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8.4 - Nozzle Theory PDF
8.4 - Nozzle Theory PDF
Rocket Propulsion
Hodei Urrutxua
Propulsion Systems
Nozzle Theory
Introduction
§ They permit the prediction of the operating performance of any rocket unit
that uses the thermodynamic expansion of a gas
This theory applies to chemical rocket propulsion systems (both liquid and solid
propellant types), nuclear rockets, solar heated and resistance or arc heated
electrical rocket systems, and to any propulsion system that uses the expansion
of a gas as the propulsive mechanism for ejecting matter at high velocity.
Nozzle Theory
Ideal Rocket
The concept of ideal rocket propulsion systems is useful because the relevant
basic thermodynamic principles can be expressed as simple mathematical
relationships.
However, with the assumptions and simplifications stated below, they are very
adequate for obtaining useful solutions to many rocket propulsion systems.
In designing new rockets, it has become accepted practice to use ideal rocket
parameters which can then be modified by appropriate corrections.
2) All the species of the working fluid are gaseous. Any condensed phases (liquid
or solid) add a negligible amount to the total mass.
4) There is no heat transfer across the rocket walls; therefore, the flow is
adiabatic.
5) There is no appreciable friction and all boundary layer effects are neglected.
7) The propellant flow is steady and constant. The expansion of the working
fluid is uniform and steady, without vibration. Transient effects (i.e., start up
and shut down) are of very short duration and may be neglected.
8) All exhaust gases leaving the rocket have an axially directed velocity.
9) The gas velocity, pressure, temperature, and density are all uniform across
any section normal to the nozzle axis.
10) Chemical equilibrium is established within the rocket chamber and the gas
composition does not change in the nozzle (frozen flow).
§ Because chamber temperatures are typically high (2500 to 3600 K for common
propellants), all gases are well above their respective saturation conditions and
actually follow the perfect gas law very closely.
§ Postulates 4, 5, and 6 above allow the use of the isentropic expansion relations
in the rocket nozzle, thereby describing the maximum conversion of heat to
kinetic energy of the jet. This also implies that the nozzle flow is
thermodynamically reversible.
§ Wall friction losses are difficult to determine accurately but they are usually
small in nozzles.
§ Except for very small chambers, the energy lost as heat to the walls of the
rocket is usually less than 1% (occasionally up to 2%) of the total energy and
can therefore be neglected.
§ Short-term fluctuations of the steady propellant flow rate and pressure are
usually less than 5% of the rated value, their effect on rocket performance is
small and can be neglected.
Some companies and some authors do not include all or the same eleven items
listed above in their definition of an ideal rocket. For example, instead of
assumption 8 (all nozzle exit velocity is axially directed), some use a conical exit
nozzle with a 15° half-angle as their base configuration in their ideal nozzle; this
discounts the divergence losses, which are described later.
Nozzle Theory
For an isentropic flow process the following relations hold between any pair
points (i.e., sections) along the one-dimensional flow:
✓ ◆ 1 ✓ ◆ 1
T1 p1 ⇢1
= =
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T2 p2 ⇢2
where ! is the temperature, " is the pressure and # is the density of the fluid, and
$ = '( ⁄') is assumed constant for perfect gases.
The area ratio for a nozzle with isentropic flow can be expressed in terms of
Mach numbers for any points (i.e., sections) within the nozzle as:
✓ ◆ 12 +1
A2 M1 2+( 1) M22 1
=
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A1 M2 2+( 1) M12
~
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,
(1)
area ratio is significantly
L
<
\
° 0.10 . :iS ,, ,~ 10
\ ' influenced by the value of !.
o
For any two points within the nozzle (e.g. inlet and exit), the flow velocity holds
the following relation:
v " #
u ✓ ◆ 1
u 2 p2
v2 = t R T1 1 + v12
1 p1
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§ When the chamber section is large compared to the nozzle throat section, the
chamber velocity or nozzle approach velocity is comparatively small and the
term !"# can be neglected.
§ The chamber temperature $" is at the nozzle inlet and, under isentropic
conditions, differs little from the stagnation temperature or (for a chemical
rocket) from the combustion temperature.
For any two points within the nozzle (e.g. inlet and exit), the flow velocity holds
the following relation:
v " #
u ✓ ◆ 1
u 2 p2
v2 = t R T1 1 + v12
1 p1
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The velocity can thus be simplified dropping the term !"# , and can also be
expressed as a function of the average molecular mass $.
v " #
u ✓ ◆ 1
u 2 R 0 Ts p2
v2 = t 1
1 M p1
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This equation indicates that any increase in the gas temperature or any decrease
of the molecular mass of the propellant will improve the performance of the
rocket; that is, they will increase the specific impulse or the exhaust velocity.
The influences of the pressure ratio across the nozzle "# ⁄"$ and of the specific
heat ratio % are less pronounced.
The velocity can thus be simplified dropping the term &$# , and can also be
expressed as a function of the average molecular mass '.
v " #
u ✓ ◆ 1
u 2 R 0 Ts p2
v2 = t 1
1 M p1
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Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Ve l o c i t y
The maximum theoretical value of the nozzle outlet velocity is reached with an
infinite expansion (i.e., exhausting into a vacuum).
r
2
(v2 )max = R Ts
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1
This maximum theoretical exhaust velocity is finite, even though the pressure
ratio is infinite, because it represents the finite thermal energy content of the
fluid. Such an expansion does not happen, because, among other things, the
temperature of many of the working medium species will fall below their
liquefaction or the freezing points; thus they cease to be a gas and no longer
contribute to the gas expansion.
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Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory -~ 10 | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
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Propulsiono ~Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
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The minimum nozzle area is called the throat area. The ratio of the nozzle exit
area A2 to the throat area At is called the nozzle area expansion ratio and is
designated by the Greek letter !. It is an important nozzle design parameter.
A2
✏=
At
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The maximum gas flow per unit area occurs at the throat where there is a
unique gas pressure ratio which is only a function of the ratio of specific heats !.
This pressure ratio is found by setting M = 1 in the Eq. for the pressure ratio.
✓ ◆
pt 2 1
=
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p1 +1
The throat pressure "# for which the isentropic mass flow rate is a maximum is
called the critical pressure. Typical values of this critical pressure ratio range
between 0.53 and 0.57.
At the point of critical pressure, namely the throat, the Mach number is one and
the values of the temperature can be obtained from
2
Tt = T1
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+1
the nozzle inlet temperature $% is very close to the combustion temperature and
hence close to the nozzle flow stagnation temperature $& . At the critical point there
is only a mild change of these properties.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Nozzle Flow and Throat Condition
§ The divergent portion of the nozzle permits further decreases in pressure and
increases in velocity under supersonic conditions.
§ The sonic and supersonic flow condition can be attained only if the critical
pressure prevails at the throat, that is, if
!" !%
≤
!# !#
There are, therefore, three different types of nozzles: subsonic, sonic, and
supersonic.
TABLE 3--1. Nozzle Types
T h r o a t velocity V1 < at Vt -- at Vt = at
Shape
The supersonic nozzle is the one used for rockets. It achieves a high degree of
conversion of enthalpy to kinetic energy. The ratio between the inlet and exit
pressures in all rockets is sufficiently large to induce supersonic flow.
