Anatomy & Physiology Term Reviewer

Prepared by: Joher B. Mendez, Jr., R.N., M.D.

ANATOMY OVERVIEW

ANATOMY – study of the structure of the body parts & relationship to one another
- Gross/macroscopic
- Microscopic
- Developmental (structural changes throughout life)

PHYSIOLOGY – study of function of the body’s structural machinery

- Considers operation of specific organ systems i.e. Renal – kidney function
- Focuses on functions of body at cellular/molecular level

GROSS ANATOMY
- REGIONAL – all structures in one part of body i.e. abdomen or leg
- SYSTEMIC – studied by system
- SURFACE – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin

MICROSCOPIC
- CYTOLOGY – study of thecell
- HISTOLOGY – study oftissues

TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

Anatomical position – refers to a person standing upright with the face directed forward, the upper limbs
hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward

Supine – when lying face upward.

 Eg. When lying in bed
Prone – when lying face downward.
 Eg. When doing push-ups
Right & Left – are used as directional terms in in anatomical terminology.
 Always remember that when you are presented with images, imagine you are facing
the patient.
o The patient’s RIGHT side is at your LEFT.
o The patient’s LEFT side is at your RIGHT.
Superior – in anatomy this term is used for above or up, also called cephalic.
 Eg. The mouth is superior to the chin

Anatomy & Physiology Module: Prelim Coverage 1

by Joher Bolante Mendez, Jr., R.N., M.D. Universiy of Iloilo - PHINMA RN100%
 Inferior – in anatomy this term is used for below or down, also called caudal.
 Eg. The nose is inferior to the chin.
Anterior – is used for front, also called ventral.
 Ventral– it means belly therefore, the anterior surface of the human body can also be called the ventral
surface, because the belly “goes first” when we are walking.
 Eg. The teeth are anterior to the throat
Posterior – is used for back, also called dorsal.
 Dorsal– it means “back” thus, the posterior surface of the body is the dorsal surface, or back which follows
as we are walking.
 Eg. The brain is posterior to the eyes

Mnemonics:
AIAI delas Alas played the role of VOLTA. (Anterior = Ventral)
PIOLO Pascual played the role of DYESEBEL. (Posterior = Dorsal)

Proximal -means nearest

 Eg. The elbow is proximal to the wrist
Distal- means distant. This term is used to refer to linear structures and the other end is farther away.
 Eg. The knee is distal to the hip
Medial - means toward the midline.
 Eg. The cheeks are medial to the ears.
Lateral - means away from the midline.
 Eg. The ears are lateral to the cheeks
Superficial– refers to a structure close to the surface of the body.
 Eg. The skin is superficial to the muscle
Deep – is toward the interior of the body.
 The lungs are deep to the skin

Planes
 Four planes that is used to observe the body’s structure
o Sagittal plane – it runs vertically through the body and separates it into right and left parts.
o Median plane /Mid-sagittal plane
 A sagittal plane that passes through the middle of the body
 Divides it into EQUAL right and left halves.
o Transverse plane or horizontal plane or cross- sectional
 It runs parallel to the surface of the ground
 Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
o Frontal plane or coronal plane
 It runs vertically from right to left
 Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
Anatomy & Physiology Module: Prelim Coverage 2
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Three ways to cut an organ:
 Longitudinal section
o It is a cut along the length of the organ.
 Transverse section or cross section
o It cuts completely through the organ, similar to cutting a hotdog or banana into round pieces.
 Oblique section
o It is a cut made diagonally across the long axis.

