Wildland Fire Safety

for Search and Rescue Personnel

by Mike Lynch
Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Search and Rescue Team
Santa Barbara County, California, USA

At 11:00 AM on Sunday morning, October 20, 1991, members of the Oakland, California Fire
Department were mopping up a small brush fire off Highway 24, near the Caldecott Tunnel. As east winds
increased above 65 miles per hour and temperatures pushed towards 100 degrees, a glowing ember blew
outside the burn area, beyond the control line, landing in a eucalyptus tree. The tree's dry leaves began
burning and within seconds the oil rich eucalyptus branches exploded into flames, rapidly spreading to
neighboring trees. Quickly overwhelmed, the on-scene firefighters immediately called for additional
resources, including airdrops, and were forced to fall back to defensible areas. Oakland police also
responded to the area to evacuate nearby residents. Soon, the streets were jammed with local residents
fleeing the flames and emergency crews and sightseers trying to get into the area. Within hours, 25 people
were killed by the raging inferno, including an Oakland Police Officer and an Oakland Fire Department
Battalion Chief, who both died with groups of people that they were trying to evacuate. Basic knowledge
of wildland fire behavior and safety would have prevented many of the 25 deaths.

As part of the Sheriff's Department, one of the functions of the Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Search and
Rescue Team is to perform evacuations when a wildfire threatens residential areas, campers, or
backpackers. We may also be requested to provide continuing medical support during major fire incidents
or perform a rescue of an injured fire fighter on the fire line. Because of the unpredictable nature of
wildland fires, they present one of the most dangerous types of situations that will be encountered by
search and rescue personnel. It is imperative that search and rescue members who respond to major fires
incidents have a basic understanding of wildland fire behavior and safety.

There are many factors influencing a wildland fire's behavior. The three most significant factors are fuel
type, terrain and weather; the combined strength of these three factors will usually dictate a fire's
behavior. Types of fuel are classified as ground fuels (small twigs, leaves, and needles that are
decomposing on the ground), surface fuels (living surface low vegetation, such as, grasses and brush,
including downed logs and heavy limbs), and crown fuels (upper branches and leaves of trees that are
separated from the ground such that air can circulate upward). Several factors affect the burning
characteristics of fuels. These include the amount of moisture in the fuel, the size of the fuel (small, light
fuels burn faster), the compactness of the fuel (logs burn slower than grass), and the continuity and
density of the fuel types. Crown fuel fires spread rapidly and can give off embers that will begin spot fires
a long distance away (the distance depends on wind, height of the crown fire, and terrain).

The steepness of the terrain will affect both the rate and direction of a fire's spread. Fires move uphill
faster than downhill (with wind and fuel factors equal) and the steeper the slope, the faster the fire will
move up it. Southern exposures receive more sunlight, causing the vegetation to be drier and, generally,
warmer when a fire is making its run. Fires typically burn faster on southern exposed slopes. Local terrain
features, such as ridges, large rock outcroppings, and even large trees may alter airflow creating
turbulence and erratic fire behavior. Canyons, or other narrow areas that confine wind flow, will increase
wind speed. Particularly dangerous are steep "V" drainage, where a fire will create turbulent updrafts
causing a chimney effect and extremely fast rate of spread of the fire.

There are four major aspects of weather that affect a fire. These are wind, temperature, humidity, and
recent precipitation. Besides spreading the fire, wind also supplies fresh air (oxygen) and fans the flames
into greater intensity. Large fires may create their own wind conditions. Temperature is highly correlated
with wind and relative humidity; it primarily affects fuel as a result of drying. Relative humidity has the
greatest impact on dead fuels that have no moisture content of their own. Recent precipitation establishes
the moisture content of live fuels and will wet dead fuels. The larger a dead fuel, the longer it takes to dry
after a period of precipitation, causing it to burn slower.

The most important aspect during all search and rescue responses is safety. This is especially true in high-
risk incidents, such as major fires where there is no margin for error in judgment or procedures. During
wildland fire training, fire agencies emphasize a group of fire orders and watch out situations. The fire
orders include: 1) Provide For Safety First; 2) Initiate All Actions Based Upon Current and Expected Fire
Behavior; 3) Recognize Current Weather Conditions and Know Forecasts; 4) Ensure Instructions Are
Given and Understood; 5) ALWAYS Have Current Information on Fire Status; 5) ALWAYS Maintain
Communication with Other Team Members, Command Post, and Adjoining Teams; 6) ALWAYS Know
Safety Zones and Escape Routes, and Update Them as Needed; 7) