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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Space frame structures are structural systems with three

dimensional assemblies of linear elements, in which the forces are transferred
in a three dimensional manner. The steel space frame structures are popular in
covering the large areas with or without any intermittent supports. The space
structures are widely used to construct the transmission line towers, micro
wave towers, airport hangers, swimming pools, sports stadiums, exhibition
halls, community halls, industrial buildings, bridges, railway platforms etc.
The popularity and use of space structures are due to its ability to resist and
redistribute the large concentrated and unsymmetrical loading. The space
structures have higher reliability and stability. They have become known for
their aesthetical view, light weight, ease of fabrication, reassembling and
their higher percentage reusability.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SPACE STRUCTURES

The classification of space structures is very difficult due to the

great variety of possible forms. However, they may be divided into three
broad categories such as (1) skeleton frame work (2) stressed skin structures
and (3) suspended structures. The domes, barrel vaults, double and multilayer
grids, braced folded plates are few examples of popular skeleton frame works.
The stressed skin folded plates, stressed skin domes and barrel vaults are the
few examples for the stressed skin systems. The suspended structures are
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generally known as cables or membrane structures. The behaviour and

method of analysis of these three structural classes differ from each other.

1.2.1 Space trusses

Space trusses are three dimensional frame works consisting of pin

connected bars. They are characterized by hinged joints with no moment or
torsional resistance and the members carry only the axial compression or
tension. Depending upon the connecting system, space truss systems may
categorized as nodular and modular systems. The nodular system is formed
with the linear truss members, interconnected through the nodes. In modular
systems, prefabricated modules are used instead of individual members and
nodes. These modules of various types, sizes and shapes are assembled
together by means of high strength friction bolts. The space deck system and
the unibat system are the two well known examples for modular systems.

1.2.2 Double layer grids

Space trusses can be formed by two or three layers of grids in

curved or flat structural forms. These trusses can be formed by two or three
layers of grids. The double layer grid system generated with the two layers,
one at the top and another at the bottom. These two layers are parallel to each
other and interconnected by vertical and diagonal members. A space truss is a
combination of prefabricated tetrahedral, octahedral or skeleton pyramids or
inverted pyramids having triangular, square or hexagonal bases with top and
bottom members normally not lying in the same vertical plane.

Double layer flat grid trusses, having greater rigidity allow greater
flexibility in layout and certain changes in the positioning of columns. The
higher rigidity of space grids reduces the deflection of the structure. The
space grids are usually built from simple prefabricated units of standard size
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and shape. Table 1.1 shows a few famous space structures constructed in
India and other countries.

Table 1.1 Examples of double layer space structures in India and abroad

S.No Type of frame work Year Name and location

1. Diagonal on square topology with 1998 Indian oil corporation
Schkul spherical node, covering Ltd, Cuddapa, India.
span of 47.6m X 39.6m
2. Diagonal on square topology with 1999 Indian oil corporation
similar configuration as shown in Ltd, Ennore, Chennai,
Figure 1.1. India.
3. Square on diagonal grid with tuball 1989 Al wahda sports hall
spherical node (set orthogonally), at Abu Dhabi.
covers span of 54m X 43.4m
4. Square on square offset diagonally 1995 Tennis court at Deira
with plate node connector, covers city centre, UAE.
50.4m X 58.8m
5. Square on square offset diagonally 2003 Bowling Alley,
with spherical node, covers span of Bangalore, India.
33.8m X 87.8m
6. Barrel Vault type, Square on square 2004 Eveready Spinning
offset diagonally with spherical Mills, Dindigul, India.
node as shown in Figure 1.2.
7. Square on square offset diagonally 2004 Elgi Treads,
with spherical node as shown in Coimbatore, India.
Figure 1.3.
8. Barrel Vault type with spherical 1998 Thiru Mayilai
node. Railway Station,
Chennai.
9. Square on square offset diagonally - Toll Plaza,
with spherical node Kancheepuram, India.
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Figure 1.1 IOCL LPG bottling plant, Ennore

