Unit 1

Switching techniques for Voice

and Data
 Mobile Communication

Academic Year
 Mobile Communication
Unit I : Switching Techniques for Voice and Data

• Telecommunication switching:
• Message switching,
• Circuit switching,
• Manual System,
• Electronic Switching.
• Digital switching: Switching functions,
• Telecommunication Traffic:
• Unit of Traffic,
• Traffic measurement,
• A mathematical model,
• Lost- call systems:
• Theory,
• traffic performance,
• loss systems in tandem,
• traffic tables.
• Queuing systems:
• Erlang Distribution,
• probability of delay,
• Finite queue capacity,
• Systems with a single server,
• Queues in tandem,
• delay tables and
• application of Delay formulae.
 What is Mobile Communications?
A wireless form of communication in
which voice and data information is
emitted, transmitted and received
via microwaves.
This type of communication allows
individuals to converse with one
another and/or transmit and receive
data while moving from place to
place. Some examples include:
cellular and digital cordless
telephones; pagers; telephone
answering devices; air-to-ground
telecommunications; and
satellite-based communications
 Data Representation
Text : It is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different
sets of bit pattern have been designed to represented text symbol.
Each set is called code, and process of representing the symbols is
called coding (ex: Unicode, ASCII, etc).

Number: It is also represented by bit patterns (ex: Base 10, Base 2, Base 16,
Base 256 (IP Address)).

Images : It is also represented by bit patterns. An image is consist of a matrix of

pixels (picture element) , where as each pixel is a single dot. The size of
pixel depends on resolution (ex: Black and White image, Color image
(RGB – primary color or YCM - intensity)).

Audio : It refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.

Video : It refers to the recording or broadcasting of picture or movie.

…continue
Telecommunication
Growth in Telecommunication: Telegraphy to Telephony to
Facsimile to Radio Phone to Net, Home banking to Pocket Phones

Network Structure: Mesh, Bus, Ring, Star, Tree

National Telecommunication Network: Local Network, Toll

Network, International Network, Submarine Cables, Satellite
Communication
Exchange: Local Exchange, Local Tandem Exchange, Regional
Tandem Exchange, National Tandem Exchange, International
Gateway Exchange

Interacting Subsystem: Transmission System, Switching

System, Signaling System
…continue
Terminology
Junction Circuits and Junction Network: Circuit between the two
exchange for communication

Tandem Exchange: Connection between the customers

local exchanges via a Central Switching Centre
Toll Network or Trunk Network: The different area of country are
therefore interconnected through long distance circuits

Network Services
PSTN, PDN, Telex, Private Network (Private Circuits)

Standardization : ITU founded in 1965

ITU-T and ITU-R
 Switching Techniques for Data
• Message Switching- (Delay system or queuing system)
• Packet Switching-----(Divide the large data into small packets)

• Circuit Switching- (
 Evolution of Switching Systems
Message Switching: One Hop to another Hop, delay system or queuing system,
Manual Transfer of Hard copy, Manual Transfer of Tape, Automatic
Route Selection, Automatic Message system

Circuit Switching: Dedicated Electrical Connection, loss-call system

Manual System: Operator is Handling the calls

Electronics Switching: Electromechanical, reed relay, gas tubes,

semiconductors, SPC using computers
 Message switching

A C C B

Manual transfer of hard copy

R/P A/T

Manual transfer of paper tape

(Torn-tape relay system)
R/p = Re perforator ,
A/T = Automatic Transfer
 T

T R/P A/T T

T
Manual transfer of paper tape with automatic route selection(torn-tape relay system)

