Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Telephone Switching

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Communications For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: CTE10104 J.S. Phillips on 873-0228
Engineering Encyclopedia Communications
Telephone Switching

CONTENTS PAGES

Switching Functions ..................................................................................... 1

Switch Operation .......................................................................................... 5

Switch Engineering Specifications ............................................................. 12

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Telephone Switching

SWITCHING FUNCTIONS

The telephone switch is the intelligent portion of the modern telephone network. It monitors
all telephone users in its network and provides dial tone for users wishing to initiate a call. It
establishes an interconnection to the called user, and supplies alerting (ringing). It maintains a
call record for all calls requiring a billing entry. Upon call completion, the equipment used for
establishing the call is disconnected and made available to other users.

At any given moment, only a small number of users will be involved in making or receiving
telephone calls. Thus, it is not necessary to provide a separate switching path for each
telephone line. All lines and trunks are scanned for idle/busy conditions, and only those
actually involved in call origination or completion are provided interconnecting facilities. This
concentration is an important aspect of switch engineering. Through a reverse expansion
process, any single line or trunk has access to all other lines and trunks through the switching
network. Calls can be intraoffice (local), interoffice (between offices), or the switch can serve
as an intermediate office providing trunk-to-trunk transit or tandem switching. This concept is
illustrated in Figure 1.

Lines Trunks

Concentration Concentration

Inter-Office
Scanner Scanner

Intra- Transit
Office Distribution
(Switching
Network)
Expansion Expansion

FIGURE 1

For the sake of this course, the functions of a telephone switch are divided into seven major
categories, as shown in Figure 2. These seven functions are often referred to the BORSCHT
functions of telephone switching.

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Telephone Switching

B Battery

O Over-Voltage Protection

R Ringing

S Signaling: Information Receiving and Transmitting

C Control: Interconnection and Supervision

H Hybrid: Coding Conversion and 2W/4W Conversion

T Testing: Busy Testing and Maintenance

FIGURE 2

Battery

As discussed in previous sections of this course, there were two early methods for powering
the telephone network: local batteries, originally acid-based; and sound-powered telephones,
using the improved carbon-button telephone transmitter. A common battery arrangement was
soon introduced, that provided all network power directly from the wire center exchange.

Telephone sets are universally powered by 48 V dc. This voltage is imposed on every
operating telephone line working on a telephone switch. In an on-hook condition, this
telephone loop forms an open circuit, so very little current is actually supplied. The proper
sizing of a telephone switch power supply must include the expected consumption by the idle
loops, the maximum simultaneous number of busy loops (conversations), and the power
requirements of the switching equipment itself. In the days of electromechanical switching,
the power consumed by a telephone network was divided fairly evenly between the switching
equipment and the telephone loops. Electronic switching systems in use today require much
less power than their mechanical predecessors, so loops now consume the greater portion of
network power.

Reliability of a telephone switch is very important, because the loss of a switch is the one
failure mode that will disable a telephone network entirely. Thus, the power system of a
switch is designed with several levels of redundancy: primary power via rectifiers, motor-
generator sets, and lead-acid battery plants. Battery plants are typically designed to operate a
minimum of 8 hr at full switch loading.

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Over-Voltage Protection

Telephone cables in the outside plant environment are subject to the induction or imposition
of high voltages on the loop conductor (cable pairs). Typical examples are lightning strikes
and contacts with power lines or high-voltage equipment. Voltages of this sort represent a
serious hazard to both equipment and personnel, so three forms of electrical isolation are
provided by the switching system: MDF heat coils, over-voltage and over-current circuitry on
individual line cards, and fuses on individual switching components.

Ringing

Ringing refers to the alerting tone sent to a called telephone set to indicate an incoming call.
Audible ring is also returned to the calling party, to indicate that ringing is in progress. Actual
ringing format is defined by its (1) imposed voltage, (2) frequency, and (3) cadence. The
imposed ringing voltage is approximately 100 V ac at 20 Hz. The cadence is 3 seconds of ring
and 7 seconds off, representing a 30% duty-cycle. The reverse audible ring sent to the calling
party is a 400 Hz tone having the same cadence. Ringing format in the Saudi Aramco
telephone network follows the same format as that utilized in the Saudi Telecom public
telephone network.

Signaling

Signaling is a very important, and very complex part of telephone switching. The purpose of
signaling is to communicate information with a user (i.e. dial tone), and between various
electronic components, enabling a call to be initiated, completed and recorded. Signaling
information can include the following: system status (idle/busy); call status (on-hook/off-
hook); call and billing information (originating and terminating number identification,
connect and disconnect time, class of service); and routing identification (equipment
addresses and called number). Signaling is accomplished by a variety of means, including
current pulses, single-frequency tones, multifrequency tones, and dedicated common
signaling channels carrying digital data. Tone signaling may be in-band — heard by the
calling or called parties — or out-of-band. A separate module of this course will be dedicated
to signaling because off its complex nature. For now, it is sufficient to understand the role of
signaling as explained in this paragraph.

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Telephone Switching

Control

Control in a telephone switch is provided by a central processor operating under a fixed

control program. The control program continually monitors (supervises) the status of network
equipment. Changes in status are detected, and the processor generates control signals to
connect or disconnect equipment together and transmit or record information. In a testing
role, a processor might issue commands to disable or mark as unusable equipment that has
failed or has been found to be functioning marginally. An important part of the control
function is the translation software specifying the local equipment lists corresponding to
particular functions, users, or routing.

Hybrid

The hybrid function -- conversion from two-wire to four-wire transmission -- was discussed in
a previous module dealing with telephone sets. A telephone switch is typically a two-wire
device, as is the loop. The inter-switch "trunking" network, however, is usually four-wire.
Thus, the telephone switch must provide a "hybrid" function to interface with other switches.
Hybrid circuits in a telephone switch employ a balanced transformer circuit similar to the one
used in the telephone set. Another instance of the hybrid function is conversion of speech to
digital pulse-code modulation (PCM). PCM involves a separation of a conversation into four-
wire (directional) service, then seven-bit digital encoding at an 8 kHz sampling rate.

Testing

The last major function of telephone switching is testing -- both for equipment status and
operation. Testing is an automated function, but can be performed under manual direction
from the operator console of the switching processor.

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SWITCH OPERATION

Switching Components

A computer-based switching system is composed of six main components:

• Line/trunk scanner
• Signal distributor
• Switching network
• Central processor
• Temporary memory
• Permanent memory

The interconnection of these components in a typical switch is shown in Figure 3.

Lines Trunks
Switching
Network

Busy, idle Control Signals

Busy, idle Alerting, tones
Scanner Address Address Signal
Distributor

Central
Processor

Class of Service,
Call Status Routing Information
Address Address
Temporary Permanent
Memory Billing Memory
Calls in Process Information Control Program
and Translations

FIGURE 3

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Telephone Switching

Central Processor

The central processor functions as the overall control element in the switch, following
instructions stored in permanent memory. It receives input from the scanner, receives and
passes interconnect information to the switching network, and instructs the signal generator to
transmit signaling information to other switches and equipment in the telephone network.

Scanner

The scanner monitors the condition of line and trunk equipment in the telephone switch, and
reports all "changes of status" to the central processor.

Switching Network

The switching network is the active part of the telephone switch, connecting and
disconnecting all lines and trunks. In modern computer-based switches, the actual connections
are made with solid-state switches rather than electromechanical relays.

Signal Distributor

The signal distributor performs all signaling functions under the direction and control of the
central processor.

Permanent Memory

[Semi] permanent memory contains two types of information: the software controlling all
switch operations, developed and maintained by the switch vendor; and line/trunk translations
indicating routing information, classes of service, signaling requirements, etc.