Figure 1.2 Barrel vault type at Eveready spinning mills, Dindigul, India
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Figure 1.3 Double layer flat grid space frame structure at Elgi Treads

1.3 COMPONENTS OF SPACE TRUSS

Space structures generally consist of linear axial members

interconnected through node connector and bolts. The circular and rectangular
tubes are preferably used as the axial members. The channel section, angle
sections, structural tee and flat sections may also be used as axial members.
An advantage of tubular members in these structures is that the outside
diameter of the members can be constant, which simplifies the construction
and use of the connectors. The most critical components of space structures
are the joints. The node connectors are used at the joints, which is the most
important part of any prefabricated system and the final commercial success
relies on its effectiveness and simplicity. Hundreds of different types of
patented node connectors are available and only few node connecters are in
practice. The node connectors are the most expensive and important
component in the space structures. The connectors usually occupy 20-50% of
the total amount of steel required for the space structures (Iffland 1982, Zhao
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et al 1992, El Sheikh 96, Han et al 2004). MERO Connector, Octatube

connector, Tuball connector, NS connector and plate node connector are the
few familiar node connectors.

MERO connecter is a well known connecter used globally, which is

introduced by Dr. Mengeringenhausen of Germany in 1942. It is a solid
spherical in shape with threaded holes, which is capable of holding maximum
of 18 members and distribute the load in a three dimensionally. The Octatube
and Tuball systems are developed by Mr. Mick Eekhout of Nether lands, in
1973 and 1984. It can be fabricated at any well equipped workshop. The
Octatube joint consist of three plates an octagonal base plate and two half
octagonal plates. These plates are welded together to form the safe. In this
system the members are tube which are pressed to flat and joint by bolts. The
Tuball connector consists of ¼ of hollow sphere as cap and ¾ as connecter
which is made up of spheroid graphite. The ends of the members are fitted
with treated solid props by welding. It is lighter and less expensive. In this
system each ends of a member has a cast end piece with a threaded borings to
receive a bolt. The NS connector is a hollow type connector introduced by
Nippon Steel Corporation is shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 The NS connector with tubular members

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The NS joints are suitable for double layer grids, domes, barrel
vaults and most of the space structures. The total cost of the space structures
can be reduced by using the locally developed plate node connectors. Plate
connectors are simple to fabricate with local materials and local skills can be
indigenously developed (Jayaram et al 1999). The members of the space
structures are composed of tubes and end cones with threaded borings. The
end cones are welded to the ends of the tubes. Then the members with end
cones are connected to the hollow spherical joints using high strength bolts
from inside the joints.

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF SPACE STRUCTURES

Space structures are elegant and economical to cover the large areas
with or without any intermittent supports. It offers higher rigidity and stiffness
for given span to depth ratio. Space structures are light, structurally efficient
and achieve optimal use of materials. These structures are built up from
simple prefabricated units of standard size and shape in the factory, assures
the product quality and savings in time. These mass produced simple
prefabricated units can easily be handled, transported and assembled. Space
structures allow great flexibility in deciding different layout and positioning
of columns. A space structure eliminates the expensive and complicated
temporary supports during erection and it is offers higher percentage of
reusability. Space structures are able to resist large concentrated and
unsymmetrical loading. These structures are more beneficial to provide the
service accessories such as lighting, air conditioning and etc.

1.5 DISADVANTAGES OF SPACE STRUCTURES

In spite of numerous advantages, the space structures are costlier

for the smaller span compared to the conventional structures. The behaviour
of the individual components in the truss is more complicated to predict. The
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space structures are highly indeterminate and their analysis can not be carried
out by hand. The higher indeterminacy the space truss is believed that it
contributes for the redistribution of the force during any uncertainties, but it
not so. The failure of the Connecticut Hartford Colloseum space roof truss in
a sudden and progressive manner during 1978, due to the failure of critical
compression member is a classical example.