T
T S T
T
Exchange
Automatic message switching system Stored Program Control

T-Teleprinter, R/P-Reperforator, A/T-Automatic Transfer, S-Store

 Drawback of Message switching

Inherent delay
Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching
• Simultaneous both way communication in real-time.
• Message switching could not meet the requirements
because of inherent delay.
• Connect the circuit of a calling telephone to that of called
telephone on demand & maintain the connection for the
duration of call is Circuit Switching.
• If the required outgoing circuit from a switch is already
engaged on another call, the new call offered to it can not
be connected. The call can not be stored, it is lost.
• Thus it is a lost call system.
 Circuit Switching
• Dedicated communication path between two
stations
• Three phases
– Establish
– Transfer
– Disconnect
• Must have switching capacity and channel
capacity to establish connection
• Must have intelligence to work out routing
Manual Switch
Manual Switch
 Manual Switch
Manual Exchange Features:
• Central Battery Operation
• Loop/Disconnect Signaling
• The Multiple Cord Circuits with T, R and S Terminal
• Busy Testing
• Concentration
• Ticketing
• Metering (periodic pulse metering)
• Classes of Services (originating and Terminating calls)
• Common Control
• Scanning
• Stored-program control
• Common Channel Signaling
 Electronic Switching
• Proved economics for common control
• Development from electromechanical to SPC
• Central Monitoring
• Data Storing
• Class of Services
• Additional Facilities:
• Call baring
• Repeat last calls
• Reminder calls
• Call diversion
• Three way calls
• Charge advice
Digital Switching Function
Digital Switching Function
 Digital Switching Function

• Switching System mainly classified as:

• Space-division (SD) System: Each connection is made over a
different path in space which exist for the duration of the
connection.
• Time-Division (TD) System: Each Connection is made over the
same path in space, but at different instant in time.
 Digital Switching Function

• Switching System mainly classified as:

• Space-division (SD) System: Each connection is made over a
different path in space which exist for the duration of the
connection.
• Time-Division (TD) System: Each Connection is made over the
same path in space, but at different instant in time.
Local Exchange with codecs in customers’ line circuits
 Time
Incoming Outgoing
PCM Junctions Division PCM Junctions
Switch

Time Division Switching

 Functions of a switching system

• Attending: Monitoring all lines to detect call

request
• Information Receiving: Receive
information from caller(address signal)
• Information Processing: Information used
to performe and control actions
• Busy Testing: Check system busy or free
 Functions of a switching system
• Interconnection: Called Between two
customer
• A connection to the calling and called
terminal
• A connection between the two terminals
• Alerting: signal to alert called customer by
sending ringing current
• Supervision: Charge purpose sends pulse
supervisory circuit Calling line
identification(CLI)
• Information Sending: other exchange
Classification of a switching system
Strowger Step by step Switch
Strowger Step by step Switch
Basic Strowger Switching Components
Strowger Two motion selector
…continue
Telecommunication Traffic
Trunk: Any entity that will carry one call. It may be international
circuit with a length of thousand kilometer or a few meters of wire
between switches in the same telephone exchange

Busy Hour: In a communication system, the sliding 60-minute

period during which occurs the maximum total traffic load in a
given 24-hour
Busy Hour
Call in Progress

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time of Day
 Unit of Traffic
Traffic Intensity: is a measure of the average occupancy of a server
or resource during a specified period of time.
Or
Average number of calls in progress.

Unit of Traffic: Although this is dimension less quantity, this is the

Erlang (E), which is named after A. K. Erlang, the Danish pioneer of
traffic theory

Holding time: Average number of calls depends on both; the

number of calls which arrive and the duration of the call. The
duration of a call is often called its holding time.
…continue
Unit of Traffic
E One of the trunk is busy all of the time

From each of two trunks being

E
busy for half of the time

From each of three trunks being

E busy for one third of the time

In North America traffic is sometimes expressed in terms of

hundreds of call seconds per hour (CCS). Since an hour contains
3600 seconds, Therefore 1 erlang = 36 CCS
…continue
Unit of Traffic
…continue
Unit of Traffic

Example:
1. On average, during the busy hour, a company makes 120
outgoing calls of average duration 2 minutes. It receives 200
incoming calls of average duration 3 minutes. Find the outgoing
traffic, the incoming traffic and the total traffic.

2. During the busy hour, on average, a customer with a single

telephone line makes three calls and receives three calls. The
average call duration is 2 minutes. What is the probability that a
caller will find the line engaged?
…continue
MCQ
1. Which among the following can be adopted as a dedicated path
between the source and destination in circuit switching?

a. Physical Wire
b. Radio Link
c. Co-axial Cable
d. All of the above

2.In manual switching, which kind of battery exchange has the

provision of subscribers set along with magneto generator?
-
a. Local battery exchange
b. Central battery exchange
c. Both a and b
d. None of the above
 Single Stage Switching Network

• The switch gives full availability; no calls are lost unless all outgoing trunks are congested
• The switch contains MN crosspoints.
• If M=N, the number of crosspoints is:
C1 = N 2

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 Gradings
• For a switch it is not necessary for each incoming
trunk to have access to every outgoing trunk
• It is adequate if each incoming trunk has access to
a sufficient number of trunks on each route to
give the required GOS , this is called as limited
availability.
• The number of outgoing trunks to which an
incoming trunk can obtain connection is called the
availability and corresponds to the outlet capacity
of the switch used.

