OIL AND NATURAL GAS ENGINERING

SHALE GA S AND ITS OCCURENCE

J. JAYA BHARATHI,
ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
 Shale gas
 Natural gas that is present in shale rocks
 Throughout the world, different types of sedimentary rock contain
natural gas deposits, for example
 Sandstones,
 Limestones or
 Shales.
 Sandstone rocks often have high permeability, and gas can flow
easily through the rock.
 In contrast, shale rocks usually have very low permeability,
making gas production more complex and costly.
 Shale gas are classified as a “continuous” type gas accumulations
extending throughout large areas
 Natural gas from shale is a less carbon intensive fuel
 Shale Rocks
 Shale is composed of clay-sized particles that are less than
0.004 mm in size.
 Shale is a detrital sedimentary rock composed of very fine clay-
sized particles.
 Detrital sedimentary: Sedimentary rocks composed of the
weathered and eroded particles of larger pieces of rock.
 Some minerals present in shale are quartz, mica, pyrite, and
organic matter.
 Shale forms in very deep ocean water, lagoons, lakes and
swamps where the water is still enough to allow the extremely
fine clay and silt particles to settle to the floor.
 Geologists estimate that shale represents almost ¾ of the
sedimentary rock on the Earth’s crust.
 Shale Rocks
 Shale can be red, green or black.
 The different colors are due to different minerals in the shale.
 Black shale typically has a very high content of oily kerogen.
 Process of heating (in an oxygen-depleted environment) can
remove kerogen from shale in the form of liquid oil and natural gas.
 Shale gas – Unconventional gas
 Shale gas is considered a “unconventional gas”.
 Other unconventional gas include “tight gas” from sandstones or
limestone with low permeability and “coal bed methane”.
 The production methods are different for unconventional and
conventional deposits.
 Hydraulic fracturing is often applied to unconventional
natural gas deposits.
 Shale gas – Unconventional gas
 Shale gas is considered an unconventional source as the gas may
be attached to or "adsorbed" onto organic matter.
 The gas is contained in difficult-to-produce reservoirs that
require
 Special completion
 Stimulation
 Production techniques
to achieve economic production.
 Free gas: Shale gas may also be contained in thin, porous silt,
sand and beds interbedded in the shale.
 Some shale gas are vertical, the recent wells are horizontal and
need artificial stimulation, like hydraulic fracturing, to produce.
 Distribution of natural gas
 The distribution of different types of natural gas deposits varies
around the world´s different regions.

Distribution of conventional and unconventional natural gas

resources in the world´s regions (Data from: IEA, 2012).
 Formation of Shale Gas

 Two theories are involved.

 The organic theory - Thermogenic methane generation
 Natural gas formation begins with photosynthesis, where
plants synthesis carbohydrates.
 The remains of plants and the animal forms are buried by
sediment.
 As the sediment load increases, heat and pressure from burial
converts the carbohydrates into hydrocarbons.
 Natural gas formation takes place in fine-grained, black, organic,
shale source rocks.
 Continued pressure from burial forces move natural gas from the
organic shales into more porous and permeable rock such as
sandstone and limestone.
 The natural gas remaining in the shales is termed shale gas.
 Occurence
 Shales are present worldwide in the sedimentary sequence.
 Large sedimentary basins are favorable places to find large extent
shale deposits of sufficient thickness.
 Not all shales contain reasonable quantities of natural gas.
 Geologic modeling and the subsequent investigation of drilled rock
samples will give information on the gas content of the shales.
 Large-scale shale gas production is ongoing only in North America.
 Shale gas Resources
 "Technically Recoverable Shale Oil and Shale Gas Resources
North America
Europe
Europe
 Benefits of shale gas
 One of the most important energy sources in future
 Significantly less carbon emissions compared to coal
 Readily available energy source (an analysis showed that shale gas
could provide up to half of America's gas supply by 2020.)
 Decrease energy costs because massive shale gas production
would likely cause a significant decline in natural gas prices.
 Help improve our energy security, and help reduce our dependence
on expensive foreign fossil fuels.
 Provide cleaner energy option for many developing countries
 Disadvantages of Shale Gas
 Due to the low permeability of shales, gas production from shales is
done by hydraulic fracturing of the rocks.
 Extraction of shale gas involves
 A high demand for freshwater,
 The production of large amounts of waste water,
 Induced seismicity,
 Greenhouse gas emissions, and
 Groundwater contamination

 Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing, which significantly

increases capital costs
 Extraction of Natural Gas
 The process of breaking up or fracturing previously impervious shale
rock to release natural gas – known as “fracking”.
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/96c7fde6-64f4-
11df-aa4d-
00144feab49a.html#axzz4GzDM1LRg
Introduction
 Shale gas purification generally similar to the conventional gas
processing infrastructure.
 The main difference is in the
 Type of gas contaminants,
 Constituents and
 Substantial quantity of water returned from the wells as a result of
large quantity of water utilized in the hydraulic fracturing.
Well head facilties
 The shale gas gathering and liquid (mainly water) separation - part of
the well head facilities
 They provide a separation between well head and downstream gas
processing facilities.
 The large quantity of produced water and any hydrocarbon
condensate is separated at the well head facility before diverting the
gas to the gas processing facilities.
 The water produced in hydraulic fracking must be managed properly
using pollution prevention measures such as reduce, re-use and
recycle
Purification process
 The shale gas processing begins with the gas purification or removal
of acid gases.
 CO2, H2S and other organic sulfur compounds such as COS,
CS2 etc
 Large amount of sulfur contaminants - sulfur recovery unit to recover
elemental sulfur.
 Large amount of sulfur contaminants - the off gases can be either
incinerated or vented from the process to the atmosphere.
 The natural gas is processed further to remove water and mercury
from the gas prior to any heavier hydrocarbon removal to meet the
pipeline quality.
Acid gas removal
 The main acid gas contaminants in the natural gas stream are CO2
and H2S and to a lesser degree the organic sulfur components such
as COS and mercaptans (RSH).
 Removal of the acid gas contaminants from the natural gas is
required for
 corrosion control, to meet gas and /or liquid product
specifications,
 to prevent formation of CO2 solids (freeze-out) at low
temperatures in the downstream processes,
 prevent poisoning of catalysts and to meet environmental
requirements.
 The acid gas content varies greatly with each natural gas stream.
 It is important to understand the acid gas components and their
content in the inlet natural gas stream and required specifications in
the treated gas to allow proper design and selection of the
technology.
Acid gas removal
 The acid gas content varies greatly with each natural gas stream.

 It is important to understand the acid gas components and their

content in the inlet natural gas stream and required specifications in
the treated gas to allow proper design and selection of the
technology.
 Technologies for acid gas removal
 There are many acid gas removal technologies to remove CO2 from
the natural gas.
 They include
 chemical and physical solvent based re-generable processes,
membrane based CO2 / methane separation using polymeric
membranes,
 cryogenic processes for CO2 / methane separation,
 re-generable solid-bed absorbents such as molecular sieve and
 non-re-generable processes such caustic wash.

 These processes as well as hybrid of these processes can be

applied for acid gas removal depending on their efficiency and cost
effectiveness for a specific application.
Acid gas removal
 The low pressure stripped acid gases leave the amine regenerator
from the top.
 Depending on the H2S content and local environmental requirement
is diverted to the sulfur recovery plant when a larger quantity of H2S
is present or sent to a thermal oxidizer.
 The lean regenerated amine solvent is pumped back to the absorber
column via a lean/rich exchanger (to recover heat), a lean amine
cooler and amine filters.
Factors considered for design
 Some of these factors to be considered are as follows:
 Air emissions requirement, specifically for sulfur compounds
disposal
 Type and concentration of impurities in the shale gas
 Gas pipeline specifications
 Acid gas selectivity requirements for downstream sulfur unit
 Disposal of byproducts, considered hazardous chemicals in
most cases
 Consideration for downstream processing and liquid products
specifications
 Pressure, temperatures and volume of the sour inlet gas
 Capital, operating (utility) and technology license/royalty cost
Factors considered for design
 It is essential to have an extended and accurate analysis of the shale
gas to identify if organic sulfur components such COS, CS2 etc. are
present.

 These components, even in a small quantity, can have a significant

impact on the process design of the acid gas removal and
downstream processing facilities.
Natural Gas Liquids-Extraction
 The recovery of hydrocarbon liquids from the natural gas stream
ranges from a simple dew point control to deep ethane extraction.
 The desired level of liquids recovery has significant impact on the
 process selection,
 complexity and
 cost of the processing facility.
 The term NGL is a general term which applies to liquids recovered
from the natural gas and refers to ethane and heavier compounds.
OIL AND NATURAL GAS ENGINERING
NATURAL GAS

J. JAYA BHARATHI,
ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
 Natural gas
 Lightest of the hydrocarbons exist in the gaseous state under
normal conditions.
 Colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its pure form.
 Clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful
byproducts into the air - "clean gas'.
 Formed primarily of methane, it can also include ethane, propane,
butane and pentane.
 Natural gas supplies about 23.8 percent of the world's energy.
 Gas is extracted by drilling wells deep into the ground, through
many layers or rock to reach the gas deposits.
 Formation of Natural Gas

 Product of decomposed organic matter, typically from ancient

marine microorganisms, deposited over the past 550 million
years.
 This organic material mixed with mud, silt, and sand on the sea
floor, gradually becoming buried over time.
 In oxygen-free confined environment and exposed to increasing
amounts of heat and pressure, the organic matter were
thermally broken to hydrocarbons.
 Categories of natural gas
 NG after formation, rise towards the surface through pore spaces
in the rock because of its low density compared to the surrounding
rock.
 There are two general categories of natural gas deposits:
 Conventional - commonly found in association with oil
reservoirs, with the gas either mixed with the oil or buoyantly
floating on top.
 Unconventional - include sources like shale gas tight gas,
coal bed methane, methane hydrate.
Exploration and Production of Conventional
Natural Gas Resources

 Same as oil exploration.