Only if the absolute chamber pressure drops below approximately 1.78 atm will
there be subsonic flow in the divergent portion of the nozzle during sea-level
operation. This condition occurs for a very short time during the start and stop
transients.
Thus, it is not possible to increase the throat velocity or the flow rate in the
nozzle by further lowering the exit pressure or even evacuating the exhaust
section. This important condition is often described as choking the flow; it is
always established at the throat and not the nozzle exit plane; it is equal to the
mass flow at any section within the nozzle.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Nozzle Flow and Throat Condition
The mass flow through a rocket nozzle is therefore proportional to the throat
area At and the chamber (stagnation) pressure "$ ; it is also inversely proportional
to the square root of &⁄' and a function of the gas properties.
s
✓ ◆ +1
At v t 2 1
ṁ = = At p 1
Vt
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+1 R T1
Also, an expression for the ratio of the velocity at any point ! downstream of the
throat with the pressure "# , and the throat velocity may be derived for supersonic
nozzles: v " # u ✓ ◆ 1
vx u +1 px
=t 1
vt 1 p1
<latexit sha1_base64="lQNHim1GtEoK7j0YiQZVR1q9QMo=">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</latexit>
These equations permit the direct determination of the velocity ratio or the area
ratio for any given pressure ratio, and vice versa, in ideal rocket nozzles.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
N o z z l e F6 0l o w NaO ZnZdL ETHEORY
T h r oAND
a t THERMODYNAMIC
C o n d i t i o nRELATIONS
40
3O ]'k = ~.xo..~//
I 1
/
25
H
,~ 20
15
10
//
8
6 -
~2 --~':-~.-~
~.......:~':.~- . ~ - " =------ ~ - _-
1.5
600
500 -
/ v
400 -
.b~// //'1.h
300
250 . , . ¢ / I d`
200-
150
/ ¢"
"" I00
I" /" ~r j. .f
80 _ Jr # I / j / .f
60 j ~
j" ,, . / /
.
.f
so
40 -
../.>. /
/
/~I
~
./ /
Velocityratio k--l~.. --------- 4
15
300 500 1000 2000 3000 5000 10,000
p, lp,
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Example
Design a nozzle for an ideal rocket that has to operate at 25 km altitude and give
5000 N thrust at a chamber pressure of 2.068 MPa and a chamber temperature of
2800 K. Assuming that ! = 1.30 and R = 355.4 J/kg·K, determine the following
parameters:
§ Throat area
§ Exit area
§ Throat velocity
§ Exit temperature
Solution (cont.):
The ideal exit velocity is found from Eq. 3-16 or Fig. 3-5, using a pressure ratio of
811.3"
v2= k_IRT1 1-
/2 x 1.30
= V 1 . 3 0 - 1 355.4 x 2800 x 0.7869 = 2605 m/sec
An approximate value of this velocity can also be obtained from the throat velocity and
Fig. 3-4. The ideal propellant consumption for optimum expansion conditions is
The areas at the throat and exit sections and the nozzle area ratio A 2 / A t are
An approximate value of this area ratio can also be obtained directly from Fig. 3-5 for
k = 1.30 and P l / P 2 -- 811.2. The exit temperature is given by
The efflux of the propellant gases or the momentum flux-out causes the thrust or
reaction force on the rocket structure. Because the flow is supersonic, the pressure
at the exit plane of the nozzle may be different from the ambient pressure and
the pressure thrust component adds to the momentum thrust as
F = ṁ v2 + (p2
<latexit sha1_base64="+DoPakZoFOn9elYS1B9WAspg6Ng=">AAACCnicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vUZduokWoqGWmFq0LoSKIywr2AW0ZMmmmDc08SDKFMnTtxl9x40IRt36BO//GzHQQtR4IOZxz703usQNGhTSMTy0zN7+wuJRdzq2srq1v6JtbDeGHHJM69pnPWzYShFGP1CWVjLQCTpBrM9K0h1ex3xwRLqjv3clxQLou6nvUoRhJJVn67jW8gJ2eLyN30jkaWSV4CAuBuo5hYBkHl1bJ0vNG0UgAZ4mZkjxIUbP0DzUPhy7xJGZIiLZpBLIbIS4pZmSS64SCBAgPUZ+0FfWQS0Q3SlaZwH2l9KDjc3U8CRP1Z0eEXCHGrq0qXSQH4q8Xi/957VA6lW5EvSCUxMPTh5yQQenDOBfYo5xgycaKIMyp+ivEA8QRliq9XBLCeYzT75VnSaNUNE+K5dtyvlpJ48iCHbAHCsAEZ6AKbkAN1AEG9+ARPIMX7UF70l61t2lpRkt7tsEvaO9fJLSXeA==</latexit>
p0 )A2
The maximum thrust for any given nozzle operation is found in a vacuum where
p0 = 0. Between sea level and the vacuum of space, the latter equation gives the
variation of thrust with altitude.
Fopt = ṁ v2
<latexit sha1_base64="E1i6QJPqXAXOW3aih0/Iju+mt0U=">AAACBHicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vUZfdBIvgQspMLVoXQkEQlxXsA9oyZNJMG5p5kNwplmEWbvwVNy4UcetHuPNvTB+IWg8EDufcw809biS4Asv6NDJLyyura9n13Mbm1vaOubvXUGEsKavTUISy5RLFBA9YHTgI1ookI74rWNMdXk785ohJxcPgFsYR6/qkH3CPUwJacsz8ldMBdgdJGEGKL3CnF0Lip53jkVNyzIJVtKbAi8SekwKao+aYHzpOY58FQAVRqm1bEXQTIoFTwdJcJ1YsInRI+qytaUB8prrJ9IgUH2qlh71Q6hcAnqo/EwnxlRr7rp70CQzUX28i/ue1Y/Aq3YQHUQwsoLNFXiwwhHjSCO5xySiIsSaESq7/iumASEJB95ablnA+wen3yYukUSraJ8XyTblQrczryKI8OkBHyEZnqIquUQ3VEUX36BE9oxfjwXgyXo232WjGmGf20S8Y719p2pgM</latexit>
The efflux of the propellant gases or the momentum flux-out causes the thrust or
reaction force on the rocket structure. Because the flow is supersonic, the pressure
