)
Human rights[edit]
Main article: Human rights
The provision of human rights is concerned with ensuring that all people
everywhere receive the rights conferred on them by International human rights
instruments [1]. There are many of these, but the most important for international
development are:

 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its associated treaties

 The Convention on the Rights of the Child
 The Geneva Conventions (this is of more relevance to relief and military
practices than development)
Human rights covers a huge range of topics. Some of those more relevant to
international development projects include rights associated with gender
equality, justice, employment, social welfare and culture.
The third Millennium Development Goal is to promote gender equality and empower
women by eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education
preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015
Accomplishing this goal could assist in the achievement of 5 of the other 8
Millennium Development Goals. Goals 1–6 are in direct correlation with the status of
women in the communities of problem countries such as The Democratic Republic
of Congo, Sub-Saharan Africa and many of the developing nations. The low social
stature of a woman inhibits her abilities to truly impact her community in astonishing
ways. Noting the relationship between mother and offspring, Goals 1, 4 and 5 are
ones to feel the wrath of poor social status. An unhealthy mother simply cannot bear
a healthy child, let alone nurse a sickly one back to health, without access to
adequate nutrition. A mother characteristically takes most of the care of a child,
therefore must have the resources available to not only support herself but another
human as well. Without these resources, if she has not already succumbed to
birthing complications, a woman cannot survive the perils of poverty and hunger and
support her child simultaneously. In a different spectrum of societal norms the Goals
2 and 6 are being threatened by an age old privilege. Historically females have been
refused education in pardon of males, resulting in lesser opportunity to thrive
economically. Giving women equal access to an adequate education brings the
global community steps closer to achieving universal primary education. Along with
this education will come proper spread of knowledge regarding safe practices in
disease avoidance. Women are increasingly falling victim to HIV/AIDS for reasons
easily evaded. Increasing the availability of a proper education to women will be
remarkably beneficial on a variety of fronts. To promote gender equality is to
promote progress towards global development.
Livelihoods[edit]
See also: Sustainable agriculture
This is concerned with ensuring that all people are able to make a living for
themselves and provide themselves with an adequate standard of living, without
compromising their human rights and while maintaining dignity.
The first Millennium Development Goal is to reduce by half the proportion of people
living on less than a dollar a day and reduce by half the proportion of people who
suffer from hunger.
The concept of livelihoods is directly drawn from the Sustainable Livelihoods
Approach (SLA) to international development. The approach and subsequent
practical framework is credited to Robert Chambers, who, writing from the mid-
1980s and onward, was interested in fostering efficiency in development
cooperation. The approach was later developed and utilized by the United
Kingdom's Department for International Development (DFID).The approach is
considered to be more comprehensive than previous theories and methodology of
"conventional" development initiatives. The core concepts include: taking a holistic
view, building on community and individual strengths, focusing on linking both macro
and micro-level thinking, sustainability, and maintaining a dynamic and ever-
evolving framework. [2]

Startup capital, which is represented by resources and financial investments, are allocated to
communities by development agencies based on the specific needs of the communities as voiced by
members of the communities. The two parties cooperate closely to achieve a goal set by the
community. Combined with existing resources, capital provided by development agencies is utilized by
communities to improve their quality of life.

Finance[edit]
See also: Microfinance and Right-financing
Several organisations and initiatives exist which are concerned with providing
financial systems and frameworks which allow people to organise or purchase
services, items or projects for their own development.
The 2006 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded jointly to Muhammad Yunus and
the Grameen Bank, which he founded, for their work in providing microcredit to the
poor.