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 20 trunks connected in 2 separate
groups to switches of availability

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• Figure shows 20 trunks on an outgoing route to which
incoming trunks have access by means of switches
giving an availability of only 10.

• The outlets of switches are multiplied together in two

separate groups and 10 outgoing trunks are allocated
to each group.

• If the total traffic offered by the incoming trunks is 8 E,

each group of outgoing trunks is offered 4 E and will
provide a GOS better than previous case.

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 Gradings
• If the traffic offered to the two groups of
incoming trunks is Random, efficiency can
therefore be improved through mixing the
traffic by interconnecting the multiples of the
groups so that some of the outgoing trunks
are available to both groups of the switches.

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 Gradings

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• In this arrangement the first six outlets are
two separate full availability groups.

• The last 4 outlets are common to the both

groups and carry the traffic that overflows
when the first six outlets of either group are
busy.

• The technique described of interconnecting

the multiples of switches is called Grading

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 Gradings
• Grading enables a single switching stage to
provide access to a number of trunks greater
than the availability of the switches.

• A grading provides a poorer grade of service

than a fully availability group with the same
number of trunks.

• Gradings of this form extensively studied by

G.F.O’Dell in 1920’s and therefore called O’Dell
Gradings.
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 Progressive Grading
• The most widely used form of grading is
Progressive Grading because the switches Hunt
over the outlets sequentially from a fixed home
position.
• In order to form a Grading the switches having
access to the outgoing route are multiplied into a
number of separate Groups known as Graded
Groups.
• For a larger numbers of outgoing trunks Grading
may contain 4 or more Groups.
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 Design of Progressive Grading
• In designing a Grading to provide access to N
outgoing Trunks from switches having availability
‘k’.
• The first step is to decide on the number of
graded groups ‘g’.
• If all the choices were Individual trunks, we
would have N = gk.
• If all the choices were full commons N = k.

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 Design of Progressive Grading
• Since the Grading contain a mixture of
Individuals, partial commons and full commons
then k < N < gk.

• A reasonable choice for N is N=(1/2)gk and traffic

simulations have shown that the efficiency of
such grading is near the Optimum.

• The number of groups is thus chosen to be

g=2N/k
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 Design of Progressive Grading
• Since the Grading should be symmetrical ‘g’
must be an even number .

• For a two group grading there is only one

solution if the number of columns of singles is ‘s’
and the number of commons is ‘c’ then
1. Availability = k = s+c
2. number of trunks = N = 2s+c
3. s = N-k and c = 2k-N

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 Other forms of grading
• Efficiency can be improved if this principle can be
applied to the whole of a grading instead of only
two parts of it. This can be done by connecting
non adjacent Groups in addition to adjacent
groups. This is known as skipping.

• When the upper two groups are carrying heavy

traffic but the lower two groups are lightly
loaded the skipped grading enables the free
trunks to be used.
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 Skipped Grading

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• If switches do not hunt from a fixed Home
position or they select outlets at Random,
there is no advantage in connecting some
outlets to singles and others to partial or full
commons.

• The grading should then be designed to share

each trunk between an equal number of
groups. Such Gradings are known as
Homogenous Gradings.

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 Homogenous Gradings

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 Traffic Capacity of Gradings
• If total Traffic A is carried by N trunks the occupancy of
each trunk is A/N . It is assumed that each trunk being
busy is an independent Random event.
• Each call has access to k trunks available and the
probability of all K trunks being busy is thus B=(A/N)k
• The number of trunks required to carry A Erlangs with a
GOS of B is N= AB-1/k
• This is Erlangs ideal grading formula and gives
relationship between the traffic and the number of
trunks required.

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 Traffic Capacity of Gradings
• Practical gradings do not satisfy the conditions for
Erlangs ideal Grading , they do not have a linear
relationship between A and N for a given GOS.

