Work xx (20xx) x–xx 1

DOI:10.3233/WOR-172528
IOS Press

1 Salutogenic resources in relation

2 to teachers’ work-life balance

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3 Marie Nilssona,b,∗ , Kerstin Blomqvista and Ingemar Anderssona
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a Kristianstad University, Kristianstad, Sweden
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b Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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6 Received 28 September 2015

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Accepted 22 September 2016

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8 Abstract.
9 BACKGROUND: Experiencing work-life balance is considered a health promoting resource. To counter-balance the negative
10 development of teachers’ work situation, salutogenic resources need to be examined among teachers.
11 OBJECTIVE: To examine resources related to teachers’ experience of their work-life balance.
12 METHODS: Using a cross-sectional design, a questionnaire was distributed to 455 teachers in compulsory schools in a
13
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Swedish community. A total of 338 teachers participated (74%). A multiple linear regression method was used for the
14 analysis.
15 RESULTS: Four variables in the regression model significantly explained work-life balance and were thereby possible
16 resources: time experience at work; satisfaction with everyday life; self-rated health; and recovery. The strongest association
17 with work-life balance was time experience at work. Except time experience at work, all were individual-related.
18 CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the importance of school management’s support in reducing teachers’ time pressure.
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19 It also emphasizes the need to address teachers’ individual resources in relation to work-life balance. In order to support teach-
20 ers’ work-life balance, promote their well-being, and preventing teachers’ attrition, we suggest that the school management
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21 would benefit from creating a work environment with strengthened resources.

22 Keywords: Recovery, survey, teachers’ work environment, workplace health promotion

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23 1. Introduction demands many teachers find personal satisfaction in 35

their work [10, 15]. This leads to the assumption that 36

24 It is well known that the work situation of teach- there are enriching aspects of working as a teacher. 37
ers has undergone a number of changes during the
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25
More attention should be paid to these aspects to 38
26 last twenty years, and these changes have affected balance the negative picture. 39
27 their psychosocial work environment, internationally A prominent feature in the work of Swedish teach- 40
28 as well as in Sweden [1–3]. In recent years, teachers ers is their discretionary work time of ten hours per 41
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29 are experiencing an increasing accountability, more week, which is mostly done at home. Teleworking, 42
30 assessments, and paperwork [4–9]. These changes i.e. working away from the employer’s main cam- 43
31 in the psychosocial work environment have affected pus, is positively associated with autonomy [16] and 44
32 teachers’ well-being in a negative way [10–13]. flexibility [17]. It is a possible salutogenic resource, 45
33 However, most teachers remain committed to their and it is also believed to have a positive effect on 46
34 work and pupils [14], and despite high levels of job the employee’s work-life balance (WLB) [18–20]. 47

∗ Address However, work flexibility in time and space can also 48

for correspondence: Marie Nilsson, Kristianstad Uni-
versity, S-291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden. Tel.: +46 44 204064; Fax: affect work-life balance in a negative way [21, 22], 49

+46 44 203103; E-mail: marie.nilsson@hkr.se. especially for employees who prefer a segmentation 50

1051-9815/17/$35.00 © 2017 – IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved
 2 M. Nilsson et al. / Salutogenic resources in relation to teachers’ work-life balance

51 between work and personal life [23]. When working WLB literature is limited in various aspects [29, 103

52 as a teacher the WLB is perhaps even more chal- 30]. The focus has, for example, mainly been on het- 104

53 lenging than for many others. In addition to literally erosexual dual-earner families, rather than including 105

54 bringing work into one’s home, there is a tendency other groups [30–32]. Mostly, focus has also been 106

55 for teachers, as with other caring professions, to also on work and domestic life, disregarding aspects such 107

56 bring work home mentally [24]. These circumstances as leisure time [32]. Furthermore, there has been an 108

57 may lead to a life where the boundaries between emphasis on viewing WLB as “problematic” (for 109

58 work and personal life are intermingled, making the example [33, 34]), and rarely recognizing the pos- 110

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59 demarcation an important issue. A report showed sibly enriching aspects of combining a family with 111

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60 that 70 percent of the participating Swedish teachers work [29, 35, 36]. Moreover, research has most often 112

61 could not stop “working” when they were actually been done within the disciplines of organizational 113

62 off work [25]. Yet, this profession has been some- psychology, sociology or within management liter- 114

63 what overlooked in WLB research. As teaching is a ature [29]. Studies on WLB from a health science 115

64 profession characterized not only by spatial but also perspective are not as frequent, especially not with a 116

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65 mental overlap of work and non-work, it is important health promotion approach. 117

66 for teachers to psychologically detach themselves When previous research indicates that WLB is 118

67 from work during non-work time. Fritz et al. [26] health related [e.g. 37–40], most research suggests 119

68 showed that psychological detachment from work, that well-being is an outcome of WLB [41]. Still, a 120

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69 i.e. to mentally distance oneself from work during recent study [40] suggests the opposite direction, i.e. 121

70 non-work time (e.g. no work-related phone calls, no WLB is an outcome of well-being. This study showed 122

71 e-mails) is related to enhanced well-being. In a study that a group of nurses were using the strategy of taking 123

72 on recovery among Swedish teachers [27] approxi- care of their well-being as a resource for experiencing 124

73 mately 20% of the participating teachers were found WLB. By taking care of themselves they could also 125
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74 in the non-recuperated group, and in an evident risk take care of their jobs and families. In addition, most 126

75 situation. If teachers manage to mentally distance research has focused on establishing the relationship 127

76 themselves from work on a regular basis, it can help between WLB and well-being, and less research has 128

77 restore lost resources because of work demands and examined why this relationship exists. Gröpel and 129

78 also enhance their well-being [26]. Kuhl (2009) proposed the hypothesis that it is not 130

In order to describe the phenomenon of work/non- only the perception of having sufficient time for work
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79 131

80 work interface a number of terms have been used. and social life, that affects the well-being, but having 132
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81 Some concepts emanate from a role-conflict perspec- enough time to fulfil one’s individual needs within 133

82 tive (e.g. work-family conflict; negative spill-over; that time. 134

83 home-work interference), while others assume a One significant antecedent to WLB is the work- 135

84 more positive perspective on the work/non-work place context. An important factor in reducing a 136

85 interface (e.g. work-family enhancement; positive negative WLB is management support [42]. Previ- 137
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86 spill-over; work-family facilitation). The commonly ous findings indicate that a work environment which 138

87 used umbrella term, WLB, adopts a more neutral supports employees to a better WLB also improves 139

88 perspective, albeit not un-contested. It is, in itself, their employee well-being [43]. For example, a trans- 140

89 ambiguous as it has different meanings, and the formative leadership style has been found to improve 141
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90 measurement of balance is problematic. It implies perceptions of WLB and employee well-being [44]. 142

91 that work and personal life are separate domains, The salutogenic perspective is a viable approach 143

92 while in reality it is a complex and multi-dimensional in health promotion [45], and it has been used as a 144

93 mixture of the two. For the purposes of this study, theoretical underpinning in this study. By focusing 145
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94 the concept of WLB was defined as satisfaction on resources instead of risk factors, the possibili- 146

95 and good functioning at work and in the personal ties to maintain and strengthen people’s well-being 147

96 domain, with a minimum of role conflict and a maxi- is increased. Research focusing on aspects which 148

97 mum of enrichment. The definition emanates from promote one’s well-being from a salutogenic perspec- 149

98 Clark [28, p. 751], but instead of using her term tive is, indeed, increasing. Positive psychology is one 150

99 “at home”, the term “personal domain” was used, example [46], which aims to understand factors that 151

100 giving it a broader meaning. An aspect of enrich- allow individuals and communities to flourish [47]. 152

101 ment was also included, in line with the salutogenic Teacher resilience is another example, with the aim to 153

102 perspective. understand why teachers are able to persist in the face 154
 M. Nilsson et al. / Salutogenic resources in relation to teachers’ work-life balance 3

155 of challenges [48]. Positive emotions, such as joy, are earlier in the spring. The principals in each school dis- 201

156 believed to fuel psychological resilience [6], as does a trict attended these meetings, and were thus informed 202

157 sense of accomplishment [49], and professional free- about the aim and the procedure of the survey. A 203

158 dom [50]. There are several aspects of teachers’ work, date was set with each principal for the questionnaire 204

159 which are perceived as resources in promoting their to be distributed. In a majority of the schools, MN 205

160 well-being. One example is the feeling of meaning- was invited to present the survey to the teachers, and 206

161 fulness being a teacher [51, 52]. The intrinsic value distribute and collect the questionnaire at the same 207

162 of caring is still another resource among teachers [24, time. This was normally done immediately before or 208

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163 51, 53]. Yet another is the social support provided by after a staff meeting. On other occasions the ques- 209

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164 colleagues [54–56] and by supervisors and the school tionnaires were distributed by a representative of that 210

165 management [3, 57]. specific school, e.g. the principal. Each teacher had 211

166 Consequently, there is a growing interest and the opportunity to complete the questionnaire at home 212

167 body of knowledge on resources that promote peo- and return it later in an envelope. At the time of the 213

168 ple’s well-being. However, this previous research still survey, 28 teachers were absent from their schools. 214

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169 needs to be related to WLB literature, and more These teachers received the questionnaire by mail, 215

170 specifically, teachers’ WLB [58]. Based on previous and after one reminder 12 of them completed the 216

171 studies, we hypothesized that WLB would be associ- questionnaire. 217

172 ated with recovery, collegial and managerial support,

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173 and health. Since there is a lack of studies addressing 2.3. Questionnaire 218

174 WLB among other groups than dual-earner couples

175 with dependent children, we attempted to include A review on antecedents to WLB as well as on 219

176 other groups in this study. Finally there is need relevant theories and instruments was used in the 220

177 for broadening the disciplines focusing on the issue construction of the questionnaire. A complementary 221
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178 of WLB. We approached the topic from a public addition was based on a qualitative study [51], focus- 222

179 health science perspective, viewing the WLB issue ing on the salutogenic aspects of teachers’ everyday 223

180 from the perspective of the experience of well-being life, previously conducted with a group of seven 224

181 and health. The aim of this study was to examine teachers in the same municipality in 2010. The focus 225

182 resources related to the teachers’ experience of their of the questionnaire was salutogenic resources in 226

work-life balance. relations to WLB. Based on the literature review,

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183 227

demographic and personal factors, external non-work 228

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factors, work-related factors, the experience of com- 229

184 2. Materials and methodology bining work with personal life, and health-related 230

factors were used as a structure. When construct- 231

185 2.1. Design and sample ing the questionnaire, previous scales and instruments 232

were used when suitable, either as inspiration or as 233

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186 In this cross-sectional study, a questionnaire was the original scale (Table 2). The Work Experience 234

187 used to examine how teachers experience their WLB Measurement Scale (WEMS) [59] was used regard- 235

188 from a salutogenic perspective at a given time. ing work-related factors. The Salutogenic Health 236

189 The questionnaire was offered to all 26 compulsory Indicator Scale (SHIS) [60] was used for ques- 237
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190 schools in a community in Sweden, and 22 accepted tions regarding health and well-being. Questions 238

191 to participate. The inclusion criteria of respondents on self-esteem and optimism were inspired by the 239

192 were working as a teacher in any of these schools Flourishing Scale [60], and to assess reflection and 240

193 and having discretionary time of ten hours per week. meaning-making we were inspired by van den Heuvel 241
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194 In total, 455 teachers were offered to participate and et al. [62]. To assess quality of life the participants 242

195 the response rate was 74% (n = 338). A description were asked “How do you feel about your present 243

196 of the study population is presented in Table 1. life?” and seven bipolar items were given as alterna- 244

tive answers [63]. Questions regarding recovery were 245

197 2.2. Procedure developed on the basis of the previous qualitative 246

study in the same municipality [51]. Four questions, 247

198 The survey was carried out in May-June 2012. inspired by Carlson et al. [64], were included in the 248

199 In order to raise the interest about the coming sur- WLB index: “I am satisfied with my life regarding 249

200 vey, five meetings with school directors were held the work-life balance” (6-point Likert-type scale); 250
 4 M. Nilsson et al. / Salutogenic resources in relation to teachers’ work-life balance

Table 1
Description of the study population (n = 338)
Variable Groups Frequency Percent
Gender Female 268 79,3
Male 70 20,7
Age <35 46 13,6
35–44 131 38,8
45–54 85 25,1
>54 76 22,5

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Co-habitation Single parent with child/ren 20 5,9

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Couple with child/ren 168 49,7
Living with a partner 118 34,9
Living alone 31 9,2
Missing 1 0,3
Employment of full time∗ 0–80% 65 19,2
81–100% 230 68,0
Missing 43 12,7

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∗ Employment of full time = 45 hours/week.

251 “In all, how easy or difficult is it for you to manage on theoretical and logical considerations. Depending 284

252 the demands of your work and personal life?” (5-point on the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (CA), one index 285

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253 Likert-type scale); “All in all, how successful do you was discarded (CA = 0,60) while ten were accepted 286

254 feel in balancing your work and your personal life?” (CA 0,72–0,95) (Table 2). The index variables were 287

255 (5-point Likert-type scale); and “People who are close confirmed to have an approximatively normal distri- 288

256 to me would say that I do a good job of balancing bution. Standardization of the indices was performed 289

257 work and personal life.” (6-point Likert-type scale). in order to make them range from 0 to 100. This 290
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258 The majority of the questions in the questionnaire enabled comparison with other studies using the same 291

259 were constructed to have six response categories, with indices. 292

260 6 = strongly agree and 1 = strongly disagree. Some

261 questions had five alternative answers where the mid- 2.5. Data analysis 293
262 dle alternative meant “neither/nor” or “both/and”. In
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263 total, the questionnaire contained 39 questions, of Bivariate correlations were investigated between 294
264 which a majority included sub-questions. The con- the experience of WLB and 13 indices, using Pear- 295
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265 cept of work was defined as paid work. son’s correlation coefficient (Table 3). The variables 296
266 The questionnaire was tested in a pilot study on five showing a medium (r = 0,30 to 0,49) or large (r = 0,50 297
267 teachers in another municipality, and each question to 0,80) correlation to WLB were included in a mul- 298
268 was discussed individually with the teachers. Minor tiple linear regression analysis (12 indices). Three 299
269 adjustments were made before it was distributed to
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additional variables (age, gender, and living condi- 300

270 the selected school, e.g. omitting a middle-alternative tions) were included in the regression analysis in 301
271 as an optional answer. The questions were tested in a order to adjust for these variables. Two-way interac- 302
272 test-retest study with an interval of 14 days (n = 39), tion was tested by introducing product terms of main 303
273 and resulted in weighted kappa values for all ques- independent variables in separate regression models.
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304
274 tions between fair (0,39) and good (0,80) [65]. P- values below 0,05 were considered statistically 305

significant. IBM SPSS Statistics Version 22 was used 306

275 2.4. Variables for the statistical analysis of data. 307

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276 Explorative factor analysis (PCA) was done 2.6. Ethical approval 308

277 regarding the personal domain (12 questions, result-

278 ing in two indices: supportive family and domestic The study was conducted in agreement with the 309

279 autonomy) and regarding the experience of one’s life Swedish Law of Research Ethics, SFS 2003 : 460, 310

280 as a whole (10 questions, resulting in two indices: which is in line with the ethical guidelines of the 311

281 satisfaction with everyday life and satisfaction with Helsinki Declaration [66]. The principle of voluntari- 312

282 life as a whole). When examining the rest of the ness was met by the respondents’ informed consent 313

283 variables, eleven other indices were created based to participate in the survey. Precautions were made 314
 M. Nilsson et al. / Salutogenic resources in relation to teachers’ work-life balance 5

Table 2
Overview of the indices in the study
Variables No. of Range Scale type Example of Cronbach’s Mean
questions question alpha (SD)
Work-life balance (WLB) 4 4–22 Varying I am satisfied with my life 0.85 14.2 (3.8)
regarding the work-life balance
Domestic Autonomy 4 4–24 Likert-type scale I decide when tasks should be 0,89 20.6 (3.7)
carried out at home
Supportive family 8 8–48 Likert-type scale We encourage and support each 0,89 39.7 (6.5)

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other in my family
47.6∗∗ (12.5)

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Self-rated health (SHIS) 12 12–72 Semantic differential In the last 4 weeks, I have felt 0,94
alert-felt tired, exhausted
Self-esteem and optimism 11 11–66 Likert-type scale I lead a purposeful and 0,92 55.7 (7.7)
meaningful life
Reflection and meaningfulness 5 5–30 Likert-type scale I actively take the time to reflect 0,80 24.3 (3.9)
on events that happen in my life
Internal work experiences 6 6–36 Likert-type scale I feel that my work is meaningful 0,86 28.7 (5.0)

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(WEMS)
Supportive working conditions 7 7–42 Likert-type scale We encourage and support each 0,89 28.8 (6.7)
(WEMS) other at work
Time experience (at work) 3 3–18 Likert-type scale I have enough time to finish tasks 0,84 7.4∗∗∗ (3.4)
(WEMS) without feeling pressed for time

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Recovery 7 7–42 Likert-type scale I feel that I get enough 0,77 24.6 (4.5)
recuperation during my
everyday life
Work-related autonomy (WEMS) 4 4–24 Likert-type scale I decide when tasks should be 0,80 14.9 (3.6)
carried out
Management (WEMS) 6 6–36 Likert-type scale My immediate manager is 0,90 23.1 (6.8)
available when needed
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Satisfaction with everyday life 7 7–42 Likert-type scale + I am satisfied with my life 0,72 31.4 (5.7)
Semantic differential regarding the economy
Satisfaction with life as a whole 4 4–24 Semantic differential I feel that my present life is 0,92 20.0 (3.6)
worthwhile-miserable
Daily habits of eating, physical 3 3–18 Likert-type scale I am very satisfied/not satisfied at 0,60 12.3 (3.0)
activity, sleeping* all with my sleeping habits
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Indices with Cronbach’s alpha between 0,72 and 0,95 were accepted. ∗ “Daily habits of eating, physical activity, sleeping” was discarded.
∗∗ Standardized mean 59. ∗∗∗ Standardized mean 29.
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Table 3
Bivariate correlations (Pearson correlation coefficient, r) between work-life balance and variables
related to the individual, work, and the non-work areas
Variable Resp. (N) Standardized mean Work-life Balance (r)
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Work-life balance 331 57 –

Individual-related
Self-rated health 325 59 0,69
Satisfaction with everyday life 328 61 0,66
Recovery 321 50 0,60
Self-esteem and Optimism 325 81 0,54
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Reflection and Meaningfulness 325 77 0,45

Satisfaction with life as a whole 327 80 0,44
Work-related
Time experience at work 330 29 0,62
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Work-related Autonomy 330 55 0,47

Supportive working conditions 331 62 0,41
Internal work experience 327 76 0,35
Management 327 57 0,31
Non-work-related
Supportive family 313 79 0,42
Domestic autonomy 328 83 0,20
All r values were significant (p = 0,000). Variables with r ≥ 0,30 were included in the multiple linear regression
analysis.
 6 M. Nilsson et al. / Salutogenic resources in relation to teachers’ work-life balance

Table 4
Results from a multiple linear regression model. Variables associated with the experience
of work-life balance as dependent variable. Adjusted by age, gender and living conditions
Variable Standardized t p-value
Coefficient Beta
Time experience at work 0,315 7,466 0,000
Satisfaction with everyday life 0,274 4,582 0,000
Self-rated health 0,237 4,671 0,000
Recovery 0,114 2,467 0,014

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Satisfaction with life as a whole –0,111 –1,916 0,056

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Self-esteem and optimism 0,070 1,132 0,259
Reflection and meaningfulness 0,068 1,415 0,158
Work-related autonomy 0,043 1,019 0,309
Supportive working conditions –0,001 – 0,010 0,992
Internal work experiences 0,059 1,279 0,202
Management –0,033 – 0,767 0,444
Supportive family 0,030 0,668 0,505

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Significance level 0,05. Adjusted R Square 0,661.