Concerns[edit]
Main article: Development criticism
The terms "developed" and "developing" (or "underdeveloped"), have proven
problematic in forming policy as they ignore issues of wealth distribution and the
lingering effects of colonialism. Some theorists see development efforts as
fundamentally neo-colonial, in which a wealthier nation forces its industrial and
economic structure on a poorer nation, which will then become a consumer of the
developed nation's goods and services.[citation needed] Post-developmentalists, for example,
see development as a form of Western cultural imperialism that hurts the people of
poor countries and endangers the environment to such an extent that they suggest
rejection of development altogether.[citation needed]

See also[edit]
 African Development Bank
 Asian Development Bank
 Center for Global Development
 Development Cooperation Issues
 Development Cooperation Stories
 Development Cooperation Testimonials
 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
 Global South Development Magazine
 Human development
 Human Development and Capability Association
 Human security
 Institute of Development Studies (IDS)
 International Association for Feminist Economics
 International Development Design Summit
 International Development Research Centre
 International Monetary Fund
 International studies
 Law and development
 List of development aid agencies
 Non-governmental organizations
 Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative
 Overseas Development Institute
 Society for International Development  (SID)
  United Nations Children's Fund
 United Nations Development Programme
 United Nations Human Settlements Programme
 World Bank
 World Neighbors
Indices

 Bhutan GNH Index

 Broad measures of economic progress
 Disability-adjusted life year
 Full cost accounting
 Green national product
 Green gross domestic product (Green GDP)
 Gender-related Development Index
 Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)
 Global Peace Index
 Gross National Happiness
 Gross National Well-being (GNW)
 Happiness economics
 Happy Planet Index (HPI)
 Human Development Index (HDI)
 ISEW (Index of sustainable economic welfare)
 Legatum Prosperity Index
 Leisure satisfaction
 Living planet index
 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
 Money-rich, time-poor
 OECD Better Life Index BLI
 Subjective life satisfaction
 Where-to-be-born Index
 Wikiprogress
 World Happiness Report (WHR)
 World Values Survey (WVS)
Other

 Economics
 Democracy Ranking
 Demographic economics
 Economic development
 Ethics of care
 Human Development and Capability Association
  Human Poverty Index
 Marina Ottaway
 Progress (history)
 Progressive utilization theory
 Post-materialism
 Psychometrics
 International Association for Feminist Economics
 Sustainable development
 System of National Accounts
 Welfare economics

References[edit]
Notes[edit]
1. ^ Video with prof. Hans Rosling Archived 2009-10-01 at the Wayback Machine after 21
seconds.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b (2009). "Development". In D. Gregory, Dictionary of Human Geography, 5th
Edition (pp. 155–56). Wiley-Blackwell.
3. ^ Worsley, P. Culture and Development Theory, in Skelton, T. and Allen, T. (1999)
4. ^ Barlett (2007)
5. ^ Thomas, A. Poverty and the end of development in Allen, Thomas (2000)
6. ^ Browne (1990)
7. ^ Lorenzini, Sara (2019-09-03).  Global Development. Princeton University
Press. ISBN 978-0-691-18015-1.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b (2009). Retrieved from The International Development Research Centre:
www.idrc.ca
9. ^ Esteva, G. Development, in Sachs (1992)
10. ^ Todaro, MP and Smith, SC. 2009. Economic Development, 10th Ed. Addison-Wesley,
Essex, England. ISBN 978-1-4058-7424-3
11. ^ Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Richard Jolly and Frances Stewart, Adjustment with a Human
Face
12. ^ Schuurman (1993)
13. ^ Escobar (1995)
14. ^ Fukuyama (1992)
15. ^ Wroe, Doney (2005)
16. ^ Rorden Wilkinson and David Hulme (eds.), The Millennium Development Goals and
Beyond: Global Development after 2015, (London: Routledge, 2012).
17. ^ Utting (2003)
18. ^ Korten (1995)
19. ^ Parfitt (2002)
20. ^ Moss, Roodman and Standley (2005)
21. ^ "Millennium Development Goals Indicators". United Nations Statistics
Division.  Archived  from the original on 2008-01-03. Retrieved 2008-01-13.
22. ^ Jowitt, Paul (2006). "Engineering Civilisation from the Shadows"  (PDF). Archived
from  the original  (PDF)  on 2006-10-06.
 23. ^ Jowitt, Paul (July 2004). "Engineering Without Frontiers"  (PDF). Archived from  the
original  (PDF)  on 2007-02-21.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b "From MDGs to SDGs". Sustainable Development Goals Fund. 2014-12-17.
Retrieved 2018-11-09.
25. ^ Transitioning from the MDGs to the SDGs, World Bank Group, United Nations
Development Programme
26. ^ McCloskey, Stephen. "From MDGs to SDGs: We need a critical awakening to
succeed".  Policy & Practice: A Development Education Review.
27. ^ Jump up to:a b c "United Nations Official Document".  www.un.org. Retrieved 2018-11-09.
28. ^ "Secretary-General's remarks at Summit for the Adoption of the Post-2015
Development Agenda [scroll down for French version] | United Nations Secretary-
General". www.un.org. Retrieved  2018-11-09.
29. ^ "Sustainable Development Goals | UNDP".  UNDP. Retrieved  2018-11-09.
30. ^ Jump up to:    Solberg, Erna. "From MDGs to SDGs the political value of common global
a b