• An approximate curve of A against N can

therefore be derived from Erlangs Full availability
theory for N<=k and extended as straight line for
N>=k. this is given by
A = Ak + (N-k)B1/k
where Ak is the traffic carried by a fully availability
group of k trunks.
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 Traffic Capacity of Gradings

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 UNIT-II
LINK SYTEMS
 Link Systems

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• Step-by-step selection is unsuitable for 2 stage
network.
• Conditional selection is used.
• GOS of link system depends on the way it is used as
follows,
Mode 1:Connection is required to one particular free
outgoing trunk.(Expander)
Mode 2:Connection is required to a particular outgoing
route, but any free trunk on that route may be
used.(Route switch)
Mode 3 : Connection may be made to any free outgoing
trunk.(concentrators)

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• For Two-stage networks,
g=N/n
• No. of crosspoints per primary switch = No. of
crosspoints per secondary switch= gn =N

C2 =no. of crosspoints of in the network

= no. of switches * crosspoints per switch
= 2g N=2 N2/n

• No. of links= g2=(N/n)2

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• If n is made very large such that no. of links
equal to no. of incoming and outgoing trunks.
then
g2=N
• Substituting this value in above equation, we
get, n= √N

• Then the total no. of crosspoints is

C2= 2N3/2
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 TWO STAGE NETWORK
• For 2 links connected in tandem .
• Let prob. of 1st being busy is ‘a’
• prob. of 2nd being busy is ‘b’
• prob. of 1st being free is 1-a
• prob. of 2nd being free is 1-b
• prob. of path being free is (1-a)(1-b)
• prob. of path being blocked is 1-(1-a)(1-b)

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 TWO STAGE NETWORK
• No. of trunks=4=N
• Let no. of switches=g=2(size2X2)
• For 2 stage switching network let occupancy of
link is a
• Occupancy of outgoing trunks is b
• Mode 1:
• Connecting a particular outgoing trunk
• In this mode only 1 trunk is used. So prob. of this
being free is (1-a).

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• Mode 2: connection to an outgoing route with
one trunk on each secondary switches
• The prob. of this being busy is ‘b’
• The prob. Being free is (1-b)
• Prob. of both being free =(1-a)(1-b)
• The prob. of loss using a particular link is
=1- Prob. of both being free
1- (1-a)(1-b)
• The available no. of paths are ‘g’.
Assuming that each blocking is a random event, the
prob. of simultaneous blocking is the GOS
B2= {1-(1-a)(1-b)} g
where g is no. of secondary stages switches.
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 Three Stage network

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 Three stage switch
• C3=2*N √N+M for M inputs & N outputs
(M>N)

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 Crosspoints required for nonblocking
switch

Number of lines Three-stage Single-stage

switch switch
128 7,680 16,256
512 63,488 261,632
2,048 516,096 4.2 million
8,192 4.2 million 67 million
32,768 33 million 1 billion
131,072 268 million 17 billion
 Multiple-Stage switching
• Single stage switch
An inlet is connected directly to an outlet through a single
crosspoint.
Individual crosspoint can be used to connect one particular
inlet-outlet pair.
Disadvantages of Single stage switch
1.No.of inlet-outlet pairs for square array is N(N-1) & N(N-1)/2 for
triangular array.
2.Large amount of capacitive loading on the message path.
3.If a particular crosspoint fails the associated connection can not be
established.(exception rectangular two wire switch)
4.Inefficiet utilization of crosspoints in case of a large switch.
 3 Stage Network
• Let the occupancy of A links be ‘a’
• Let the occupancy of B links be ‘b’
• Let the occupancy of outgoing trunks be ‘c’
• Mode 1 : Connections to a particular outgoing
trunk.
• Let prob. of 1st being busy is ‘a’
• Let prob. of 2nd being busy is ‘b’

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 3 STAGE NETWORK
•prob. of 1st being free is 1-a
•prob. of 2nd being free is 1-b
•prob. of both being free is (1-a)(1-b)
•prob. of both being blocked is 1-(1-a)(1-b)
•There are g2 secondary switches
•The probability that all g2 independent paths
are simultaneously blocked is
B1= {1-(1-a)(1-b)} g2
where g2 no. of secondary switches
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 3 STAGE NETWORK
• Mode 2 : Connection to any free trunk in a
route having 1 trunk connected to each
tertiary switch.
The prob. of an outgoing trunk to be busy = C
The prob. of an outgoing trunk to be free =
1-C
The prob. of blocking of a particular trunk
= 1-(1-B1)(1-C)
The probability of blocking all g3 independent
paths B2= {B1+ (1-B1)C}g3
where g3 is number of tertiary switches.
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 Synchronization

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CONTROL OF SWITCHING
FUNCTIONS
 CALL PROCESSING FUNCTIONS
• Various call processing functions are monitored
and controlled by central processor and
associated small processors.
• Important call processing functions are:
1. Sequence of operations
2. signal exchange

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 Sequence of operations
1. Idle state: calling subscriber’s handset is in
on-hook condition i.e. line is idle. Exchange is
monitoring state of line.
2. Call request signal(seize signal):lifting
handset by calling subscriber causes current to
flow in line.
3. CLI: exchange detects the calling condition
and identifies the line.

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 4. Determination of class of service: it means
the range of services available to calling
subscriber.
5.Identification of calling party: for billing
purpose.
6.Connection to calling line: exchange makes
connection to calling line.
7. Proceed to send signal: the exchange
sends a signal to caller for readiness.
8. Address signal: the caller sends a signal to
exchange by dialing a number.
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 9. Selection of outgoing line termination:
from address received , the exchange
determines the required out going terminal.
10.Determination of terminating Class Of
Service: the exchange determines terminating
COS to decide the handling of call.
11.Testing called line termination: exchange
tests the status of called subscriber. i.e. busy,
out of service or free.
12.Status signal(CPS):an audio tone sent back
to caller to inform the progress of call.

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 13. Connection to Called Line Termination: on
obtaining called subscriber line free, exchange
makes connection to it.
14.Attending called customer: exchange
sends a signal to called line to alert the
customer to receive the call.
15. Answer signal: when called subscriber lifts
the handset, the line is looped and current
flows.
16.Completion of connection: the answer
signal from called subscriber completes the
connection.

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 17. Conversational state: on completion of
connection , the exchange supervise it and
detects the end of call for billing.
18. Clear signal: exchange provides a clear
signal when both subscriber replaces the
handset.
19.Release of connection: the exchange
releases the connection between called and
calling subscriber.

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 Signal exchanges
• Fig. 7.1 & 7.2( next slides)
• Signals can be categorized into two
types.
1. Forward signals: the signals sent from
caller to called subscriber.
2.Backward signals: the signals sent
towards the caller.
• Channel associated and common channel
signaling
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 Signaling tone
• Different signaling tones are used in establishing
& maintaining telephone calls.
1.Dial tone: is a fixed frequency continuous
signaling tone.(33Hz or 50Hz or 400Hz)
Used to respond the calling subscriber
indicating that exchange is ready to accept
dialed digits from subscriber.
2.Ring tone: it is a bursty tone of 0.4 sec
duration.(400Hz or 233Hz tone).
After dialing, the ring tone is send to called
party and calling party by exchange.
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 3.Busy tone: also a bursty signal of 400 Hz with silence period
in between.When the called party is busy the calling
subscriber gets such tone.
4.Number unobtainable tone (NU): is a continuous type of
tone and its frequency is 400Hz. The calling subscriber gets
this tone when the dialed number is not traceable due to any
reason.

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 Common control
• Performs specific call processing function. It
performs different calls on time division basis
or on space division basis( for several common
controls).
• It is a sequential logic circuit ,as it consists of
combinational logic and memory. It’s output is
function of present input and previous inputs.
• The use of SPC enables to perform different
tasks under the control of different programs.
• SPC control is more flexible
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 Reliability, Availability and Security

• The reliability of switching system should

be high.
• High reliable system have
1.MTBF-longer (for repairable system)
2.MTTF-longer (for non repairable system)
3.MTTR-shorter

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• Availability :Availability for a single processor SPC
system is
A=MTTF/(MTTF+MTTR)
Indicates the probability that the system will
operate correctly when required.
• Unavailability: the probability that the system will
not operate.
U=1-A
• Security: In CC exchange with high reliability,
there are chances of unavailability of system.
Therefore, some measures have to be taken to
provide security, to ensure operation when faults
are present.

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 Continued..
• Availability of single processor:
A= MTBF/MTBF+MTTR
Where
MTBF=mean time between failure
MTTR=mean time to repair
• The unavailability of single processor:
U= 1-A
= MTTR/MTBF+MTTR
If MTBF >> MTTR , then
U=MTTR/MTBF
 Continued…
• For dual processor,
Continued…
Security measures used are:
1. line circuits – none
2.switching network; none or partial
duplication
3.common control- 1 in n sparing
4. central processors- replication.

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 Signalling
• Compelled signalling: When continuous
signalling is used, a signal is sent until the
acknowledgement is received & the
acknowledgement signal persists until the
original signal has been removed.
• Customer line signalling:
• Loop/disconnect signalling for customers call
& clear signals.
• Dial telephone
• Push-button telephone