Temporary Memory

Temporary or scratch pad memory retains information pertaining to all calls currently in
progress. This information must be readily available to provide real-time operation of the
telephone switch. Temporary memory is also called call store, as much of its function relates
to individual calls.

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Call Processing Sequence

Figure 4 outlines the major events that occur in a fictitious telephone conversation between
Khalid, the caller (Office A), and Fuad, the called party (Office B). An explanation of events
follows.

Khalid lifts the receiver on his telephone [1]. The switch hook closes, completing the
telephone loop and causing direct current to flow through circuit [2]. Scanning circuits in the
telephone switch detect the flow of current [3] and a digit-receiving register [4] and dial-tone
generator [5] are connected to Khalid's line circuit. Khalid hears the dial-tone signal in his
telephone receiver [6]. Khalid dials the seven-digit number corresponding to the telephone of
his friend Fuad [7].

The telephone switch digit-receiving receiver waits until all seven digits are received, then
transfers the dialed number to the temporary "call store" memory of the telephone switch [8].
The processor examines the dialed number and determines it belongs to the Ras Tanura
exchange. The processor consults translation tables in permanent memory and identifies the
primary trunk group between Dhahran and Ras Tanura [9]. This information is passed to the
switching network, which examines the primary trunk group for an idle trunk [10]. If an idle
trunk is not found, the processor determines an alternate indirect route and repeats the process
[11]. Once a trunk is found [12], Khalid's line circuit (loop) is connected to the trunk [13a],
accounting data is recorded [13b], and the trunk goes "off-hook" [13c], alerting Office B that
the trunk has been seized from Office A. Office B places the trunk back "on-hook" [14]
alerting Office A that the trunk is ready to receive the dialed information [15]. Office A
transmits the four "station" digits corresponding to Fuad's set.

The four digits transmitted from Office A are received by Office B [16], and the digits are
stored in its temporary call store memory [17]. The switching network tests the called line for
busy [18]. The line is found to be idle [19], and ringing current is applied to Fuad's loop [20].
Simultaneously, an audible ringing tone is passed from Office B, through the trunk circuit to
Office A and on to Kahlid's receiver.

Fuad's telephone rings [21] and Fuad lifts his handset [22], completing his loop circuit. This
causes direct current to flow in the loop [23], ringing signals are removed [24], and signaling
is passed back to Office A that the called party has responded [25]. Corresponding accounting
data is recorded [26].

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Telephone Switching

Khalid lifts 1 Direct current flows 2

handset in loop

Dial tone detector 3

finds line
Khalid
Idle register 4
connected to line

Khalid hears 6 Dial tone generator 5

dial tone connected

Khalid dials seven 7 Seven digits placed 8

digits in call store

Processor consults 9
Translator tables

Direct trunks 10 Idle trunk not 11a

are tested found

Reconsult 11b
Translator

Idle trunk 12 Indirect trunks 11c

found are tested Office B
Loop Accounting Off-hook 13c
connected data signal on
to trunk recorded trunk
13a 13b
Signalling 15 Signalling confirms 14
received trunk connection
Office A
Four digits 16 Four digits placed 17
transmitted in call store

Called line tested 18

for busy

Line found to be 19
idle Fuad

Audible Ringing 20 Telephone 21

ringing signal rings
applied applied

Off-hook signal 23 Fuad lifts 22

recognized receiver

Off-hook signal 25 Off-hook Ringing 24

received signal signal
sent removed

Accounting data 26
recorded

FIGURE 4

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This sequence of events does not consider the possibility of Fuad's station being busy, or what
happens when the call is completed. In the first situation, a station busy tone would be
transmitted back from Station B to Station A and Khalid, indicating the busy condition. The
circuit would be released as soon as Khalid replaces his telephone receiver. In the latter case,
if either Fuad or Khalid ends the conversation by replacing the handset, the open loop
condition would be detected and the circuit would be disconnected.