goals". Harvard International Review. Fall 2015: 58–61.

31. ^ Jump up to:a b (2009). Retrieved from Center for Global Development: www.cgdev.org
32. ^ (2009). Retrieved from International Development Exchange: www.idex.org
33. ^ "Oxford Department of International Development".  www.qeh.ox.ac.uk.  Archived  from
the original on 16 July 2016. Retrieved 29 April  2018.
34. ^ Based on the IMF data. If no data was available for a country from IMF, data from
the World Bank is used.
35. ^ "United Nations Millennium Development Goals". www.un.org.  Archived  from the
original on 6 March 2018. Retrieved  29 April 2018.
36. ^ Bhaduri (2005)
37. ^ Stockholm International Water Institute (2005)
38. ^ "India: Human dignity is the true measure of development" (Press release). 27 July
2006.  Archived  from the original on 17 February 2009.
39. ^ "Participation, Power and Social Change research team – Overview". Institute for
Development Studies. Archived from the original on 2013-03-28.
40. ^ "Participation & Civic Engagement". World Bank.  Archived  from the original on 2007-
01-06.
41. ^ "Participation". UN System Network on Rural Development and Food
Security. Archived from the original on 2007-01-07.
42. ^ International Development Association (IDA). (n.d.). Retrieved from The World Bank:
www.worldbank.org/ida
43. ^ "Mapping Progress:Evidence for a New Development Outlook".  Development
Progress. ODI. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved  12
January  2012.
44. ^ "Migrant remittances 'top $100Bn'". BBC News. 8 April 2005.  Archived  from the
original on 21 February 2007.  Migrant workers are sending $100bn home every year in
what has become the biggest source of foreign funds for developing countries, the IMF
says
45. ^ Jump up to:a b Sphere Project. (2004)
46. ^ "World Water Assessment Programme - United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization". www.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009.
Retrieved 29 April  2018.

Bibliography[edit]
 Allen, T. and Thomas, A. (2000). Poverty and development into the 21st
century. OUP. ISBN 0-19-877626-8
 Barlett, Andrew (2007). Plans or People: What are our Priorities for Rural
Development?. Rural Development News. (No.1) Agridea.
 Bhaduri, Amit (2005). Development With Dignity. National Book
Trust. ISBN 81-237-4596-6
 Browne, S. (1990) Foreign aid in practice. New York University
Press. ISBN 0-86187-723-3
 Develtere, P. (2012). How Do We Help? The Free Market In Development
Aid Leuven University Press. ISBN 978-90-5867-902-4
 Escobar, A. (1995) Encountering development: the making and unmaking
of the third world, Princeton. ISBN 0-691-03409-5
 Fukuyama, Francis (2006) The End of History and the Last Man. Free
Press. ISBN 0-02-910975-2
 Korten, D,C. (1995). When corporations rule the world. Berrett-Koehler
Publishers. ISBN 1-887208-00-3
 Moss, T., Roodman, D. and Standley, S. (2005). The Global War on
Terror and U.S. Development Assistance: USAID allocation by country,
1998–2005 – Working Paper 62. Center for Global Development
 David Mosse (ed.): Adventures in Aid Land – The Anthropology of
Professionals in International Development, Berghahn Books, Oxford/New
York 2010 ISBN 978-0-85745-110-1
 Parfitt, T. (2002). The end of development? Modernity, Post-Modernity
and Development. Pluto press. ISBN 0-7453-1637-9
 Sachs, W (ed.) (1992). The Development Dictionary: a guide to
knowledge as power, Zed Books. ISBN 1-85649-044-0
 Salehi Nejad, A. (2011). The Third World; Country or People?. London,
United Kingdom: Titan Inc.
 Schuurman, F.J. (1993) Beyond the impasse: new directions in
development theory. Zed Books. ISBN 1-85649-210-9
 Skelton, T. and Allen, T. (1999). Culture and Global Change,
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13916-3
 Sphere Project (2003). Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in
Disaster Response (Sphere Handbook 2004 Edition). London: Oxfam
Publishing. ISBN 92-9139-097-6.
 Stockholm International Water Institute (2005). Health, Dignity and
Development: What Will It Take?. UN Millennium Project. ISBN 91-
974183-8-2
 Utting, P. (2003) Promoting Development through Corporate Social
Responsibility – Does it Work?. Global Future, Third Quarter 2003, Profit
and Loss? Corporations and Development. London: World Vision
International.
 Wroe, M and Doney, M. (2005). The rough guide to a better world. UK:
Rough Guides Ltd. ISBN 1-84353-476-2
  Catholic Relief Services (2009). Water and Conflict: Incorporating
Peacebuilding into Water Development. US: CRS.

Further reading[edit]
 Eric G. Bing; Marc J. Epstein (2013). Pharmacy on a Bicycle: Innovative
Solutions for Global Health and Poverty. Berrett-Koehler
Publishers. ISBN 978-1609947897.
 McNeil, John Donald. International Development: Challenge and
Controversy. Sentia Publishing. ISBN 978-0999323236.

External links[edit]
 Global South Development Magazine, a free magazine of international
development issues.
 AidData: Tracking Development Finance
 The Participation, Power and Social Change research team at the
Institute of Development Studies
 Overseas Development Institute – Independent UK Think Tank focusing
on a wide range of development issues
 Climate & Development Knowledge Network, run by an alliance of
organisations that include PwC and ODI
 Center for Global Development – Independent Washington-based
research organization
 Development Gateway – An international non-profit that empowers
development actors using information and communications technology
 The Human Development Reports
 Human Security Index Human Security Index Website with HSI data, and
a Human Development Index covering 232 countries
 World Bank YouThink – Simple guide to the main issues
 USAID – U.S. Agency for International Development – The U.S.
Government's primary development agency
 MCA – U.S. Millennium Challenge Account
 DFID – Department for International Development – The UK Government
department responsible for promoting sustainable development
 [3] - Overseas Development Institute, a UK based think thank on
international development issues
 Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative , Oxford Department of
International Development, University of Oxford
 Zunia, an online network for knowledge exchange among development
professionals worldwide.
 Karsten Weitzenegger's collection of job opportunities from various
international development portals
 Crook, Clive (1992). "Third World Economic Development". In David R.
Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (1st ed.). Library
of Economics and Liberty. OCLC 317650570, 50016270, 163149563
  ⇒ The Vrinda Project Channel - videos on the work in progress for the
achievement of the MDGs connected to the Wikibook   ⇒ Development
Cooperation Handbook
 International Development research on IssueLab
 Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile Phones and Information
Technology - United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation
 Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 2: Youth and Entrepreneurship -
United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation
 Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 3: Agribusiness and Food Security -
United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation
 Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 4: Cities and Urbanization - United
Nations Office for South-South Cooperation
 Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 5: Waste and Recycling - United
Nations Office for South-South Cooperation
 [4]