 Located with seismic testing methods similar to those used for
petroleum exploration.
 Unconventional natural gas, which includes shale gas, tight gas,
coal bed methane, and methane hydrates (lattice of ice with
methane captured inside), are more difficult and costly to exploit
than conventional deposits.
 Natural Gas Flaring
 Natural gas was not considered a useful product - difficulties in
transporting it to markets.
 Gas was simply burned off at the well or vented into the
atmosphere.
 Today also flaring and venting continue in locations where
 Gas transportation infrastructure are lacking,
 The gas itself is contaminated with other incombustible
gases.
 In 2011, the world bank estimated that 5.3 trillion cubic feet of
natural gas (25% of total U.S. Consumption) is flared annually,
mostly in developing countries.
 Natural Gas Processing

 Several substances may be mixed in with the raw gas when first
extracted from a well.
 These substances can include
 Water,
 Carbon dioxide,
 Hydrogen sulfide,
 Liquid hydrocarbon condensate, and
 Heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane, and
butane.
 Natural Gas Processing
 Most of the contaminants are separated from the methane at a
processing facility.
 The hydrocarbon byproducts are recovered for other uses
and the water, CO2, and other compounds disposed of as waste.
 Pure natural gas is odorless, a sulfur-based compound with a
rotten-egg smell is added before it is piped to homes so that
leaks can be noticed easily.
 Natural Gas Transportation
 Natural gas is highly flammable, so the process of transporting
it from wellhead to homes and businesses can be dangerous.
 Accidents at natural gas transmission pipelines are caused by
corrosion, equipment failure, and flooding.
 Natural gas leaks from transmission and distribution pipelines are
a significant source of global warming emissions.
 Natural Gas Transportation
 Liquefied natural gas, is a means of transporting natural gas
across long distances where pipelines are not available.
LNG
 Natural gas is compressed and cooled to around -260 degrees F,
 Volume is reduced by a factor of 600.
 LNG is shipped in specially-constructed tankers for overseas
transport.
 Upon reaching its destination, LNG is unloaded at a receiving
terminal, returned to a gaseous state, and sent through local
pipelines to end-users.
 The production of LNG and subsequent refrigeration during
transport is highly energy-intensive, Hence it is uncompetitive
with domestic gases.
 Uses of Natural Gas
 Natural gas is a versatile, clean-burning, and efficient fuel that is
used in a wide variety of applications.

 Power generation
 Major source of electricity generation through the use of
cogeneration gas turbines and steam turbines.
 Well suited for a combined use in association with renewable
energy sources such as wind or solar.
 Natural gas power plants are increasing in popularity and
generate 22% of the worlds total electricity.
 Uses of Natural Gas
 Domestic use
 Natural gas can generate temperatures in excess of 1100 °C
making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel.
 In developed countries it is supplied through pipes to homes,
and other buildings for heating in boilers, furnaces, and water
heaters.
 Uses of Natural Gas
 Transportation
 CNG is a cleaner and also cheaper alternative to other
automobile fuels such as gasoline (petrol) and diesel.
 The energy efficiency is generally equal to that of gasoline
engines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines.
 LNG is also being used in aircraft, can be used as jet fuel also.
 Uses of Natural Gas
 Fertilizers
 Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of
ammonia, via the Haber Process.
 Hydrogen
 Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one
common method being the hydrogen reformer.
 Hydrogen is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry.
 Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics, glass steel
plastics paint and other products
 Environmental impacts of natural gas
Global warming emissions:
 Contribution to global warming are lower than those from coal or
oil.
 Natural gas emits 50 to 60 percent less carbon dioxide (CO2)
when compared with emissions from a typical new coal plant.
 During drilling and extraction and transportation in pipelines
leakage of methane occurs and it is 34 times stronger than CO2 at
trapping heat over a 100-year period.
Environmental impacts of natural gas
Air Pollution and Water Pollution
 Cleaner burning than other fossil fuels, the combustion of natural
gas produces negligible amounts of sulfur, mercury, and
particulates.
 Burning natural gas produce nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are
precursors to smog.
 During drilling unconventional gas well sites produce greater risk
of health effects from air pollution to the nearby residents.
 Contamination of drinking water sources with hazardous
chemicals used in drilling the wellbore, processing and refining.
Environmental impacts of natural gas
Land use and wildlife
 The construction and land disturbance required for gas drilling can
alter land use and harm local ecosystems.
 They causing erosion and fragmenting wildlife habitats and
migration patterns.
 When gas operators clear a site to build a well, pipelines, and
access roads, the construction process can cause erosion of dirt,
minerals, and other harmful pollutants into nearby streams.
OIL AND NATURAL GAS ENGINERING
AVAILABILITY OF NATURAL GAS
J. JAYA BHARATHI,
ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
 Natural Gas
 Global proved natural gas reserves amounted to 6,621,153 bcf.
 New reserves are developed every year as existing reserves are
consumed
 Factors affecting growth of natural gas
 Price, technical capability, environmental concerns, and
political considerations.
 Natural gas play a greater role in the world energy mix given its
growing resource base and its relatively low carbon emissions.
 The world used over 100,000 billion cubic feet (bcf) of natural gas
in 2009.
 Global Natural Gas Market
 Some natural gas is traded around the world, most natural gas is
predominantly consumed in the country where it is produced
 The amount of natural gas traded has been increasing.
 Natural gas is transported in two ways: by pipeline and as a liquid in
tankers, which is an expensive process.
 Liquefaction capacity has increased 30% since 2008, and trade in
LNG has grown almost 30% since 2005.
 International pipeline trade is up almost 20% since 2005.
 Pipelines transport gas between two fixed points.
 Major Players in Gas industry

 Russia is the world’s largest natural gas exporter, primarily

through its massive pipeline network to Europe.
 Russia opened its first LNG export terminal in 2009, primarily
targeted at the Asian market, to give it flexibility in its exports.
 Qatar is the leading exporter of LNG, accounting for 20% of
world LNG trade, with exports going to 15 countries.
 Europe is the largest importing region of natural gas, receiving
most of its imports by pipeline from Russia, Norway, and Algeria.
 Asia, the most import-dependent region, relies mostly on LNG.
one million British Thermal Units (BTU).
 Future scope

 Natural gas production will increase to meet the rise in demand

with growth projected in every region except Europe.
 Unconventional gas resources—coal bed methane, shale gas, and
tight gas—will comprise 19% of production by 2035 according to
the IEA report.
 Trade of natural gas is also forecast to expand, with Chinese
imports growing the most.
 Natural Gas Production in India

 Natural gas production in 2014-15 upto December 2014 is about

25.319 Billion Cubic Metre (BCM)
 About 73.7% of natural gas production was by ONGC and OIL
and remaining 26.3% of natural gas production was by Private/JV
companies.
Million Metric Standard Cubic Meter Per Day
Natural Gas Consumption by sector
 OIL AND NATURAL GAS ENGINERING
NATURAL GAS – Composition and Properties

J. JAYA BHARATHI,
ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
 Composition of Natural gas
 Natural gas is a hydrocarbon
 Consists mainly of methane, one carbon atom joined to four
hydrogen atoms (CH4)
 It also consists of variable percentage of
 Nitrogen
 Ethane,
 CO2,
 H2O,
 Butane,
 Propane,
 Mercaptans and
 Traces of heavier hydrocarbons.
 Composition

Methane 87-97 %
Ethane 1.5-7 %
Propane 0.1-1.5 %
Iso-butane 0.01-0.3 %
n-butane 0.01-0.3 %
Nitorgen 0.2-5.5 %
Carbon dioxide 0.1-1 %
Traces of iso-pentane, n-penatne, hexane and
hydrogen
 Properties of Natural Gas

Self –Ignition temperature : 537- 540 degree celcius

 Thermal Properties

Ignition Point 593 degree celcius

Flammability Limits 4-16 % (Vol % in air)

Theoretical Flame 1960 degree celcius

Temperature

Maximum Flame Velocity 0.3 m/s

 Fuel Natural gas

 CNG-Compressed
 LNG-Liquefied Natural Gas
 Compresses Natural Gas
 CNG is made by compressing natural gas (which is mainly
composed of methane [CH4]),
 NG is compressed to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at
standard atmospheric pressure.
 Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for
gasoline (petrol), diesel, or propane/LPG.
 Combustion of CNG produce less greenhouse gases
 Comparatively clean alternative to other fuels
 Safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter
than air, and disperses quickly when released).
 CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or
wastewater.
Compression of Natural Gas
 Liquefied natural gas

 LNG is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4) that has been

converted to liquid form for ease of storage or transport.
 Liquefied natural gas takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural
gas in the gaseous state.
 The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components,
such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons.
 The natural gas is condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric
pressure .
 Maximum transport pressure set at around 25 kPa/3.6 psi) by cooling
it to approximately −162 °C (−260 °F).
 Liquefied natural gas

 LNG is principally used for transporting natural gas to markets,

where it is regasified and distributed as pipeline natural gas.
 Its relatively high cost of production and have to be stored in
expensive cryogenic tanks
 It is used as an alternative fuel for heavy duty vehicles like bus,
trucks, ships etc.
The difference between CNG and
LPG
Compressed natural gas Liquefied petroleum gas
(CNG) (LPG)
OIL AND NATURAL GAS ENGINERING
COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS

J. JAYA BHARATHI,
ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
 Compressor stations
 Compressor stations are facilities located along a natural gas
pipeline which compress the gas to a specified pressure.
 They allow it to continue traveling along the pipeline to the
intended recipient.
 Frequency of Compressor Stations

 The total number of compressor station facilities required to

move product varies depending on the region and
conditions.
 Generally compressor stations are located about every 40-70
miles.
 Operating Pressure of the Pipeline

 There is a wide variation in the pressure within a given section

of pipeline compared to other pipelines in other areas.
 The typical pressure may range anywhere from 200 psi (pounds
per square inch) to 1,500 psi.
 This wide variation is also due to the type of area in which the
pipeline is operating, its elevation, and the diameter of the
pipeline.
 Because of the change in the environment, compressor stations
may compress natural gas at different levels.
 Supply and demand can also be a factor at times in the level of
compression required for the flow of the natural gas.
 Liquid Separation and Filtering
At Compressor Stations
 Compressor stations typically include scrubbers, filter separators
which remove liquids, dirt, particles, and other impurities from the
natural gas.
 Water and hydrocarbons may condense during its travel.
 Personnel at Compressor Stations

Depending on the particular compressor station,

 its size,
 sophistication,
and other factors, it may or may not be staffed with live, on-site
personnel.
 Many modern compressor stations can be monitored from
remote.
 Compressor Unit
 The compressor unit is the piece of equipment which actually
compresses the gas.
 Some compressor stations may have multiple compressor units
depending on the needs of the pipeline.
 The compressor unit is a large engine which typically works in
one of three ways
 Compressor units