Types of Telephone Switches

All computer-based telephone switches are organized in shown in Figure 3, but can vary
greatly in size and features. Switches are generally divided into five groups on the basis of
size and features:

• Transit Center (TC) for long-distance services

• Operator Position System (OPS)
• Central Office (CO) providing local services
• Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABX) for business services
• Key Telephone Units (KTUs) for small business locations

Transit Centers

Transit centers provide trunk-to-trunk connections for interconnecting switches. A toll center
does not provide user line terminations, and therefore does not have a requirement for alerting
(ringing) or over-voltage protection on telephone loops. Toll switches are used for
international gateway switches between countries, and as regional switches in large national
networks. In smaller networks, the transit function is often combined with a local central
office. Saudi Telecom has transit switches in Dammam, Riyadh, and Jeddah.

Operator Position Systems (OPS)

Operator position systems (OPS) are switches that provide highly-automated operator
services. They are capable of connecting operators to local and toll switches, but do not
provide line services for individual subscribers. OPS contains sophisticated billing
capabilities, as well as automatic call distribution (ACD) for operators so that each operator is
loaded evenly. The switching segment of OPS is usually based on a conventional telephone
switch, but uses special software for routing and data collection. Saudi Aramco has a OPS
system, but it is not functional at this time.

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Telephone Switching

Central Offices

A central office is a highly reliable general-purpose telephone switch used in public telephone
networks. Saudi Aramco, and other very large companies, also use central offices in their
private networks. Central offices contain complex software for user features and network
routing and control. Modern central offices have a modular design which allow an expansion
to serve up to 100,000 lines from a single switch, though service of more than 50,000
subscribers from a single switch is uncommon. Modular design allows central offices to be
economical down to about 2000 lines.

Private Automatic Branch Exchanges (PABXs)

PABXs were developed for businesses, and are used for switching local calls independent of
the public telephone network. Calls are handled on a direct-inward-dial (DID) to individual
stations, or are routed through the use of an attendant. Traditionally, PABXs have had more
user features than central offices, but fewer network and signaling capabilities. This has
changed in recent years. Large PABXs are now used in very large private networks, providing
many of the same routing and signaling functions as central offices. PABXs tend to have size
limitations far below central offices. They are economical from approximately 200 lines up to
approximately 5,000 lines. However, some PABXs are based on central office technology and
are indistinguishable from central offices in their capabilities, and options, and size
constraints.

Key Telephone Units (KTUs)

Key telephone units, usually called key systems, are the smallest of the telephone switches
that are commercially manufactured. They function in the same manner as PABXs, but are
smaller and lack many of the PABX's user features. KTUs are generally less reliable than
PABX; Saudi Aramco, when using KTUs for telephone service, upgrades them to have
backup power and DID operation. KTUs are economical from 10 to 400 telephone lines.

Saudi Aramco Telephone Switches

Saudi Aramco uses central offices, PABXs, and key systems in its telephone network. The
table below indicates some of the switching systems currently operating in the Saudi Aramco
telephone network.

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Typical Central Offices Typical PABXs Typical Key Systems

Dhahran EOB Fetex 150 Dhahran Clinic NT SL1 XN Dh Fire Station ITT 3100 L
DhahranB840 No.2 EAX Rahima ITC NT SL1VLE Dh Bus Skills Ctr ITT 3100 M
Ras Tanura Fetex 150 RT Clinic NT SL1 LE Dh Oil Exhibit Ctr ITT 3100 L
Abqaiq Fetex 150 Abqaiq Clinic NT SL1 LE Ain Dar ITT 3100 L
Ju'aymah Fetex 150 Al Hasa Clinic NT SL1 XN Dh No. ITC/ITS ITT 3100 L
Berri Fetex 150 Abu Ali NT SL1 N Dh Photo Lab ITT 3100 L
FIGURE 5

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SWITCH ENGINEERING SPECIFICATIONS

Switch Capacity

Telephone equipment is designed on the basis of maximum call attempts, call usage, or the
number of users, depending on the type of equipment involved. In the case of the control
program, the amount of required memory is often fixed, and is independent (within wide
ranges of switch size) of the number of users or calling volume through the switch.

Engineering Basis Typical Examples

• Busy hour all attempts Registers, processors, scanners, billing equipment
• Busy hour occupancy Trunks, switching networks, memory (call store)
• Number of users Lines, memory (translations)
• Fixed requirement Memory (control program)

Wired and Equipped Capacity

Modern telephone switches are modular in construction, with each equipment cabinet
containing power supply and distribution, linking cables, and space for a variety of circuit
cards, i.e. processor, memory, lines, trunk, etc. The function of each cabinet is defined during
detailed engineering, and the back side of the cabinet is wired appropriately. This wiring is a
simple process during construction, but is a difficult task to modify after installation and
commissioning. Since the majority of switch costs are in the actual circuit cards and not in the
cabinets, it is a common practice to provide cabinets with space in excess of anticipated
growth.

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This extra wired capacity allows the switch to be increased in size by the addition of line or
trunk cards, with a minimum of engineering and/or installation costs. Equipped capacity
refers to the number of electronic assemblies, such as line and trunk cards, that are provided
for service.

Vertical Features

Modern computer-based switching systems can provide a variety of special features to users,
however, each feature requires additional memory and processing capacity, and this must be
incorporated in the engineering of the switch. Some general categories of vertical (enhanced)
features are: abbreviated dialing, call transfer, three-way calling, call waiting, call "hold",
wake-up service, do not disturb service, voice mail, conference bridges, hot-line (ring-down)
lines, multiple service classes (network access privileges), call trace, closed user groups, and
(in the case of some digital central offices and user equipment) calling-number display. The
activation of these features for specific users is governed by company policy and approvals.

Switching Environment

Telephone switches must have a proper physical environment for reliable operation. The
environment must include the following: temperature, humidity, and dust control; access and
security control; fire protection (oxygen depletion or dry chemical); flood protection; freedom
from static electricity, vibration, radio-frequency interference; and redundant DC power
supplies.

Temperature, Humidity, and Dust Control

Electronic offices, compared to earlier versions of electromechanical offices, draw

considerably less power and, therefore, create less overall heat. However, the heat tends to be
much more concentrated and temperature effects are more severe. Therefore, temperature
control is more critical in electronic offices than in older switching types. Humidity is also a
major concern, as a high-humidity condition can result in condensation with resulting
problems in corrosion and/or electrical shorting. The acceptable temperature and humidity
range of operation for telephone switches is given in Figure 6. Dust accumulation on
electronic components results in bad connections on electronic assemblies and decreases
cooling efficiencies. Filter systems are in place on all air exchange equipment to control dust
and other particulate matter.

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Telephone Switching

Temperature and Humidity Requirements

40° C
in Switching Rooms
Permitted Range
30° C

Recommended
20° C Range

10° C

Percent Humidity
0° C
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
FIGURE 6

Access and Security Control

Communications are critical to company operations and for the safety of the entire served
community. The problems that could result from malicious or accidental damage are great. In
addition, the telephone switch is the one point where it is possible to monitor communications
between individuals, and safeguarding the privacy of communications is a high priority. For
these reasons, telephone switch installations are in secure areas, with access limited to those
who have a legitimate need for access, such as responsibility for switch operations.

Fire and Flood Protection

Historically, fire and flooding have been the two major causes of prolonged switch failure.
Fortunately, Saudi Aramco has experienced neither.

Fire protection is always provided in major switching centers. Since water is not an acceptable
method of extinguishing an electrical fire and would severely damage electronic equipment,
only oxygen depletion (gas) and dry powder fire control systems are employed in switch
rooms. Halon 1301 has, in the past, been the most common method of fire protection
provided in switching facilities. However, recent concerns about the environment have caused
a change in this practice. New installations now use carbon dioxide gas systems. CO2 has the
disadvantage of being highly lethal to personnel, whereas Halon tends to be perilous, but
rarely lethal. Water extinguishing systems (sprinklers) are never used in switch rooms, and are
generally discouraged in switch buildings.