The failure of one critical compression member leads to the

catastrophic failure of the whole space structure. Several methods are used to
improve the behaviour of the space structures by avoiding the buckling of the
compression chord member and the overall truss behavior. Such techniques
identified are to alter the brittle nature of the space truss by preventing the
overloading, by improving behavior of sections, by introducing heavier
sections, by introducing mechanical devices, by introducing prestressing and
by introducing the concrete slab over the top chord. Most of the techniques
mentioned above are very difficult to implement, manage and maintain. The
cost of these active and the passive control methods are more and the
behaviour in the space truss is uncertain. However, among these techniques,
providing a concrete slab over the top of the space truss with or without the
top chord steel members appears to be a better technique to overcome the
problem. According to this arrangement, steel is used at the bottom chord
members, where the tension is predominant and concrete is used at the top
chord members, where the members are subjected to heavy compression. The
concrete slab and steel members are connected together with shear connectors
through the steel node connector.

1.6 NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY

As indicated earlier, structural systems composed of discrete

structural elements such as geodesic domes, single layer and multilayer barrel
vaults, reticulated shells, double layer and multilayer space grids and etc have
gained importance in recent years especially in India. Their economy,
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usefulness and their architectural appearance in covering large area is well

established. Since there is a large growth in infrastructure development in
India, there is a high demand for these space structures. Accurate evaluation
of behaviour, performance and reliability of these space structures especially
in the large deflection regime has become important and hence there is a need
to derive efficient geometric nonlinear finite element formulations for space
truss element. The selection of the material type is most important for the
economy and the performance of space structures. Considering the steel space
structure, steel is strong enough in tension and are very weak in compression
as a compressive strut. The instability of the space structure is initiated by the
critical compression steel member, which causes the sudden and progressive
brittle failure. It is necessary to develop a system possibly a composite truss
system, which exploits the advantages of the different material characteristics.
The present study investigates the ways and means to exploit the benefits of
steel and the concrete at the appropriate locations of the space structure. The
metal deck sheets are more popular in the steel concrete composite
construction, where the one-way action is predominant. The two-way action
in the double layer needs the necessary modification in the metal deck slab
system, so that the advantages of the metal deck system can be utilized in the
large span structures. This is one of the areas which attracted less research
attention.

1.7 OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

The objective of the present study is to investigate some issues

regarding reduction of compression chord buckling and increasing the
efficiency of space structures. The following are the identified objectives.

Formulation of a numerical frame work based on

geometrical nonlinear finite element formulation for the
advanced analysis of truss structures. The finite element
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formulation is developed using a co-rotated updated

Lagrangian procedure for predicting the large deflection
behaviour of space structures accurately.

To investigate the type of node connector needed in a

composite space frame system.

To investigate the concrete deck slab system for it suitability

in space truss systems.

To identify the effect of support arrangements on the

behaviour of the composite and non-composite space
structure and their design.

To experimentally investigate the behaviour of few non-

composite space truss and composite space truss with two-
way composite deck slab.

1.8 SCOPE OF THE THESIS

In the numerical formulation, geometrical nonlinearity and

individual member buckling alone are considered. Only double layered space
structures are investigated for composite and non-composite action. Only
limited experimental work on space structural systems are carried out.

1.9 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

The content of the present thesis is organized into nine chapters.

The first chapter deals with the introduction about the space structures. This
chapter also includes the objectives and the need for the present work of
research. The second chapter presents the review of literature relevant to the
post buckling analysis of truss structures. The review also includes the
analytical and experimental works carried out in the space frame structures.
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The third chapter deals with the numerical frame work for advanced analysis
of space frame structure using updated Lagrangian formulation. The chapter
four deals with the experimental and analytical study carried out on the node
connectors and chapter five presents the experimental work carried with the
composite deck slab. The sixth chapter presents the details of the parametric
study on the non-composite and composite space frame structures. The
different support locations and number of supports are the parameters
considered in the study for the non-composite and composite space frame
structures. The seventh chapter presents the experimental and analytical work
carried out in steel space frame and the composite space frame structures. The
summary of results and discussions are presented in the eighth chapter. Based
on the research work carried out, the conclusions are drawn and presented in
the ninth chapter.