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 STRUCTURE GOVERNS FUNCTION – WHAT A STRUCTURE CAN DO DEPENDES ON SPECIFIC FORM
- Chemical – atoms combined to from molecules
- Cellular – cells made of molecules
- Tissue – consists of similar types of cells
- Organ – made up of different types of tissues
- Organ system – consists of different organs that work together
- Organismal – made up of the organ systems

ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (Hair, Skin, Nails)
- External body covering, protects deeper tissue from injury, synthesizes Vit D
- Site of cutaneous (pain receptors), sweat & oil glands

SKELETAL SYSTEM (Bones, Joints)

- Protects/supports body organs
- Framework for muscle use to cause movement
- Blood cells formed in bones, stores minerals

MUSCULAR SYSTEM (Skeletal muscles)1

- Manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expressions
- Maintains posture &heat

NERVOUSE SYSTEM (Brain, sensory receptor, Nerves, Spinal cord)

- Fast acting control system of the body
- Responds to external/internal changes by activating appropriate muscles, glands

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 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (Thyroid gland, Pineal gland, Pituitary gland, Thymus, Adrenal gland, Pancreas,
Ovary, Testis)
- Glands secrete hormones – regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, nutrient
use(metabolism) by body cells

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (Heart, Blood vessels)

- Blood vessels transport blood – carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes etc.
- The heart pumps blood

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM/IMMUNITY (Red bone marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic vessels, Thoracic duct, Spleen,
Lymph nodes)
- Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels & returns it to blood
- Disposes of debris in lymphatic stream
- Houses white blood cells(Lymphocytes) involved in immunity
- Immune response mounts attack against foreign substances within body

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (Nasal cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Lung, Bronchus)

- Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen, removes carbon dioxide
- Gaseous exchanges occur through walls of the air sacs in lungs

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (Oral cavity, Esophagus, Liver, Stomach, Small intestine, Large intestine, Rectum, Anus)
- Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter blood for distribution to body cells
- Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces

UNINARY SYSTEM (Kidney, Urinary bladder, Urethra, Ureter)

- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
- Regulates water, electrolyte & acid base balance of the blood

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (Prostate glands, Ductus deferens, Scrotum, Penis, Testis)
- Production of offspring
- Testis produce sperm & male sex hormone
- Ducts & glands aid in delivery of sperm to female reproductive tract

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (Mammary glands, Ovary, Uterine tube, Uterus, Vagina)
- Ovaries produce eggs & female sex hormone
- Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization & development of fetus
- Mammary glands produce milk to nourish newborn

Anatomy & Physiology Module: Prelim Coverage 5

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 SURVIVAL NEEDS
- Nutrients – chemical substances used for energy/cell building
- Oxygen – needed for metabolic reactions
- Water – provides necessary environment for chemical reactions
- Maintain normal body temperature – necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life sustain rates
- Atmospheric pressure – required for proper breathing, gas exchange in lungs

HOMEOSTASIS
- The ability to maintain relatively stable internal environment in an ever changing outside world
- Internal environment – in a dynamic state of equilibrium
- Chemical, thermal, neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS

- Variable produces change in body
- Three interdependent components of control mechanisms
1. Receptor – monitors environments – responds to changes (stimuli)
2. Control centre – determines set point at which variable is maintained
3. Effector – provides means to respond to stimulus

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
- In negative feedback systems – output shuts off original stimulus e.g. regulation of blood glucose
levels
-
POSTIVE FEEDBACK
- In positive feedback systems, output enhances/exaggerates original stimulus e.g. regulation of blood
clotting

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by Joher Bolante Mendez, Jr., R.N., M.D. Universiy of Iloilo - PHINMA RN100%
BODY CAVITIES
- DORSAL – protects nervous system & has 2subdivisions
1. Cranial cavity – within skull encases brain
2. Vertebral cavity – runs within vertebral column encases spinal cord

- VENTRAL CAVITY – houses internal organs (viscera) & divided into 2subdivisions
1. THORACIC CAVITY – subdivided into Pleural cavities (each houses a lung)
- MEDIASTINUM – pericardial cavity surrounds remaining thoracic organs
- PERICARDIAL CAVITY – encloses the heart

2. ABDOMINOPLEVIC CAVITY – separated from superior thoracic cavity by dome shaped

diaphragm, has 2subdivisions
- ABDOMINAL CAVITY – contains stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, & other organs
- PELVIC CAVITY – lies within pelvis, contains bladder, reproductive organs, rectum, Ventral body
Cavity Membranes

DORSALVERTABRAL DORSALCRANIAL

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 VENTRAL PELVIC VENTRALABDOMINAL

VENTRALPERICARDIAL VENTRALPLEURAL

ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS (9)

 Umbilical
 Epigastria
 Hypogastric
 Right & Left Iliac or Inguinal
 Right/Left Lumbar
 Right/Left Hypochondriac

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 ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS (4)

 Right Upper
 Left Upper
 Right Lower
 Left Lower

KEY POINTS
 The heart lies in the VENTRALPERICARDIAL
 What is not part of the dorsal cavity? THORACICCAVITY
 Organized groups of cells that have a common purpose form a(n)TISSUE
 Feedback mechanisms – NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHINISIMS TEND TO DECREASE THE ORIGINAL
STIMULUS
 Homeostatic imbalance - IS CONSIDERED THE CAUSE OF MOSTDISEASES
 Histology is the study of –TISSUES
 The correct sequence from simplest to most complex – ATOMS, MOLECULES, CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS
 One of the functional characteristics of life is irritability – SENSING CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMNET &
THEN REACTING OR RESPONDING TOTHEM
 A parasagittal plane is – ANY SAGITAL PLANE EXCEPT THEMEDIAN
 A horizontal section through the body is called –TRANSVERSE
 A vertical section through the body, dividing it into anterior & posterior, is called FRONTAL/CORONAL

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THE CELL
• The cell is the smallest living unit

CELL - THEORY
1. Cell is basic structural & functional unit of living organisms
2. The organisms activity depends on the individual & collective activity of its cells
3. Biochemical activity of cells is dictated by specific sub-cellular structures (organelles)
4. Continuity of life has a cellular basis

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
• Contain DNA, surrounded by nucleus
• Have other membrane bound organelles – carry out specialized functions e.g. animals, plants, fungi

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 NUCLEUS, NUCLEAR MEMBRANE, NUCLEOLUS
• NUCLEUS – Control center, regulates all cellular activity, contains genetic material (DNA)
• NUCLEAR ENVELOPE – porous membrane, allows substance in/out of nucleus
• NUCLEOLUS – factory where RIBOSOMES are made

PLASMA (CELL) MEMBRANE

• GATEKEEPER, controls materials that go in/out of cell
• Protects cell contents
• Provides receptors for hormones, enzymes, antibodies

CYTOPLASM
• Contains cytosol, organelles, inclusions
• CYTOSOL – gel like fluid, contains H₂O, ions, organic molecules e.g. enzymes
• Provides medium where chemical reactions occur
• ORGANELLES (LITTLE ORGANS) – organized compartments, specific structure & function e.g.
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (smooth & rough), golgi complex

ER & RIBOSOMES
ENDOPLASMIC RECTICULUM – Membrane channels that run through cytoplasm
• provides surface area where chemical reactions take place
 ROUGH ER – ribosomes attach to rough ER – make proteins to be secreted
 SMOOTH ER – makes lipids, steroids & detoxifies drugs
 RIBOSOMES – site of protein synthesis “workbench”

GOLGI APPARATUS (pancake structure)

• PACKAGES &TRANSPORTSPROTEINS
• Inclusion in lysosomes or export out of thecell

LYSOSOMES & PEROXISOMES

• LYSOSOMES intercellular digestion (bacteria, damaged cellparts)
• PEROXISOMES Enzymatic (oxidases) detoxification potentially harmful substances e.g.
hydrogen peroxide

MITOCHONDRIA
• Site of most ATP (energy) production – power plant ofcell

MICROTUBULES & MICROFILAMENTS

• Cytoskeleton- scaffolding of thecell
• Hollow tubes made of protein for support/shape ofcell
• Allows coordinated movement ofcells