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Recent central office fires in other countries have revealed another major risk associated with
water-based fire fighting methods. Plastic-sheathed (polyvinyl) cables, when burned, tend to
give off a chloride gas that interacts with steam to form highly corrosive hydrochloric acid
vapor. This gas, circulating within a building through corridors and/or air ducts, can cause
immediate and severe corrosion of electronic assemblies. Thus, it is important to provide fire
breaks, fire walls, fire baffles (in duct work), and fire doors to prevent the spread of smoke
and other damaging vapors.

Flooding can be a result of nature, such as excessive rain, overflowing rivers, high tides, etc.
Flooding can also result from broken water mains, overflowing toilets, fire sprinkler systems,
etc. The most important aspect of flood protection is the proper siting of the telephone switch.
Except under extraordinary circumstances, switches should not be installed in basement areas.
Utility areas having water-based fixtures, such as toilets and kitchen areas, should not be
immediately above switching facilities. In cases where switches must be sited in water-
threatened areas, water control measures must be provided, such as water breaks, drains,
pumps, and so forth.

Static Electricity

Breakdown voltage for dry air is on the order of 4,000 V/cm, and everyone has had the
experience of drawing a respectable arc after walking across carpeted areas. These voltage
levels are sufficiently high to cause considerable damage to electronic assemblies. In
switching systems, two forms of protection are provided against this hazard. All frames and
cabinets are grounded to draw voltages away from the components within, and most
switching floors have anti-static mats on the floor areas to prevent the buildup of static
charges. These methods and procedures are set forth in the Saudi Aramco Report SAER-
5228.

Vibration

Vibration and shock is a common problem during transport and installation of a telephone
switch. After commissioning, it is of concern where there is heavy vehicle traffic or heavy
construction in nearby areas. Resistance to this problem is a consideration in the design and
construction of the switch, and in its packaging and handling during transport. Switches are
generally specified to withstand accelerations of 1 m/s2 within the frequency range of 10 to
10,000 Hz. Higher values must be tolerated during switch transport and installation.

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Radio Frequency Interference

Computer-based telephone switches operate at millions of cycles per second, and would act as
a radio emission source if not properly designed. Likewise, outside radio emissions could
inter-modulate switch signals and disrupt switch operations unless appropriate design
precautions were taken. Such problems are called radio frequency interference (RFI). The
CCITT recommends that electronic telephone switches limit emissions to the following:

• Within the range 150-500 Hz: a maximum of 10 mV

• Within the range 0.5-30 MHz, a maximum of 5 mV

Power Systems

Many people have had the experience of losing power in a home or business, and have been
surprised to discover that their telephones still work. This is because of the common battery
design of the telephone network. The power system at a wire center supports both the switch
itself and all of the telephone loops to the end station.

As shown in Figure 7, power for a telephone switching center is usually provided three ways:
commercial power, with DC conversion through rectifiers; motor-generator sets, usually
diesel driven; and lead-acid batteries. Generators are designed to be self-starting based on the
loss of commercial power, and are provided with sufficient fuel to operate for one or more
days.

The lead-acid batteries used in telephone applications are similar to automobile batteries,
except that they are designed for slow discharge and long life. The no-load voltage of each
cell is 2.06 V, so a battery string of 24 batteries (49.44 V) is normally provided. To prevent
batteries from discharging, the rectifiers provide a slightly higher float voltage (float charge)
on the batteries by putting 2.17 V across each cell (52.08 V total). When a load is placed on
the batteries, cell output voltage drops to slightly below 2 V. Voltage continues to drop during
discharge. Battery capacity is calculated on a minimum of 1.75 V per cell (42 V total).

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Electric Central Office Power System

Utility
Engine
Generator

Engine Fuel
Generator Storage
AC Reserve
Distribution
to Loads
Rectifier

Control
Rectifier and
– Monitoring

Battery
Plant

FIGURE 7

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