315 to ensure the anonymity of participating teachers as Interaction effects (two-way) were studied pair- 347

316 well as participating schools, and all data was treated wise for the four significant independent variables, 348

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317 confidentially. but also for age, gender, reflection and meaning- 349

fulness, internal work experiences, and satisfaction 350

with life as a whole, in relation to recovery and self- 351

318 3. Results rated health. A significant interaction was only found 352

for age and time experience as predictors of WLB 353

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319 The response rate was 74% (n = 338), and 79% of (␤ = –0.193; p = 0.045). 354
320 the respondents were women. Most of the participants
321 were living with a partner and at least one child (50%).
322 Teachers with no partner but with at least one child 4. Discussion 355

323 (6%) and teachers living alone (9%) were the smallest
The aim of this study was to examine resources 356
groups, while participants living with a partner and
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324
in relation to teachers’ experiences of WLB, and 357
325 no children (35%) was the second largest group. Most
it was hypothesized that WLB would be associated 358
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326 of the participants worked 80% or more of full-time

with recovery, collegial and managerial support, and 359
327 employment (68%) (Table 1).
health. The study demonstrated four factors asso- 360
328 In bivariate correlations there was a strong
ciated with the experience of WLB. One of these
(r ≥ 0,50), positive correlation between the expe-
361
329
factors is work-related (time experience at work), 362
330 rience of work-life balance and five variables:
while the remaining three (satisfaction with everyday
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363
331 self-rated health; self-esteem and optimism; time
life, self-rated health and recovery) are related to the 364
332 experience at work; recovery; and satisfaction with
individual. The hypothesis of an association between 365
333 everyday life (Table 3). Domestic autonomy showed
WLB and recovery, and between WLB and health 366
334 a weak (r < 0,29) correlation to WLB, and was thus
were supported, while the association between WLB
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367
335 excluded in the following multiple linear regression
and collegial and managerial support were discarded. 368
336 analysis.
If the significant factors could be strengthened, they 369
337 A multiple linear regression analysis was per-
would be important resources for teachers’ WLB. 370
338 formed with the index of WLB as the dependent
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However, these factors are interdependent, as indi- 371

339 variable and the remaining twelve variables from
viduals cannot be segmented into isolated parts. The 372
340 the bivariate correlation analysis as independent
different parts make up the individual as a whole per- 373
341 variables. The model indicated that four vari-
son, and each part interrelates with the others [67]. 374
342 ables were significantly associated with WLB:
The associated factors are discussed below. 375
343 time experience at work (␤ = 0,315); satisfaction
344 with everyday life (␤ = 0,274); self-rated health 4.1. Time experience at work 376
345 (␤ = 0,237); and recovery (␤ = 0,114) (Table 4).
346 The adjusted R square of the total model was The time experience at work variable had the 377

0,661. strongest association to WLB, i.e. the possibility to 378

 M. Nilsson et al. / Salutogenic resources in relation to teachers’ work-life balance 7

379 complete one’s work tasks without feeling pressed and can be used to facilitate the combination of paid 429

380 for time. The descriptive result however, indicates, and domestic work [75]. With a sufficient income 430

381 that a large part of the respondents stated low on people can outsource domestic work, leaving more 431

382 this. The standardized mean of time experience for time for other things. Leisure time is another aspect 432

383 the participating teachers was 29. In a study from of everyday life, and it can be described as “free time” 433

384 Lithuania, using the same index, the participating when one does not work, and when one engages in 434

385 teachers stated a standardized mean of 64 [68], and behavior that is enjoyable in themselves [76]. This 435

386 when comparing to other professional groups, such can be linked to the respondents’ answer to whether 436

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387 as physicians (mean = 38), nurses (mean = 63) [69], their everyday is free or tied-up. Leisure has been 437

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388 care-, service- and social workers (mean = 61) [70], identified as a resource for promoting well-being and 438

389 the participating teachers stated a significantly poorer health and also functions as a buffer under adverse 439

390 time experience at work. The unfinished character life conditions [77, 78]. Teachers’ discretionary time 440

391 has, traditionally, been a natural part of teaching [71]. could relate to their experience of having a free or 441

392 Even so, this fragmentation seems to become increas- tied-up everyday life in both a pathogenic and a salu- 442

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393 ingly difficult to handle [72]. The noteworthy low togenic way. Research has shown that work flexibility 443

394 mean among the Swedish teachers could be related may effect WLB in a negative way [21, 22], but also 444

395 to the work intensification that teachers experience [1, as having a positive effect on WLB [18, 19]. Discre- 445

396 54]. Still, other professions which are considered as tionary time may also be considered as an expression 446