at the exit plane of the nozzle may be different from the ambient pressure and
the pressure thrust component adds to the momentum thrust as
F = ṁ v2 + (p2
<latexit sha1_base64="+DoPakZoFOn9elYS1B9WAspg6Ng=">AAACCnicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vUZduokWoqGWmFq0LoSKIywr2AW0ZMmmmDc08SDKFMnTtxl9x40IRt36BO//GzHQQtR4IOZxz703usQNGhTSMTy0zN7+wuJRdzq2srq1v6JtbDeGHHJM69pnPWzYShFGP1CWVjLQCTpBrM9K0h1ex3xwRLqjv3clxQLou6nvUoRhJJVn67jW8gJ2eLyN30jkaWSV4CAuBuo5hYBkHl1bJ0vNG0UgAZ4mZkjxIUbP0DzUPhy7xJGZIiLZpBLIbIS4pZmSS64SCBAgPUZ+0FfWQS0Q3SlaZwH2l9KDjc3U8CRP1Z0eEXCHGrq0qXSQH4q8Xi/957VA6lW5EvSCUxMPTh5yQQenDOBfYo5xgycaKIMyp+ivEA8QRliq9XBLCeYzT75VnSaNUNE+K5dtyvlpJ48iCHbAHCsAEZ6AKbkAN1AEG9+ARPIMX7UF70l61t2lpRkt7tsEvaO9fJLSXeA==</latexit>
p0 )A2
To modify values calculated for optimum operating conditions (p2 = p0) for given
values of p1, !, and A2/At, the following expressions may be used:
✓ ◆
p2 p 0 A2
F = Fopt + p1 At
p1 p 1 At
⇤
✓ ◆
c ✏ p2 p0
Isp = Isp,opt +
g 0 p1
<latexit sha1_base64="EzaQLMhpVG979x3b3z3PrHaY2Xo=">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</latexit>
p1
If, for example, the specific impulse for a new exit pressure p2 corresponding to a
new area ratio A2/At is to be calculated, the above relations may be used.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Thrust
The efflux of the propellant gases or the momentum flux-out causes the thrust or
reaction force on the rocket structure. Because the flow is supersonic, the pressure
at the exit plane of the nozzle may be different from the ambient pressure and
the pressure thrust component adds to the momentum thrust as
F = ṁ v2 + (p2
<latexit sha1_base64="+DoPakZoFOn9elYS1B9WAspg6Ng=">AAACCnicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vUZduokWoqGWmFq0LoSKIywr2AW0ZMmmmDc08SDKFMnTtxl9x40IRt36BO//GzHQQtR4IOZxz703usQNGhTSMTy0zN7+wuJRdzq2srq1v6JtbDeGHHJM69pnPWzYShFGP1CWVjLQCTpBrM9K0h1ex3xwRLqjv3clxQLou6nvUoRhJJVn67jW8gJ2eLyN30jkaWSV4CAuBuo5hYBkHl1bJ0vNG0UgAZ4mZkjxIUbP0DzUPhy7xJGZIiLZpBLIbIS4pZmSS64SCBAgPUZ+0FfWQS0Q3SlaZwH2l9KDjc3U8CRP1Z0eEXCHGrq0qXSQH4q8Xi/957VA6lW5EvSCUxMPTh5yQQenDOBfYo5xgycaKIMyp+ivEA8QRliq9XBLCeYzT75VnSaNUNE+K5dtyvlpJ48iCHbAHCsAEZ6AKbkAN1AEG9+ARPIMX7UF70l61t2lpRkt7tsEvaO9fJLSXeA==</latexit>
p0 )A2
The thrust equation can also be expanded by modifying it and substituting v2, vt
and Vt , which yields:
At v t v 2
F = + (p2 p0 ) A2
Vt
v " #
u
u 2 2 ✓ 2 ◆ ✓ ◆
+1 1
1
p2
= At p 1 t 1 + (p2 p 0 ) A2
1 +1 p1
<latexit sha1_base64="hn1Ja/evgkDdTyVlhYSSpcdBoMw=">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</latexit>
The first version of this equation is general and applies to all rockets, the second
form applies to an ideal rocket.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Thrust
At v t v 2
F = + (p2 p0 ) A2
Vt
v " #
u
u 2 2 ✓ 2 ◆ ✓ ◆
+1 1
1
p2
= At p 1 t 1 + (p2 p 0 ) A2
1 +1 p1
<latexit sha1_base64="hn1Ja/evgkDdTyVlhYSSpcdBoMw=">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</latexit>
The thrust coefficient CF is defined as the thrust divided by the chamber pressure
p1 and the throat area At, namely:
F
CF =
At p 1
<latexit sha1_base64="MEo1+lasbs74eNjQ51MnMbyW7jU=">AAACAXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqBvBzWARXEhJfGA3QqVQXFawD2hCmEwn7dDJJMxMhBLixl9x40IRt/6FO//GaZuFth64cDjnXu69x48Zlcqyvo3C0vLK6lpxvbSxubW9Y+7utWWUCExaOGKR6PpIEkY5aSmqGOnGgqDQZ6Tjj+oTv/NAhKQRv1fjmLghGnAaUIyUljzzoO414DV0AoFw2sjSG085p7FnZ55ZtirWFHCR2DkpgxxNz/xy+hFOQsIVZkjKnm3Fyk2RUBQzkpWcRJIY4REakJ6mHIVEuun0gwwea6UPg0jo4gpO1d8TKQqlHIe+7gyRGsp5byL+5/USFVTdlPI4UYTj2aIgYVBFcBIH7FNBsGJjTRAWVN8K8RDpMJQOraRDsOdfXiTts4p9Xrm8uyjXqnkcRXAIjsAJsMEVqIFb0AQtgMEjeAav4M14Ml6Md+Nj1low8pl98AfG5w+7y5XH</latexit>
For any fixed pressure ratio p1/p0, the thrust coefficient CF and the thrust F have a
peak when p2 = p0. This peak value is known as the optimum thrust coefficient and
is an important criterion in nozzle design considerations.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Thrust Coefficient
The thrust coefficient CF is defined as the thrust divided by the chamber pressure
p1 and the throat area At, namely:
F
CF =
At p 1
<latexit sha1_base64="MEo1+lasbs74eNjQ51MnMbyW7jU=">AAACAXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqBvBzWARXEhJfGA3QqVQXFawD2hCmEwn7dDJJMxMhBLixl9x40IRt/6FO//GaZuFth64cDjnXu69x48Zlcqyvo3C0vLK6lpxvbSxubW9Y+7utWWUCExaOGKR6PpIEkY5aSmqGOnGgqDQZ6Tjj+oTv/NAhKQRv1fjmLghGnAaUIyUljzzoO414DV0AoFw2sjSG085p7FnZ55ZtirWFHCR2DkpgxxNz/xy+hFOQsIVZkjKnm3Fyk2RUBQzkpWcRJIY4REakJ6mHIVEuun0gwwea6UPg0jo4gpO1d8TKQqlHIe+7gyRGsp5byL+5/USFVTdlPI4UYTj2aIgYVBFcBIH7FNBsGJjTRAWVN8K8RDpMJQOraRDsOdfXiTts4p9Xrm8uyjXqnkcRXAIjsAJsMEVqIFb0AQtgMEjeAav4M14Ml6Md+Nj1low8pl98AfG5w+7y5XH</latexit>
This equation can be solved for CF and provides the relation for determining the
thrust coefficient experimentally from measured values of chamber pressure,
throat diameter, and thrust.
The thrust coefficient CF is defined as the thrust divided by the chamber pressure
p1 and the throat area At, namely:
F
CF =
At p 1
<latexit sha1_base64="MEo1+lasbs74eNjQ51MnMbyW7jU=">AAACAXicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqBvBzWARXEhJfGA3QqVQXFawD2hCmEwn7dDJJMxMhBLixl9x40IRt/6FO//GaZuFth64cDjnXu69x48Zlcqyvo3C0vLK6lpxvbSxubW9Y+7utWWUCExaOGKR6PpIEkY5aSmqGOnGgqDQZ6Tjj+oTv/NAhKQRv1fjmLghGnAaUIyUljzzoO414DV0AoFw2sjSG085p7FnZ55ZtirWFHCR2DkpgxxNz/xy+hFOQsIVZkjKnm3Fyk2RUBQzkpWcRJIY4REakJ6mHIVEuun0gwwea6UPg0jo4gpO1d8TKQqlHIe+7gyRGsp5byL+5/USFVTdlPI4UYTj2aIgYVBFcBIH7FNBsGJjTRAWVN8K8RDpMJQOraRDsOdfXiTts4p9Xrm8uyjXqnkcRXAIjsAJsMEVqIFb0AQtgMEjeAav4M14Ml6Md+Nj1low8pl98AfG5w+7y5XH</latexit>
The thrust coefficient has values ranging from about 0.8 to 1.9. It is a convenient
parameter for:
§ For seeing the effects of chamber pressure or altitude variations in a given
nozzle configuration
§ To correct sea-level results for flight altitude conditions.
The values provided by these equations are ideal and do not consider such losses
as divergence, friction or internal expansion waves, nor flow separation.
.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
k-.~ ~. ~ ,-'"~
2.1 /._~, •
I
2.0 _ • J
1.9
j \ ~.K ~- ~ "-T-F-,
1.8 I I
~2
1.7
1.6
~ ~'--.""----"'-
20
. - ~ ~
=3o
-" e = 6 0 100
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2 k,
F I G U R E 3--6. Thrust coefficient C F as a function of pressure ratio, nozzle area ratio, and specific heat ratio for
Propulsion Systems | Nozzleconditions
o p t i m u m expansion Theory ( P 2 - P3)" | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Thrust Coefficient
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
12
1.0
0.8
0.6
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 I00
Area ratio ¢ - Aa/At
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Thrust Coefficient
2.0
k= 1.30
1.8
Line of optimum
thrust coefficient
P2=P3 \
1.6
t l.4
1.0
0.8
0.6
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100
Area ratio e = A21A t
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
C h a ra c t e r i s t i c Ve l o c i t y & S p e c i f i c I m p u l s e
The first version of this equation is general and allows the determination of c*
from experimental data of $,̇ p1, and At.
The last version gives the maximum value of c* as a function of gas properties,
namely %, the chamber temperature, and the molecular mass &.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
C h a ra c t e r i s t i c Ve l o c i t y & S p e c i f i c I m p u l s e
The thrust itself may now be expressed as the mass flow rate times a function of
the combustion chamber (c*) times a function of the nozzle expansion (CF):
F = CF ṁ c⇤
<latexit sha1_base64="42jDQk/nBcKEKOoIYCruNKOalIE=">AAAB/nicbVDLSgMxFM34rPU1Kq7cBIsgUsqMD+xGKBSKywr2Ae04ZNJMG5pkhiQjlKHgr7hxoYhbv8Odf2PazkJbDwQO59zDvTlBzKjSjvNtLS2vrK6t5zbym1vbO7v23n5TRYnEpIEjFsl2gBRhVJCGppqRdiwJ4gEjrWBYnfitRyIVjcS9HsXE46gvaEgx0kby7cMavIFVv9YtdnuRTvm4W8QPZ75dcErOFHCRuBkpgAx13/4ycZxwIjRmSKmO68TaS5HUFDMyzncTRWKEh6hPOoYKxIny0un5Y3hilB4MI2me0HCq/k6kiCs14oGZ5EgP1Lw3Ef/zOokOy15KRZxoIvBsUZgwqCM46QL2qCRYs5EhCEtqboV4gCTC2jSWNyW4819eJM3zkntRurq7LFTKWR05cASOwSlwwTWogFtQBw2AQQqewSt4s56sF+vd+piNLllZ5gD8gfX5A+k7lCg=</latexit>
Slightly over-expanded
§ In an over-expanded nozzle the fluid
attains a lower exit pressure than the
atmosphere as it has an exit area too
large for optimum.
Over-expanded, flow separation
4) For nozzles in which the exit pressure is just below the value
of the inlet pressure, the pressure ratio is below the critical
pressure ratio and subsonic flow prevails throughout the
entire nozzle.
The axial thrust direction is not usually altered by separation, because a steady
flow usually separates uniformly over a cross-section in a divergent nozzle cone of
conventional rocket design.
During transients, such as start and stop, the separation may not be axially
symmetric and may cause momentary but large side forces on the nozzle. During a
normal sea-level transient of a large rocket nozzle (before the chamber pressure
reaches its full value) some momentary flow oscillations and non-symmetric
separation of the jet can occur during over-expanded flow operation.
The magnitude and direction of transient side forces can change rapidly and
erratically. The resulting side forces can be large and have caused failures of
nozzle exit cone structures and thrust vector control gimbal actuators.
When the flow separates, as it does in a highly over-expanded nozzle, the thrust
coefficient CF can be estimated if the point of separation in the nozzle is known.
Thus, CF can be determined for an equivalent smaller nozzle with an exit area
equal to that at the point of separation.
The effect of separation is to increase the thrust and the thrust coefficient over
the value that they would have if separation had not occurred.
§ Thus, with separated gas flow, a nozzle designed for high altitude (large value
of e) would have a larger thrust at sea level than expected, but not as good as
an optimum nozzle; in this case separation may actually be desirable.
§ With separated flow a large and usually heavy portion of the nozzle is not
utilized and the nozzle is bulkier and longer than necessary. The added engine
weight and size decrease flight performance.
Designers therefore select an area ratio that will not cause separation.
For most applications, the rocket system has to operate over a range of
altitudes; for a fixed chamber pressure this implies a range of nozzle pressure
ratios.
The condition of optimum expansion (p2 = p0) occurs only at one altitude, and a
nozzle with a fixed area ratio is therefore operating much of the time at either
over-expanded or under-expanded conditions.
The best nozzle for such an application is not necessarily one that gives
optimum nozzle gas expansion, but one that gives the largest vehicle flight
performance (say, total impulse, or specific impulse, or range, or payload); it can
often be related to a time average over the powered flight trajectory.
Booster
or first 267 ~--~_ I ~ 0 267
stage
Nozzle flows full, Nozzle flows full
slight underexpansion
Second
_,,,-"-P
stage 10 24 312 [_~.~ ] --------~- 0 254
Underexpansion~~ Overexpansion,
slight contraction
Third
stage 40 ,oo 334 o 245
Underexpansion
Flow separation
caused by
overexpansion
Simplified sketches of exhaust gas behavior of three typical rocket nozzles for a three-stage launch vehicle.
FIGURE 3-11. Simplified sketches of exhaust gas behavior of three typical rocket
§ The first vehicle stage has the biggest chamber and the highest thrust, but the lowest nozzle area ratio.
nozzles for a three-stage launch vehicle. The first vehicle stage has the biggest chamber
§ The top or third stage usually has the lower thrust but the highest nozzle area ratio.