 Turbines with Centrifugal Compressors – This type of compressor

is powered by a turbine to turn a centrifugal compressor and is
powered by natural gas from the pipeline itself.
 Electric Motors with Centrifugal Compressors – This type of
compressor also utilizes centrifugal compressors to compress the
gas; however, instead of being powered by a natural gas fueled
turbine, they instead rely on high voltage electric motors.
 Reciprocating Engine with Reciprocating Compressor – This
type of compressor uses large piston engines to crank reciprocating
pistons located within cylindrical cases on the side of the unit. These
reciprocating pistons compress the gas. These engines are also
fueled by natural gas.
 Compressor units
 Filters and Scrubbers –remove water, hydrocarbons, and other
impurities from the natural gas.

 Gas Cooling Systems – When the natural gas is compressed

its temperature rises. This is usually offset by having the gas
travel through cooling systems which return it to temperatures
that will not damage the pipeline.

 Mufflers – Mufflers are typically present to help reduce the noise

level at compressor stations. These are especially important if
the compressor station is located near residential or other
inhabited areas.
OIL AND NATURAL GAS ENGINERING
LIQUEFACTION OF NATURAL GAS

J. JAYA BHARATHI,
ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
LIQUEFACTION OF NATURAL GAS
 Liquid Natural Gas (LNG)

 Cooled until it Liquefies @ -160°C

 Reduces volume 600 times

 Colorless, Odorless and Non-Toxic

 Safe to transport and store

 Shipped and Stored at Atmospheric Pressure

 LNG Chain

Transmission
Gas Well Pipeline Shipping

Market

Field Liquefaction
Processing Receiving
Terminal
Outline of a liquefied natural gas plan

 A liquefied natural gas plant (LNG plant) is roughly divided into five
processes:
 (1) pretreatment,
 (2) acid gas removal,
 (3) dehydration,
 (4) liquefaction and
 (5) heavy oil separation
 Environmental Advantages

 Virtually no ash, sludge or hazardous waste is produced

 Particulate emissions are approximately 95% less than

burning coal

 Over Coal, Distillate and Naphtha LNG has lower:

 Sulfur dioxide emissions (by 100%),
 Nitrogen Oxide emissions (by 75%)
 Carbon Dioxide emissions (by 50%)
Liquefaction Temperatures
 Methods
 Compression: Compress the gas at temperatures less than its
critical temperature
 Some Definitions

 Critical pressure: The minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas

at its critical temperature.
 Critical temperature: The temperature at or above which no
amount of pressure, however great, will cause a gas to liquefy.
 Cryogenics: The production and maintenance of low temperature
conditions and the study of the behavior of matter under such
conditions.
 Liquefied natural gas (LNG): A mixture of gases obtained from
natural gas or petroleum from which almost everything except
methane has been removed before it is converted to the liquid
state.
 Methods

 Make the gas do work against an external force, causing the

gas to lose energy and change to a liquid state

 Make gas do work against its own internal forces, causing it to

lose energy and liquefy.

 Cascade process - use one liquefied gas to liquefy another

 Joule-Thomson effect - compress and then rapidly expand the

gas
 Joule-Thomson effect
 To cool a gas using the Joule-Thomson effect, the gas is first
pumped into a container under high pressure.
 The container is fitted with a valve with a very small opening.
 When the valve is opened, the gas escapes from the container and
expands quickly.
 At the same time, its temperature drops.
 Natural Gas Liquefaction Process

-161ºC
GAS GAS
Treatment
and
Purification

Storage

•Removes condensate,
CO2, Mercury, and H2S
•Causes dehydration
Refrigerant
Loop

LNG

Compression
OIL AND NATURAL GAS ENGINERING
PURIFICATION OF NATURAL GAS

J. JAYA BHARATHI,
ASST.PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
KONGU ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERUNDURAI
 NATURAL GAS PROCESSING

 Gas-Oil Separator

 Condensate Separator

 Dehydration

 Contaminant Removal

 Nitrogen Extraction

 Methane Separation

 Fractionation
 Heaters and scrubbers
 Installed, usually at or near the wellhead.
 Scrubbers: The scrubbers remove sand and other large-particle
impurities.
 Heaters:
 Ensure that the temperature of the gas does not drop too low.
 Natural gas hydrates have a tendency to form when
temperatures drop.
 These hydrates are solid or semi-solid compounds, resembling
ice like crystals.
 Hydrates accumulate and can impede the passage of natural
gas through valves and gathering systems.
 To reduce the occurrence of hydrates, small natural gas-fired
heating units are installed.
 Gas-Oil Separators
 Pressure relief at the wellhead will cause a natural separation of
gas from oil
 Conventional closed tank - where gravity separates the gas
hydrocarbons from the heavier oil
 Multi-stage gas-oil separation process: needed to separate the
gas stream from the crude oil.
 Commonly closed cylindrical shells,
 Horizontally mounted with inlets at one end, an outlet at the top for
removal of gas, and an outlet at the bottom for removal of oil.
 Separation is accomplished by alternately heating and cooling the
flow stream through multiple steps.
 Water if present, will also be extracted.
 Condensate Separator
 Condensates are removed at the wellhead using mechanical
separators.
 The gas stream enters the processing plant at high pressure (600
psig or greater) through an inlet slug catcher where free water is
removed from the gas, after which it is directed to a condensate
separator.
 Extracted condensate is routed to on-site storage tanks.
 Dehydration
 A dehydration process is needed to eliminate water which may
cause the formation of hydrates.
 Hydrates form when a gas or liquid containing free water
experiences specific temperature/pressure conditions.
 Dehydration is the removal of this water from the produced natural
gas and is accomplished by several methods.
 Absorption - occurs when the water vapor is taken out by a
dehydrating agent. Glycol Dehydration

 Adsorption - occurs when the water vapor is condensed and

collected on the surface. Solid-Desiccant Dehydration
 Glycol dehydration
 Involves using a glycol solution
 Diethylene glycol (DEG) or
 Triethylene glycol (TEG),
which is brought into contact with the wet gas stream in what is
called the ‘contactor’.
 The glycol solution absorbs water from the wet gas.
 The glycol particles then become heavier and sink to the bottom of
the contactor where they are removed.
 The natural gas, having been stripped of most of its water content,
is then transported out of the dehydrator.
 Glycol dehydration
Glycol Regeneration
 The glycol solution is put through a specialized boiler designed to
vaporize only the water out of the solution.
 Water has a boiling point of 212 degrees F, glycol does not boil
until 400 degrees F.
 This differential removes water from the glycol solution, allowing it
be reused in the dehydration process.
 Solid-desiccant dehydration
 The primary form of dehydrating natural gas using adsorption.
 usually consists of two or more adsorption towers, which are filled
with a solid desiccant.
 Typical desiccants include
 Activated alumina or
 Granular silica gel material
 Wet natural gas is passed through these towers, from top to bottom.
 As the wet gas passes around the particles of desiccant material,
water is retained on the surface of these desiccant particles.
 Passing through the entire desiccant bed, almost all of the water is
adsorbed onto the desiccant material, leaving the dry gas to exit the
bottom of the tower.
 Solid-desiccant dehydration
Desiccant regeneration
 Two or more towers are required.
 After a certain period of use, the desiccant in a particular tower
becomes saturated with water.
 To ‘regenerate’ the desiccant, a high-temperature heater is used to
heat gas to a very high temperature.
 Passing this heated gas through a saturated desiccant bed
vaporizes the water in the desiccant tower, leaving it dry and
allowing for further natural gas dehydration.
 Separation of Natural Gas Liquids
 Natural gas coming directly from a well contains many natural gas
liquids that are commonly removed.
 Natural gas liquids (NGLs) have a higher value as separate
products, and it is thus economical to remove them from the gas
stream.
 The removal of natural gas liquids uses techniques similar to those
used to dehydrate natural gas.
 There are two basic steps to the treatment of natural gas liquids
 First, the liquids must be extracted from the natural gas.
 Second, these natural gas liquids must be separated
themselves, down to their base components
 NGL Extraction
 There are two principle techniques for removing NGLs from the
natural gas stream:
 the absorption method
 Extract almost all of the heavier ngls
 the cryogenic expander process.
 Cryogenic processes consist of dropping the temperature of
the gas stream to around -120 degrees F
 The lighter hydrocarbons, such as ethane, are often more
difficult to recover from the natural gas stream.
 Natural Gas Liquid Fractionation
 The NLGs must be broken down into their base components to
be useful.
 The mixed stream of different NGLs must be separated out.
 The process used to accomplish this task is called fractionation.
 Fractionation works based on the different boiling points of the
different hydrocarbons in the NGL stream.
 Deethanizer – this step separates the ethane from the NGL
stream.
 Depropanizer – the next step separates the propane.
 Debutanizer – this step boils off the butanes, leaving the
pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons in the NGL stream.
 Butane Splitter or Deisobutanizer – this step separates the
iso and normal butanes.
 Contaminant Removal
 Removal of contaminates includes the elimination of
 Hydrogen sulfide,
 Carbon dioxide,
 Water vapor,
 Helium, and
 Oxygen.
 Sulfur Removal
Sour gas:
 Natural gas from some wells contains significant amounts of sulfur
and carbon dioxide.
 This natural gas, because of the rotten smell provided by its sulfur
content, is commonly called ‘sour gas’.
 Sour gas is undesirable because the sulfur compounds it contains
can be extremely harmful, even lethal, to breathe.
 Sour gas can also be extremely corrosive.
 The sulfur that exists in the natural gas stream can be extracted
and marketed on its own.
 Sulphur removal
Sweetening process:
 Sulfur exists in natural gas as hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
 The gas is usually considered sour if the hydrogen sulfide content
exceeds 5.7 milligrams of H2S per cubic meter of natural gas.
 The process for removing hydrogen sulfide from sour gas is
commonly referred to as ‘sweetening’ the gas.
 Amine process
 Amine solutions are used to remove the hydrogen sulfide.
 This process is known simply as the ‘amine process’, or alternatively
as the Girdler process.
 The sour gas is run through a tower, which contains the amine
solution.
 This solution has an affinity for sulfur, and absorbs it.
 Amine solutions used
 Monoethanolamine (MEA) and
 Diethanolamine (DEA).
 Solid desiccants like iron sponges are also used to remove the
sulfide
 Other methods
 Mercury is then removed by using adsorption processes such as
 Activated carbon or
 Regenerable molecular sieves

 Helium, if any, can be extracted from the gas stream in a Pressure

Swing Adsorption (PSA) unit
 Nitrogen Extraction
 Nitrogen Rejection Unit (NRU), where it is further dehydrated using
molecular sieve beds.
 In the NRU, the gas stream is routed through a series of passes
through a column and a brazed aluminum plate fin heat exchanger.
 The nitrogen is cryogenically separated and vented.
 Another type of NRU unit separates methane and heavier
hydrocarbons from nitrogen using an absorbent solvent.
 The absorbed methane and heavier hydrocarbons are flashed off
from the solvent by reducing the pressure on the processing stream
in multiple gas decompression steps.
 The liquid from the flash regeneration step is returned to the top of
the methane absorber as lean solvent.
 Methane Separation
 Cryogenic processing and absorption methods are some of the ways
to separate methane from NGLs.
 The cryogenic method is better at extraction of the lighter liquids,
such as ethane.
 Cryogenic processing consists of lowering the temperature of the gas
stream to around -120 degrees Fahrenheit.
 While there are several ways to perform this function the turbo
expander process is most effective, using external refrigerants to chill
the gas stream.
 The quick drop in temperature that the expander is capable of
producing condenses the hydrocarbons in the gas stream, but
maintains methane in its gaseous form.
 1. Oil and Condensate Removal
 The process and transport associated dissolved natural gas must be
separated from the oil in which it is dissolved.
 This separation of natural gas from oil is most often done using
equipment installed at or near the wellhead.
 Specialized equipment is necessary to separate oil and natural gas. Ex:
Low-Temperature Separator (LTX).
 These separators use pressure differentials to cool the wet natural gas
and separate the oil and condensate.
 1. Oil and Condensate Removal
 Wet gas enters the separator, being cooled slightly by a heat exchanger.
 This rapid expansion of the gas allows for the lowering of the
temperature in the separator.
 After liquid removal, the dry gas then travels back through the heat
exchanger and is warmed by the incoming wet gas.
 By varying the pressure of the gas in various sections of the separator, it
is possible to vary the temperature, which causes the oil and some
water to be condensed out of the wet gas stream.
 This basic pressure-temperature relationship can work in reverse as
well, to extract gas from a liquid oil stream.
 2. Water Removal
 It is necessary to remove most of the associated water.
 Most of the liquid, free water associated with extracted natural gas is
removed by simple separation methods at or near the wellhead.
 However, the removal of the water vapor that exists in solution in
natural gas requires a more complex treatment.
 This treatment consists of dehydrating the natural gas, which usually
involves one of two processes: either absorption, or adsorption.
 Absorption occurs when the water vapor is taken out by a
dehydrating agent.
Ex: Glycol Dehydration

 Adsorption occurs when the water vapor is condensed and

collected on the surface.
Ex: Solid-Desiccant Dehydration
 Glycol Dehydration
 In this process, a liquid desiccant dehydrator serves to absorb water
vapor from the gas stream.
 Glycol, the principal agent in this process, has a chemical affinity for
water.
 This means that, when in contact with a stream of natural gas that
contains water, glycol will serve to ‘steal’ the water out of the gas stream.
 Essentially, glycol dehydration involves using a glycol solution, usually
either diethylene glycol (DEG) or triethylene glycol (TEG), which is
brought into contact with the wet gas stream in what is called the
‘contactor’.
 The glycol solution will absorb water from the wet gas. Once
absorbed, the glycol particles become heavier and sink to the bottom of
the contactor where they are removed.
 Solid-Desiccant Dehydration
 Solid-desiccant dehydration is the primary form of dehydrating natural
gas using adsorption, and usually consists of two or more adsorption
towers, which are filled with a solid desiccant.
 Typical desiccants include activated alumina or a granular silica gel
material.
 Wet natural gas is passed through these towers, from top to bottom.
 As the wet gas passes around the particles of desiccant material, water is
retained on the surface of these desiccant particles.
 Passing through the entire desiccant bed, almost all of the water is
adsorbed onto the desiccant material, leaving the dry gas to exit the
bottom of the tower.
 Solid-desiccant dehydrators are typically more effective than glycol
dehydrators.
 These types of dehydration systems are best suited for large volumes of
gas under very high pressure, and are thus usually located on a
pipeline downstream of a compressor station.
 To ‘regenerate’ the desiccant, a high-temperature heater is used to
heat gas to a very high temperature.
 Separation of Natural Gas Liquids
 The removal of natural gas liquids usually takes place in a relatively
centralized processing plant, and uses techniques similar to those used to
dehydrate natural gas.
 There are two principle techniques for removing NGLs from the natural
gas stream:
1. Absorption method
2. Cryogenic expander process
 Absorption Method
 The absorption method of NGL extraction is very similar to using
absorption for dehydration.
 The main difference is that, in NGL absorption, an absorbing oil is used
as opposed to glycol.
 This absorbing oil has an ‘affinity’ for NGLs in much the same manner as
glycol has an affinity for water.
 Before the oil has picked up any NGLs, it is termed ‘lean’ absorption oil.
 As the natural gas is passed through an absorption tower, it is brought
into contact with the absorption oil which soaks up a high proportion of
the NGLs.
 The ‘rich’ absorption oil, now containing NGLs, exits the absorption
tower through the bottom.
 It is now a mixture of absorption oil, propane, butanes, pentanes, and
other heavier hydrocarbons.
 The rich oil is fed into lean oil stills, where the mixture is heated to a
temperature above the boiling point of the NGLs, but below that of the
oil.
 This process allows for the recovery of around 75 percent of butanes,
and 85 – 90 percent of pentanes and heavier molecules from the natural
gas stream.
 Cryogenic Expansion Process
 Cryogenic processes are also used to extract NGLs from natural gas.
 While absorption methods can extract almost all of the heavier NGLs,
the lighter hydrocarbons, such as ethane, are often more difficult to
recover from the natural gas stream.
 In certain instances, it is economic to simply leave the lighter NGLs in
the natural gas stream.
 However, if it is economic to extract ethane and other lighter
hydrocarbons, cryogenic processes are required for high recovery rates.
 Essentially, cryogenic processes consist of dropping the temperature of
the gas stream to around -120 degrees Fahrenheit.
 There are a number of different ways of chilling the gas to these
temperatures, but one of the most effective is known as the turbo
expander process.
 In this process, external refrigerants are used to cool the natural gas
stream.
 Then, an expansion turbine is used to rapidly expand the chilled gases,
which causes the temperature to drop significantly.
 This rapid temperature drop condenses ethane and other hydrocarbons
in the gas stream, while maintaining methane in gaseous form.
 This process allows for the recovery of about 90 to 95 percent of the
ethane originally in the gas stream.
 The extraction of NGLs from the natural gas stream produces both
cleaner, purer natural gas, as well as the valuable hydrocarbons that are
the NGLs themselves.
 Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal
 Sulfur is removed because it is: toxic, foul smelling, corrosive & contaminate
the final product
 Sulfur exists in natural gas as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and the gas is usually
considered sour if the hydrogen sulfide content exceeds 5.7 milligrams of H2S
per cubic meter of natural gas.
 The process for removing hydrogen sulfide from sour gas is commonly referred
to as ‘sweetening’ the gas.
 Amine solutions are used to remove the hydrogen sulfide.
 The sour gas is run through a tower, which contains the amine solution.
 This solution has an affinity for sulfur, and absorbs it much like glycol
absorbing water.
 There are two principle amine solutions used, monoethanolamine (MEA) and
diethanolamine (DEA).
 Either of these compounds, in liquid form, will absorb sulfur compounds from
natural gas as it passes through.
 Treatment Methods
 Removal of objectionable gases
1. Scrubbing with caustic soda
2. Girbotol process
 Removal of objectionable odor (Sweetening)
1. Copper chloride process
2. Merox process
 Scrubbing with caustic soda
 Most widely used process for the removal of H2S.
 It simultaneously removes other constituents such as CO2 , carbonyl
sulphide, lower aliphatic mercaptans, phenols fatty acids and
naphthenic acids.
 In the caustic washing of gases, weak solutions of 2-10 %wt NaOH
have to be used to prevent the deposition of sodium sulphide
crystals.
 The reaction proceeds almost to the complete conversion of NaOH to
NaHS.
 Disadvantage: There is no known cheap method of regenerating
the spent soda
Scrubbing with caustic soda
 Girbotol process
 A process used industrially for removing acidic impurities (as
hydrogen sulfide or carbon dioxide) from gases by passing them
through a solution of an ethanolamine

 Hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide readily combine with

aqueous solutions of certain alkanol amines at temperatures
usually close to ambient.

 Alkanol amines - hydroxyl (-OH) and amino functional groups

 The reaction with hydrogen sulphide is essentially:

2RNH2+ H2S (RNH3)2S

 Amine (mono- di and tri ethanol amines and methyl di ethanol

amine).
 Girbotol process
 The conventional equipment , comprising a
 Bubble- cap tower together with a bubble cap tower for regeneration.
 The treating temperature is 5 to 10 oC above the dew point of the gas to
ensure that no hydrocarbons liquid condenses out of the plant.
 Copper chloride process
 The copper chloride process is used to sweeten gasolines and
kerosenes by the
 Direct oxidation of mercaptans to disulphides,
 Using cupric chloride as the oxidizing agent.
 The basic reactions of the process may be expressed as follows :
 Merox process
 The Merox process is developed by UOP (Universal Oil Products),
 Combination of mercaptan extraction and sweetening.
 The mercaptans are extracted by an aqueous solution of caustic soda
according to the reaction :

 The reaction is reversible it is impossible to get complete removal

of mercaptans by extraction without the use of an excessive amount
of caustic soda solution.
 The caustic is generated ,after separation from hydrocarbons by
blowing with heating in air at ambient temperature.
 The forward reaction is favored by low temperature, low molecular
weight of mercaptan and high caustic concentration.
 It is also promoted by the use of compounds that increase the
solubility of the mercaptan in the aqueous phase, of these
methanol, isobutyric acid and cresols.
 The disulphide so formed are insoluble in caustic soda and are
removed in a gravity separator.
 The catalyst may be supported on a carrier, in which case the caustic
and air are passed together over a packed bed.