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 CENTROSOMES & CENTRIOLES
CENTROSOMES – helps arrange microtubules in non-dividing cells
 Forms mitotic spindles during cell division
CENTRIOLES – help to make/regenerate flagella, cilia
• CILIA – hair like structures used for cell movement/ movement of materials across cell
• FLAGELLA – whip like structures for cell movement e.g. sperm

CELL DIVERSITY
• 200 different cell types in the body
• cell shape determines specific functions
• Most have same basic structure
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
 Cell membrane

CELL MEMBRANE

• Fluid mosaic model – mosaic of PROTEINS floating like icebergs in sea of LIPIDS
• Protection via insoluble flexible barrier – protects cell from external environment
• selective transport for nutrients/waste products

LIPIDS (MOSTLY PHOSPHOLIPIDS)

• POLAR – phosphate contains heads HYDROPHILIC (water loving) face outwards to
watery cytosol/extracellular fluid (extra – outside)
• NON POLAR – fatty acid chain tails – HYDROPHOBIC – water fearing, face each other in
membrane interior - Creates sandwich – phospholipid bilayer

CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS

• 2 types vital for membranestructure
 INTERGRAL – glycoproteins, extend across phospholipid bilayer (goacross)
 PERIPHERAL – do not extend across bilayer – loosely attached to inner/outer surfaces, easily
separated from membrane

TRANSPORT/MOVEMENT

• PASSIVEPROCESSES
 E.G. simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis – require KENETIC ENERGY (free energy – of
motion) no energy output from cell
- Facilitated diffusion - transported substances bind to carrier or pass through protein channels
 FILTRATION – uses HYDROSTATIC pressure (no energy output from cell) e.g. glomerulus
 SIMPLE DIFFUSION – solutes move D↓ (with) concentration gradient from H↑ solute
concentration to L↓ area of concentration
 Molecules that can diffuse through cell membrane e.g. non-polar, lipid soluble
molecules
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 • ACTIVE PROCESSES
 Requires energy in form of ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP energy molecule) e.g. primary &
2ndactive transport, bulk transport
- Need (ATP), used to move molecules against concentration gradient
- Used for large molecules
-
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT - energy driven process moves substances through cell membrane against
concentration/electrical gradient
- requires carrier proteins (called pumps)

 SYSTEMS OF ACTIVETRANSPORT
- Symport system – 2 substances moved across membrane in same direction
- Antiport system – 2 substances moved across membrane in opposite direction

OSMOSIS
• Movement of water across selectively permeable membrane from area of ↑ water concentration
with ↓ solute concentration to area of ↓ water with ↑solute concentration
• Osmolarity – total concentration of solute particles in a solution

Process Energy Source Example

Simple Diffusion Kinetic energy Movement of O₂ through membrane
Facilitated Kinetic energy Movement of glucose into cells
Diffusion
Osmosis Kinetic energy Movement of H₂O in & out of cells
Filtration Hydrostatic Formation of kidney filtrate
pressure

BULK TRANSPORT (ACTIVE VESICULAR)

• EXOCYTOSIS – removes substances from the cell
A vesicle (sac) carries substances to plasma/cell membrane to be released
e.g. neurotransmitters, hormones

• ENDOCYTOSIS (endo – within) – brings substances into cell

Segment of plasma/cell membrane surrounds substance & encloses it
e.g. Phagocytosis (cell eating)

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TISSUES

 cell junctions – points of contact between plasma membranes of cells by which they are tightly joined

I. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- linings of body cavities, hollow organs, ducts, and form glands
- two types:
 covering and lining
 glandular
- outer covering of skin and organs; linings of body cavities, blood vessels, ducts and interiors of
respiratory, reproductive, urinary and digestive system
- composed of closely packed cells arranged in continuous sheets
- has apical, lateral and basal surface
• basement membrane: composed of protein fibers located between the epithelium and underlying
connective tissue
- avascular; nourishment occurs by diffusion
- has nerve supply
-regenerates quickly

COVERING AND LINING EPITHELIUM

CLASSIFICATION
A. According to arrangement of cells in layers
1. Simple – single layer; diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion (production and release
of substances) and absorption (intake of substances)
2. Pseudostratified – single-layered but appears layered
3. Stratified – two or more layers

B. According to cell shapes

1. Squamous – thin; allows rapid passage of substances
2. Cuboidal – cubed/hexagonal; may have microvili at apical surface for secretion and
absorption
3. Columnar – much taller than wider; often specialized for absorption and secretion
4. Transitional – varies shape; from flat to cuboidal and back

C. Combination
1. Simple Squamous - single layer of flat cells
- nucleus is flattened oval or sphere and is centrally located
- found in parts where filtration and diffusion are priority
processes like kidney, lungs, heart (endothelium), serous
membranes like pleura, peritoneum or pericardium
(mesothelium)
2. Simple Cuboidal - cell nuclei are usually round and centrally located
- found in thyroid glands and kidneys
- perform absorption and secretion

Anatomy & Physiology Module: Prelim Coverage 14

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 3. Simple Columnar
a. Nonciliated - columnar epithelium cells with microvilli and goblet cells
o microvilli – fingerlike projections which increase absorption capacity
o goblet cells – modified columnar cells secreting mucus (lubricant)
b. Ciliated – upper respiratory tract
4. Pseudostratified – ciliated ones secrete mucus or bear cilia; noncilaited perform
absorption and protection
5 .Stratified Squamous – apical layer: flat cells; deeper layer: cuboidal/columnar
- keratinized/nonkeratinized
6. Stratified Cuboidal – protective; sometimes for secretion/absorption
7. Stratified Columnar – apical layer is the only columnar shaped; protection and
secretion
8. Transitional – lines structures subject to expansion like urinary bladder

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
- secretion

GLAND
- group of highly specialized epithelial cells that secrete substances into ducts, a surface or blood

A. Endocrine – secretes hormones w/c regulate metabolic and physiological processes

B. Exocrine – secretes products into ducts that empty at the surface of covering and lining
epithelium

II. CONNECTIVE TISSUES

- most abundant; widely distributed
- binds together, supports and strengthens other body tissues
- protects/insulates organs
- compartmentalizes structures
- two basic elements
a. extracellular matrix
– material between cells; protein fibers and ground substance
- secreted by connective tissue cells
b. cells
- vascular
- supplied with nerves except cartilage

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS

A. Fibroblasts - branched, large, flat

- usually most numerous
- secrete fibers and ground substance

B. Macrophages- develop from monocytes

- irregularly shaped; shortly branched (pseudopods)
- phagocyte
Anatomy & Physiology Module: Prelim Coverage 15
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 C. Plasma Cells- small; develop from B lymphocyte
- secrete antibodies

D. Mast Cells - abundant alongside blood vessels

- produce histamine; kill bacteria

E. Adipocytes - fat cells; store triglycerides

- around heart and kidneys

CONNECTIVE TISSUE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX

A. Ground Substance – contains water and organic molecules like polysaccharides and proteins
• hyaluronic acid – viscous, slippery substance that bind cells together, lubricates joints, help
maintain shape of eyeballs
• hyaluronidase – an enzyme w/c breaks apart hyaluronic acid  watery
• chondroitin sulfate – provide support and adhesiveness in connective tissues
• glucosamine – protein-polysaccharide molecule