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397 having similar work intensification, do not experience of professional freedom, which previously has been 447

398 the same time pressure [69, 70]. A possible expla- suggested to enhance psychological resilience [50]. 448

399 nation could be that, for example nurses and social The index also included living with a family, and 449

400 workers do not have discretionary time – teachers family-related support has been found to reduce con- 450

401 do. Teleworking among teachers is used as a strategy flicts in the work-family interface [79–82]. Thus the 451
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402 to accomplish their work on time [73]. It is also a separate aspects in the index are previously associ- 452

403 resource for WLB, and considered a way to balance ated with WLB, as is the index as a whole in this 453

404 competing demands within the work domain and the study. 454

405 private domain [18–20]. However, through the discre-

406 tionary time work is brought home into the private 4.3. Self-rated health 455

sphere as part of the work structure. Previous find-

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407

408 ings have indicated that employees experienced more As hypothesized, self-rated health was signifi- 456
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409 stress before going to sleep when they had worked cantly associated to WLB. This result is consistent 457

410 during the evening [74], and therefore it is impor- with previous research [37–40], of which a majority 458

411 tant to raise the awareness of its potentially negative suggest that health is an outcome of WLB. On the one 459

412 effects on one’s well-being. It seems that a major- hand, the lack of experiencing WLB has been found 460

413 ity of the participants are living with a feeling of not to be associated with decreased well-being and qual- 461
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414 being able to accomplish their work on time. This is ity of life [83]; increased stress [84]; impaired mental 462

415 worrying, since the feeling of accomplishment and health [85]. On the other hand, work-family balance 463

416 completion are salutogenic in themselves, and they has been associated with well-being and overall qual- 464

417 are also resources for psychological resilience [49]. ity of life [86, 87]. 465
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The standardized mean value for the participat- 466

418 4.2. Satisfaction with everyday life ing teachers was, however, relatively low (mean = 59) 467

compared to other studies using the same instrument: 468

419 The index satisfaction with everyday life included teachers (in Lithuania, mean = 65) [68], physicians 469
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420 questions regarding more tangible aspects of the (mean = 75) [88], nurses (mean = 76) [88]. Work 470

421 everyday life, such as co-habitation, economy, and intensification has been found to relate to impaired 471

422 also questions whether life is perceived as free/tied- health [4–6] and teachers’ work intensification could 472

423 up and easy to live/hard to live. There are several be part of the explanation. Still, doctors and nurses are 473

424 aspects within the index of everyday life which have also experiencing work intensification [89, 90], and 474

425 been found in previous research to be salutogenic they report a higher self-rated health. Caring is an 475

426 resources in general as well as resources for WLB. important salutogenic element in teachers’ work [24, 476

427 Findings on WLB indicate that income is an impor- 51, 53], and by attending to the needs of the pupils, 477

428 tant resource when meeting the needs of daily life, teachers’ well-being is enhanced [52]. A possible 478
 8 M. Nilsson et al. / Salutogenic resources in relation to teachers’ work-life balance

479 supposition is that along with the increase in doc- of what type of overlap, it is an important issue to 529

480 umentation and work-load, which is part of the work address. 530

481 intensification, less room is given for interaction with

482 the pupils, and as a result less room for caring rela- 4.5. Methodological considerations 531

483 tions. In addition, it is mostly in the relationship with

484 the pupils that teachers experience meaningfulness The cross-sectional design of the present study 532

485 in their work [52]. As both caring [24, 51, 73] and implicates that the timing of the survey is impor- 533

486 meaningfulness [51, 52] are health enhancing factors, tant. The questionnaire was distributed in May-June, 534

f
487 it would seem a plausible suggestion that intensified which is a time when most teachers are busy with 535

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488 work with lesser interaction with the pupils, lead to work, in addition to many social events which take 536

489 negative effects on teachers’ well-being and health. place before the summer vacation. This could have 537

had both positive and negative effects on the results, 538

490 4.4. Recovery not the least on the self-rated health. Had the survey 539

been conducted in another time of the year, the results 540

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491 The ability to recover, i.e. the process of unwind- may have been different. This has implications on the 541

492 ing, is as important as experiencing a manageable reliability of the results of the study. 542

493 workload. The index recovery includes recovery dur- Being a cross-sectional study it is not possible to 543