Propulsion Systems and the
| highest thrust but the lowest nozzle area ratio, and
Nozzle Theory | the top or third
2019-2020 | stageHodei
usually
Urrutxua
Isentropic
72
Flow Through Nozzles
NOZZLETHEORY AND THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS
U nder- & O ve r- Ex panded Nozzles
Continuously variable nozzle
1.8 area ratio
._.. -..-
. . . . . . . .
e= 15.0
1.7
c=6.0
1.6 /
/ J
1.5
1.4
1.2 --
Contour of
I.I-- ~ plume at about
3000m altitude
1.0--
[--
"....
Separation plane Contourat
about 7000m
I I I I I 1
10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
Altitude, m
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Influence of Chamber Geometry
When the chamber has a cross section that is larger than about four times the
throat area (A1/At > 4), the chamber velocity v1, can be neglected.
The gases in the chamber expand as heat is being added. The energy necessary to
accelerate these expanding gases within the chamber will also cause a pressure
drop and an additional energy loss. This acceleration process in the chamber is
adiabatic (no heat transfer) but not isentropic.
This loss is a maximum when the chamber diameter is equal to the nozzle throat
diameter, which means that there is no converging nozzle section. This has been
called a throatless rocket motor and has been used in a few tactical missile booster
applications, where there was a premium on minimum inert mass and length. The
flight performance improvement due to inert mass savings supposedly outweighs
the nozzle performance loss of a throatless motor.
Because of this pressure drop within narrow chambers, the chamber pressure is
lower at the nozzle entrance than it would be if A1/At had been larger. This causes
a small loss in thrust and specific impulse:
3.4. NOZZLE CONFIGURATIONS 75
Specific
Throat Thrust Impulse
Chamber-to-Throat Pressure Reduction Reduction
Area Ratio (%) (%) (%)
cx~ 100 0 0
3.5 99 1.5 0.31
2.0 96 5.0 0.55
1.0 81 19.5 1.34
k = 1.20; Pl/P2-- 1000.
Nozzle Theory
Nozzle configurations
A number of different proven nozzle configurations are available today. This section
describes their geometries and performance.
Nozzles and chambers are usually of circular cross section and have:
§ A converging section
§ A throat at the narrowest location (minimum cross section)
§ A diverging section
§ The converging nozzle section between the chamber and the nozzle throat has
never been critical in achieving high performance. The subsonic flow in this
section can easily be turned at very low pressure drop and any radius, cone
angle, wall contour curve, or nozzle inlet shape is satisfactory.
A few small attitude control thrust chambers have had their nozzle at 90
degrees from the combustion chamber axis without any performance loss.
A number of different proven nozzle configurations are available today. This section
describes their geometries and performance.
Nozzles and chambers are usually of circular cross section and have:
§ A converging section
§ A throat at the narrowest location (minimum cross section)
§ A diverging section
§ The throat contour also is not very critical to performance, and any radius or
other curve is usually acceptable. The pressure gradients are high in these two
regions and the flow will adhere to the walls.
A number of different proven nozzle configurations are available today. This section
describes their geometries and performance.
Nozzles and chambers are usually of circular cross section and have:
§ A converging section
§ A throat at the narrowest location (minimum cross section)
§ A diverging section
Shape
Annular
chamber
Expansion waves
Flow
with ,1 i i ~
,'.'4/ ~./
I~, ,~.1 i i i ~ ~!~,
~. ,5/I/WIll"",
",' / I / V ~ / I I ~"
underexpansion
at altitude
R ,r I ,n I I~l ~
~'" ~\ Diffused boundaries with air Y Trailing l reglons
waves -~-!'-.
Flow
with
overexpansion
(sea level)
3
boundari
Je! slelalrati~]~ Jets contract outside nozzle Recirculation regions / ~/ ~ k j /~ /
Altitude Sea Sea Altitude
Mass flow "~- -- level
distribution ,jr ..... ~,eve, / ~ [ "~ ~ r-I N ~ .... -l-----r~i
at exit or tip
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Nozzle Configurations
Cone-Shaped Nozzles
The conical nozzle is the oldest and perhaps the simplest configuration. It is
relatively easy to fabricate and is still used today in many small nozzles.
There is an optimum conical nozzle shape and length (typically between 12 and 18
degrees half angle) and it is usually a compromise which depends on the specific
application and flight path.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Nozzle Configurations
Bell-Shaped Nozzles
The bell-shaped or contour nozzle is probably the most common nozzle shape
today.
It has a high angle expansion section (20 to 50°) right behind the nozzle throat;
this is followed by a gradual reversal of nozzle contour slope so that at the nozzle
exit the divergence angle is small, usually less than a 10° half angle.
The expansion in the supersonic bell nozzle is more efficient than in a simple
straight cone of similar area ratio and length, because the wall contour is designed
to minimize losses.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Nozzle Configurations
Bell-Shaped Nozzles
An expansion wave occurs at a thin surface, where the flow velocity increases
and changes its flow direction slightly, and where the pressure and temperature
drop. These wave surfaces are at an oblique angle to the flow.
As the gas passes through the throat, it undergoes a series of these expansion
waves with essentially no loss of energy.
In the bell-shaped nozzle shown in the next figure, these expansions occur
internally in the flow between the throat and the inflection location I; the area is
steadily increasing like a flare on a trumpet. The contour angle !" is a maximum at
the inflection location. Between the inflection point I and the nozzle exit E the flow
area is still increasing, but at a diminishing rate, allowing further gas expansion
and additional expansion waves. However, the contour of the nozzle wall is
different and the change in cross-sectional area per unit length is decreasing.
The purpose
80 NOZZLE ofTHEORY
this lastAND
segment of the contoured
THERMODYNAMIC nozzle is to have a low
RELATIONS
divergence loss as the gas leaves the nozzle exit plane.
~e = 11 ° 8e =8.5 °
1. b q / O ; 4 r t / \ ei = 30 ° i
TI=~ I L = 9.96 (60%) II
L = 11.94__(80%_~_)_"-I ___ ~1
The angle at the exit !" is small, usually less than 10°. The difference between !#
and !" is called the turn-back angle. When the gas flow is turned in the opposite
direction (between points I and E) oblique compression waves will occur. These
compression waves are thin surfaces where the flow undergoes a mild shock, the
flow is turned, and the velocity is actually reduced slightly. Each of these multiple
compression waves causes a small energy loss.
The angle at the exit !" is small, usually less than 10°. The difference between !#
and !" is called the turn-back angle. When the gas flow is turned in the opposite
direction (between points I and E) oblique compression waves will occur. These
compression waves are thin surfaces where the flow undergoes a mild shock, the
flow is turned, and the velocity is actually reduced slightly. Each of these multiple
compression waves causes a small energy loss.
Rao developed a method for designing the wall contour of an exhaust nozzle to
yield optimum thrust. Isentropic flow is assumed and the variational integral of
this maximizing problem is formulated by considering a suitably chosen control
surface. The solution of the variational problem yields a bell-shaped nozzle, and
the nozzle contour is constructed by the method of characteristics to give this
flow. These are known as Rao nozzles.
The radius of curvature or the contour shape at the throat region have an
influence on the contour of the diverging bell-shaped nozzle section.
1. b q / O ; 4 r t / \ ei = 30 ° i
TI=~ I L = 9.96 (60%) II
L = 11.94__(80%_~_)_"-I ___ ~1
N o z z l e -J 'r2 = 5.00
throat '
Leone = r2 - r t
tan 0
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K ~ a J ~ R ~ ~ J 1"100% len
Nozzle Configurations 0
10 20 30 40 50
Bell-Shaped Nozzles Expansion area ratio E
Area Ratio 10 25 50
For solid propellant rocket motor exhausts with small solid particles in the gas
(usually aluminum oxide), and for exhausts of certain gelled liquid propellants,
there is an impingement of these solid particles against the nozzle wall in the
reversing curvature section.
While the gas can be turned by oblique waves to have less divergence, the
particles (particularly the larger particles) have a tendency to move in straight
lines and hit the walls at high velocity.
The resulting abrasion and erosion of the nozzle wall can be severe, especially
with the ablative and graphite materials that are commonly used. This abrasion by
hot particles increases with turn-back angle.
If the turn-back angle and thus also the inflection angle !" are reduced, the
erosion can become acceptable.
Typical solid rocket motors flying today have values of inflection angles between
20 and 26° and turn-back angles of 10 to 15°. In comparison, current liquid rocket
engines without entrained particles have inflection angles between 27 and 50° and
turn-back angles of between 15 and 30°. Therefore the performance enhancement
caused by using a bell-shaped nozzle (high value of correction factor) is somewhat
lower in solid rocket motors with solid particles in the exhaust.
We will explore 3 concepts for a two-step nozzle, one that has an initial low area
ratio A2/At for operation at or near the Earth's Surface, and a larger second area
ratio that improves performance at high altitudes. These are:
§ Extendible nozzle
§ Droppable insert nozzle
§ Dual bell nozzle
Second
•
nozzle
, .
exit segment
Extendible
nozzle with
two segments
Center line
I Chamber ~ First =-~ Second _1
nozzle exit nozzle exit
segment segment in
(fixed to deployed position
chamber) after moving aft
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Nozzle Configurations
Tw o - S t e p N o z z l e s : E x t e n d i b l e n o z z l e
It has successfully flown in several solid rocket motor nozzles and in a few liquid
engine applications, where it was deployed prior to ignition.
As yet it has not made the change in area ratio during rocket firing. The principal
concerns are:
§ A reliable rugged mechanism to move the extension into position
§ The hot gas seal between the nozzle sections
§ The extra weight involved
Droppable insert
(mechanisms for holding,
moving, or releasing the
inserts are not shown)
J . . . .
Chamber
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory Protrusion or hump in contour |~ 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Extendible
Nozzle Configurations
nozzle with
twoo -segments
Tw Step Nozzles: Dual Bell Nozzle C
I Chamber ~ First =-~ Second _1
nozzle
The dual bell nozzle uses two shortened bell exit combined
nozzles nozzleinto
exitone with a
bump or inflection point between them. segment segment in
(fixed to deployed position
§ During ascent it functions first at thechamber)
lower area after
ratio,moving
with separation
aft
occurring at the inflection point.
As altitude
§Droppable insertincreases and the gas expands further, the flow attaches itself
downstream
(mechanisms forof this point, with the flow filling the full nozzle exit section and
holding,
operating
moving, with thethe
or releasing higher area ratio at higher performance.
inserts are not shown)
J . . . .
There is a small performance penalty Chamberfor a compromised bell nozzle contour
with a circular bump. To date there has been little experience with this concept.
Droppable insert
(mechanisms for holding,
moving, or releasing the
inserts are not shown)
J . . . .
Chamber
1.5
1.4
When integrated over
/ Exit plane .......
the flight time, the extra 1.3 Separated flow 1
/ . E x h a u s t plume at sea level
performance is 1.2 --
As the external or ambient pressure is reduced during the ascending flight, this
gas boundary expands outward, causes a change in pressure distribution on the
central spike, and allows an automatic and continuous altitude compensation.
As the external or ambient pressure is reduced during the ascending flight, this
gas boundary expands outward, causes a change in pressure distribution on the
central spike, and allows an automatic and continuous altitude compensation.
The aerospike contour with the minimum flow losses turns out to be very long,
similar in length to an optimum bell nozzle.
The mass flow per unit exit area is relatively uniform over the cross section and
the divergence losses are minimal.
If the central plug is cut off or truncated and the wall contour is slightly altered,
then the nozzle will be very short.
§ It will have some internal supersonic waves and
§ It will show a small but real loss in thrust compared to a nozzle with a full
central spike.
If the central plug is cut off or truncated and the wall contour is slightly altered,
then the nozzle will be very short.
§ It will have some internal supersonic waves and
§ It will show a small but real loss in thrust compared to a nozzle with a full
central spike.
The pressure in the recirculating trapped gas of the subsonic region below the
bottom plate also exerts a thrust force.
The losses caused by the cut-off spike can be largely offset by injecting a small
amount of the gas flow (about 1% of total flow) through this base plate into the
recirculating region, thus enhancing the back pressure on the base plate.
Here ! is the angle of the module nozzle axis to the centerline of the spike, #̇ is
the total propellant flow, v2 is the exhaust velocity of the module, A2 is the total
exit area of all the modules, p2 is the exhaust pressure at the exit of the module,
and p0 is the ambient pressure at the nozzle exit level.
These expressions are a simplified version of the thrust. E.g., not included are:
§ The negative effect of the slipstream of air around the engine (which causes
a low-pressure region)
§ The friction on the side plates
both decrease the thrust slightly.
§ Short length
(helps to reduce the length and mass of the flight vehicle)
The aerospike also allow for simple thrust vectoring techniques that do not
depend on mechanical actuators, but instead on slight local variations of:
§ Mass flow (i.e., Throttling)
§ Chamber pressure
http://www.aerorocket.com/MOC/MOC.html
The Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment (LASRE) aboard NASA's SR-71 No. 844.
The initial test flight took place on 31 October 1997.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Nozzle Configurations
Nozz. with Aerod. Bound.: Linear Aerospike Nozzle
The Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment (LASRE) aboard NASA's SR-71 No. 844.
The initial test flight took place on 31 October 1997.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Nozzle Configurations
Nozz. with Aerod. Bound.: Linear Aerospike Nozzle
As the ambient pressure is reduced, the hot gas flow fills more and more of the
nozzle diverging section. Altitude compensation is achieved by this change in flow
boundary and by changes in the pressure distribution on the outer walls.
As the ambient pressure is reduced, the hot gas flow fills more and more of the
nozzle diverging section. Altitude compensation is achieved by this change in flow
boundary and by changes in the pressure distribution on the outer walls.
The hot gas flow leaving the chamber expands around a central plug.
Shape
Annular
chamber
Expansion waves
Flow
with ,1 i i ~
,'.'4/ ~./
I~, ,~.1 i i i ~ ~!~,
~. ,5/I/WIll"",
",' / I / V ~ / I I ~"
underexpansion
at altitude
R ,r I ,n I I~l ~
~'" ~\ Diffused boundaries with air Y Trailing l reglons
waves -~-!'-.
Flow
with
overexpansion
(sea level)
3
boundari
Je! slelalrati~]~ Jets contract outside nozzle Recirculation regions / ~/ ~ k j /~ /
Altitude Sea Sea Altitude
Mass flow "~- -- level
distribution ,jr ..... ~,eve, / ~ [ "~ ~ r-I N ~ .... -l-----r~i
at exit or tip
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Propulsion Systems
Nozzle Theory
Real Nozzles
For simple single nozzle shapes the temperatures and velocities are not uniform
over any one section and are usually:
§ Higher in the central region
§ Lower near the periphery
For example, the surface where the Mach number is one is a plane at the throat
for an ideal nozzle; for two-dimensional flow it is typically a slightly curved surface
somewhat downstream of the throat.
For example, the surface where the Mach number is one is a plane at the throat
for an ideal nozzle; for two-dimensional flow it is typically a slightly curved surface
somewhat downstream of the throat.
The 11 assumptions and simplifications listed at the beginning of this chapter are
only approximations that allow relatively simple algorithms and simple
mathematical solutions to the analysis of real rocket nozzle phenomena.
Compared to an ideal nozzle, the real nozzle has energy losses and energy that is
unavailable for conversion into kinetic energy of the exhaust gas. The principal
losses are listed below:
1) The divergence of the flow in the nozzle exit sections causes a loss, which
varies as a function of the cosine of the divergence angle. The losses can be
reduced for bell-shaped nozzle contours.
2) Small chamber or port area cross sections relative to the throat area or low
nozzle contraction ratios A1/At cause pressure losses in the chamber and
reduce the thrust and exhaust velocity slightly.
3) Lower flow velocity in the boundary layer or wall friction can reduce the
effective exhaust velocity by 0.5 to 1.5%
4) Solid particles or liquid droplets in the gas can cause losses up to 5%, as
described below.
Compared to an ideal nozzle, the real nozzle has energy losses and energy that is
unavailable for conversion into kinetic energy of the exhaust gas. The principal
losses are listed below:
5) Unsteady combustion and oscillating flow can account for a small loss.
6) Chemical reactions in nozzle flow change gas properties and gas temperatures,
giving typically a 0.5% loss.
8) For uncooled nozzle materials, such as fiber reinforced plastics or carbon, the
gradual erosion of the throat region increases the throat diameter by perhaps
1 to 6% during operation. In turn this will reduce the chamber pressure and
thrust by about 1 to 6% near the end of the operation and cause a slight
reduction in specific impulse of less than 0.7%.
Compared to an ideal nozzle, the real nozzle has energy losses and energy that is
unavailable for conversion into kinetic energy of the exhaust gas. The principal
losses are listed below:
10) Using real gas properties can at times change the gas composition, the value
of ! and ", and this can cause a small loss in performance, say 0.2 to 0.7%.
11) Operation at non-optimum nozzle expansion area ratio can reduce thrust and
specific impulse. There is no loss if the vehicle always flies at the altitude for
optimum nozzle expansion (p2 –p0). If it flies with a fixed nozzle area ratio at
higher or lower altitudes, then there is a loss (during a portion of the flight) by
up to 15% in thrust compared to a nozzle with altitude compensation. It also
reduces performance by 1 to 5%.
Real nozzles have a viscous boundary layer next to the nozzle walls, where the
gas velocities are much lower than the free-stream velocities in the inviscid flow
regions.
Immediately next to the wall the flow velocity is zero and then the boundary
layer can be considered as being built up of successive annular-shaped thin layers
of increasing velocity until the free-stream velocity is reached. 3.5. REAL NOZZLES
Nozzle exit li
The local temperatureNozzle in part of the boundary layer can be substantially higher
wall ,.
than the free-stream temperature because of the conversion of kinetic energy into
thermal energy
Boundaryas the
layer local velocity is slowed down and as heat is created by
thickness
viscous friction.
The layer right next to the wall will be cooler because of heat transfer to the
wall.
Subsonic portion of
Typical boundary layer
The gaseous boundary layer
steam line has a profound effect on the overall heat transfer
Supersonic portion of boundary layer
to nozzle and chamber walls.
Wall thickness Nozzle wall
,
~ . :..'.::-:~
vw=O
~~.:.:.J
I
: Tw
, ,r---..~
I ' 51 I 21
Boundary
layer 1 21
thickness
The high gradients in pressure, temperature, or density and the changes in local
velocity (direction and magnitude) influence the boundary layer.
§ In general, if the particles are very small (typically with diameters of 0.005 mm
or less), they will have almost the same velocity as the gas and will be in
thermal equilibrium with the nozzle gas flow.
§ Thus, as the gases give up kinetic energy to accelerate the particles, they
gain thermal energy from the particles.
§ As the particle diameters become larger, the mass (and thus the inertia) of the
particle increases as the cube of its diameter; however, the drag force
increases only as the square of the diameter. Larger particles therefore do not
move as fast as the gas and do not give heat to the gas as readily as do smaller
particles.
§ The larger particles have a lower momentum than an equivalent mass of
smaller particles and they reach the nozzle exit at a higher temperature
than the smaller particles, thus giving up less thermal energy.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Real Nozzles
Multiphase Flow
§ Specific heats of the gases and the particles are constant throughout the
nozzle flow
§ The particles are small enough to move at the same velocity as the gas and
are in thermal equilibrium with the gas
§ Particles do not exchange mass with the gas (no vaporization or
condensation).
§ Expansion and acceleration occur only in the gas
§ The volume occupied by the particles is negligibly small compared to the gas
volume.
§ If the amount of particles is small, the energy needed to accelerate the
particles can be neglected.
§ There are no chemical reactions.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Realoccupied
olume Nozzles by the particles is negligibly small compared to th
me.M uIfl t the
i p h aamount
s e F l o w of particles is small, the energy needed to accelera
les can be neglected. There are no chemical reactions.
The enthalpy h, the specific volume V, and the gas constant R can be expressed
e asenthalpy h, the specific volume V, and the gas constant R ca
functions of the particle fraction !, which is the mass of particles (liquid and/or
ssed
solid)asdivided
functions
by the of the
total particle fraction/3, which is the mass of par
mass.
d and/or solid) divided by the total mass. Using the subscripts g an
Usinggas
to the the or
subscripts g and sthe
solid state, to refer to the gas
following or solid state,then
relationships the following
apply:
relationships then apply:
h - (1 - ~)(Cp)gT -~ i~CsT (
V- Vg(1 - ~) (
p -- R g Z / V g (
R -- (1 - fl)Rg (
k - (1 - fl)Cp 4- tiCs
" (
(1 - t~)c~ + t~c~
These relations are then used in the formulas for simple one-dimensional nozzle
flow.
relations are then used in the formulas for simple one-dimensional
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Real Nozzles
Multiphase Flow
Thus adding a metal, such as aluminum, to a solid propellant will increase the
performance only if the additional heat release can increase the combustion
temperature T1 sufficiently so that it more than offsets the decrease caused by
particles in the exhaust.
With very-high-area-ratio nozzles and a low nozzle exit pressure (high altitude or
space vacuum) it is possible to condense some of the propellant ingredients that
are normally gases.
§ As the temperature drops sharply in the nozzle, it is possible to condense
gaseous species such as H20, CO2, or NH3 and form liquid droplets.
§ This causes a decrease in the gas flow per unit area and the transfer of the
latent heat of vaporization to the remaining gas.
§ The overall effect on performance is small if the droplet size is small and the
percent of condensed gas mass is moderate.
§ It is also possible to form a solid phase and precipitate fine particles of snow
(H20) or frozen fog of other species
e -- (v2)2a = (v2)2a (
(V2)2 (Vl)2a-t- c p ( T 1 - T2)
ewhere
denotes the energy conversion efficiency, Vl and v2 the velocities
e denotes the energy conversion efficiency, v1 and v2 the velocities at the
e inlet
nozzle and inlet exit,
and exit,andand cpT1 and ccpT2
cpT1 and the respective enthalpies for an
pT2 the respective enthalpies for an ideal
isentropic
opic expansion.
expansion. The The subscripts
subscripts a and
a andi refer to actual
i refer to and ideal and
actual conditions,ideal c
respectively. ForFor
respectively. manymany practicalpractical
applications, !" → 0 can be assumed.
applications, vl --+ 0 and the squa
xpression given in Eq. 3-16 can be used for the denominator.
velocity
ePropulsion Systems
correction
| Nozzle Theory
factor ~v is defined as| the square
2019-2020 |
root of the e
Hodei Urrutxua
Real Nozzles
Performance Correction Factors
The velocity correction factor !" is defined as the square root of the energy
conversion efficiency #. Its value ranges between 0.85 and 0.99, with an average
near 0.92.
This factor is also approximately the ratio of the actual specific impulse to the
ideal or theoretical specific impulse.
The discharge correction factor !" is defined as the ratio of the mass flow rate in
a real rocket to that of an ideal rocket that expands an identical working fluid from
the same initial conditions to the same exit pressure
p
ṁa c ṁa R T1
⇣d = = ṁa = ⇣ ⌘ 12 +1
ṁi Fi 2 1
At p 1 +1
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The value of this discharge correction factor is usually larger than 1 (1.0 to 1.15);
the actual flow is larger than the theoretical flow for the following reasons:
1. The molecular weight of the gases usually increases slightly when flowing
through a nozzle, thereby changing the gas density.
2. Some heat is transferred to the nozzle walls. This lowers the temperature in
the nozzle, and increases the density and mass flow slightly.
3. The specific heat and other gas properties change in an actual nozzle in such a
manner as to slightly increase the value of the discharge correction factor.
4. Incomplete combustion can increase the density of the exhaust gases.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Real Nozzles
Performance Correction Factors
The actual thrust is usually lower than the thrust calculated for an ideal rocket,
and can be found by an empirical thrust correction factor !" , as
Fa = ⇣F Fi = ⇣F CF p1 At = ⇣F ci ṁi
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where
Fa
⇣F = ⇣v ⇣d =
Fi
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Values of #$ fall between 0.92 and 1.00. Because the thrust correction factor is
equal to the product of the discharge correction factor and the velocity correction
factor, any one can be determined if the other two are known.
SOLUTION. The theoretical thrust coefficient is found from Eq. 3-30. For optimum
conditions P2 -- P3- By substituting k = 1.229 and Pl/]32 20.4, the thrust coefficient is
=
SOLUTION. The theoretical thrust coefficient is found from Eq. 3-30. For optimum
92
conditions P2 --THEORY
NOZZLE P3- By AND
substituting k = 1.229RELATIONS
THERMODYNAMIC and Pl/]32 20.4, the thrust coefficient is
=
The throat diameter is then 2.43 cm. The area expansion ratio can be determined from
Fig. 3-5 or Eq. 3-25 as ~ = 3.42. The exit area is
The exit diameter is therefore 4.50 cm. The theoretical exhaust velocity is
By selecting an empirical velocity correction factor ~'v such as 0.92 (based on prior
related experience), the actual exhaust velocity will be equal to
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Real Nozzles
The throat diameter is then 2.43 cm. The area expansion ratio can be determined from
Fig. 3-5 or Eq. 3-25 as ~ = 3.42. The exit area is
Example
Solution: A 2 = 4.66 x 3.42 - 15.9 cm 2
The exit diameter is therefore 4.50 cm. The theoretical exhaust velocity is
By selecting an empirical velocity correction factor ~'v such as 0.92 (based on prior
related experience), the actual exhaust velocity will be equal to
Because the specific impulse is proportional to the exhaust velocity, its actual value can
be found by multiplying the theoretical value by the velocity correction factor ~'v.
There are several possible sets of performance parameters, which can be quite
different in concept and value, even when referring to the same rocket propulsion
system. Each performance parameter, such as F, Isp, c, v2 and/or ",̇ should be
accompanied by a clear definition of the conditions under which it applies, i.e.:
§ Chamber pressure; also, for slender chambers, the location where this pressure
prevails (e.g., at nozzle entrance)
§ Ambient pressure or altitude or space (vacuum)
§ Nozzle expansion area ratio and whether this is an optimum
§ Nozzle shape and exit angle
§ Propellants, their composition or mixture ratio
§ Key assumptions and corrections made in the calculations of the theoretical
performance: e.g., was frozen or shifting equilibrium used in the analysis?
§ Initial temperature of propellants
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Propulsion Systems
Nozzle Theory
Nozzle Alignment
Turning moments are desirable and necessary for the controlled turning or
attitude control of a vehicle as is routinely done by means of the deflection of the
thrust vector, aerodynamic fins, or by separate attitude control rocket engines.
For this moment not to exceed the vehicle's compensating attitude control
capability, it is necessary to align the nozzle axis of all propulsion systems with
fixed (non-gimbal) nozzles very accurately.
Propulsion Systems | Nozzle Theory | 2019-2020 | Hodei Urrutxua
Nozzle Alignment
Introduction
For simple unguided rocket vehicles it has been customary to rotate or spin the
vehicle to prevent the misalignment from being in one direction only or to even
out the misalignment during powered flight.
Nozzle Theory
Variable Thrust
u ✓ ◆ +1 " ✓ ◆ 1 #
u 2 2 2 1
p2 p2 p 0 A2
CF = t 1 +
1 +1 p1 p1 At
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F = CF At p1 = CF ṁ c⇤
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u ✓ ◆ +1 " ✓ ◆ 1 #
u 2 2 2 1
p2 p2 p 0 A2
CF = t 1 +
1 +1 p1 p1 At
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F = CF At p1 = CF ṁ c⇤
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These equations show how the thrust may be varied and imply how other
performance parameters may be affected by such variation.
u ✓ ◆ +1 " ✓ ◆ 1 #
u 2 2 2 1
p2 p2 p 0 A2
CF = t 1 +
1 +1 p1 p1 At
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F = CF At p1 = CF ṁ c⇤
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u ✓ ◆ +1 " ✓ ◆ 1 #
u 2 2 2 1
p2 p2 p 0 A2
CF = t 1 +
1 +1 p1 p1 At
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F = CF At p1 = CF ṁ c⇤
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