B. Fibers - strengthens and support connective tissues

- three types:
a. Collagen – very strong; promotes flexibility
- occur in bundles; parallel
- found in bonds, cartilage, tendons and ligaments

b. Elastic fibers - branched hence forms network

- smaller in diameter than collagen
- composed of elastin surrounded by fibrillin (glycoprotein)
- several in skin, blood vessel walls, lung tissue

c. Reticular fibers- consist of collagen surrounded by glycoprotein

- thinner than collagen
- produced by fibroblasts
- supports, strengthens
- forms stroma and basement membrane
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CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
A. Loose Connective
1. Areolar - most widely distributed
- contains fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells and adipocytes
- forms subcutaneous layer together with adipose tissue
2. Adipose - stores triglycerides
- good insulator; reduces heat loss through the skin
3. Reticular - forms stroma; binds, filters

B. Dense Connective
1. Dense Regular - collagen fibers arranged regularly
- silvery white and tough, somewhat pliable
- tendons and ligaments
2. Dense Irregular - occurs in sheets like in the dermis
- heart valves, perichondrium, periosteum
3. Elastic Connective - yellowish
- has fibroblasts

C. Cartilage - dense network of collagen/elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate

- resilient
- chondrocytes (cells) occur within lacunae (spaces)
- perichondirum surrounds cartilage
- does not have blood supply
- secretes antiangiogenesis factor which prevents blood vessel growth

1. Hyaline - has resilient gel

- bluish-white and shiny
- surrounded by perichondrium
- most abundant; affords flexibility; weakest
2. Fibrocartilage – has chondrocytes; no perichondrium
- strongest; rigid
- located between disks in the vertebrae
3. Elastic - chondrocytes in threadlike arrangement; has perichondrium

D. Bone Tissues - osseus

- supports soft tissues, protect delicate structures and works with skeletal
muscles to generate movement

E. Liquid Connective
1. Blood tissue- has liquid extracellular matrix called blood plasma (pale yellow fluid)
- contains red blood cells (oxygen transport), white blood cells (phagocytosis,
immunity and allergic reactions) and platelets (blood clotting)
2. Lymph - flows in lymphatic vessels

Anatomy & Physiology Module: Prelim Coverage 17

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 MEMBRANES
- flat sheets of pliable tissue covering or lining a body part

EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE
- combination of epithelial layer and underlying connective tissue layer

A. Mucous Membrane
- aka mucosa
- lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior
- digestive, respiratory, reproductive and urinary
- mucus: prevents cavities from drying out
- traps particles in respiratory passageways
- lubricates and absorbs food
- secretes digestive enzymes

B. Serous Membrane
- lines body cavities that do not open directly to the exterior
- covers organs within the cavity
- two layers:
* parietal – attached to the cavity wall
* visceral – covers and attaches organs inside the cavities
- mesothelium: simple squamous epithelium which secretes serous fluid (watery lubricant)
- covers lungs  pleura
- lines heart cavity  pericardium
- lines abdominal cavity  peritoneum

C. Synovial Membranes
- lines cavities of joints
- composed of areolar connective and adipose tissues; no epithelium
- contains cells called synoviocytes which secrete synovial fluid (lubricates, nourishes,
removes microbes)

III. MUSCULAR TISSSUE

- composed of muscle fibers (elongated) which generate force
- produces motion, maintains posture, generates heat
- three types: skeletal, cardiac and smooth

Anatomy & Physiology Module: Prelim Coverage 18

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 IV. NERVOUS TISSUE
- two cells:
1. Neurons – nerve cells; sensitive to various stimuli
2. Neuroglia – do not conduct nerve impulses; supportive functions

KEY POINTS

• TISSUE REPAIR - process that replaces worn-out, damaged, dead cells

• STROMA/PARENCHYMA - origin of new cells formed by cell division
• STEM CELLS – immature, undifferentiated cells which divide and replace damaged/old cells
• TISSUE REGENERATION – successful repair
• FIBROSIS – fibroblasts synthesize collagen and other extracellular matrix materials that
aggregate to form scar tissue

Anatomy & Physiology Module: Prelim Coverage 19

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