494 ing work, off work, getting to/home from work, as predict any direction of the relationship between the 544

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495 well as a more general question regarding overall experience of work-life balance and the four asso- 545

496 recovery. As hypothesized, the results demonstrate ciated variables. We can conclude that there is an 546

497 that recovery is correlated with WLB, and there- association. To determine how one variable effects 547

498 fore a possible salutogenic resource. However, it is another, a longitudinal study would be needed. 548

499 not possible to conclude whether WLB influences Another limitation of the findings is the interre- 549
Au
500 recovery, the other way around, or in a reciprocal lational aspect of WLB. Several of the significant 550

501 process. Previous research examining this relation- variables are rather similar to each other, and they 551

502 ship has suggested all three directions. On the one are both part of WLB and simultaneously associ- 552

503 hand, Stevens [91] suggested that improved WLB ated with it. This could make it difficult to interpret 553

504 was positively influencing recovery. On the other the results. Nevertheless, testing for multicollinearity 554

hand, Sanz-Vergel et al. [92] showed that recovery showed that the indices used in this study corre-
d

505 555

506 in connection with breaks at work predicted work- lated in a satisfactory way (r ≤ 0,9). The predominant 556
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507 family facilitation in the evening. Findings have also absence of interaction effects contribute to a more 557

508 indicated that working one or more Sundays/month straightforward interpretation of the result. 558

509 was associated with an increased risk of poorer WLB When planning the survey, one of the objectives 559

510 [93]. Finally, the reciprocal correlation between the was to include groups other than double-income fam- 560

511 need for recovery and home-work interference was ilies with children. However, when looking at the 561
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512 supported by Demerouti, Taris and Bakker [94]. respondents, the group with teachers either living 562

513 Research has shown that a high workload is related alone, or being a single parent, were too small to allow 563

514 to impaired health and well-being [74, 95], and insuf- any further conclusions. Therefore, the need to look 564

515 ficient recovery is associated with psychosomatic more closely at other groups, rather than examining 565
co

516 complaints and burnout [95]. The workload of teach- the standard couple with children, still remains. 566

517 ers in many countries has increased [96] and teachers Some of the items of the questionnaire were not 567

518 are at risk of not experiencing sufficient recovery [27]. used before, but the pilot study supported face validity 568

519 The recovery, that is gained during vacations fade out and the theoretical background conduced the content 569
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520 quickly, indicating the importance of getting recovery validity. However, the lack of profound testing is a 570

521 during evenings and week-ends [97]. This is, how- limitation when interpreting the result. 571

522 ever, complex, because of the teachers’ discretionary The results of this study are based on a self- 572

523 time. Park et al. [98] proposed that segmenting work monitored questionnaire, which means that the 573

524 and non-work roles may help employees to detach results are dependent on the respondents’ willing- 574

525 themselves and recover from work demands. Pre- ness to share their perceptions and experiences, and 575

526 vious findings suggest that the spatial and temporal also on their truthfulness. There is also a possible 576

527 overlap between work and non-work may be easier to limitation of the study regarding the respondents’ 577

528 address, than the mental overlap [24, 73]. Regardless understanding and interpretations of the questions. 578
 M. Nilsson et al. / Salutogenic resources in relation to teachers’ work-life balance 9

579 Validity was strengthened by using previously tested would thus be of benefit not only to the individual 628

580 questionnaires, and by performing a pilot study with teacher, but also to the school at large. 629

581 teachers in another municipality. Reliability was

582 checked using a test-retest, and internal consistency
583 was strengthened by only including indices with
Acknowledgments 630
584 Cronbach’s alpha 0,72–0,95, which would indicate
585 that they were not too similar or over-lapping.
The authors would like to thank Professor Göran 631
586 As the study was designed to allow participants to
Ejlertsson for his valuable contributions to this study.

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632
587 be anonymous, it means that it was not possible to do

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588 a dropout analysis.

Conflict of interest 633

589 5. Conclusions
The authors confirm that this article content has no 634

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590 This study contributes to existing literature by conflict of interest. 635

591 highlighting the issues of finishing work without

592 time pressure as well as having sufficient recovery.
593 Since previous research also has demonstrated the References 636

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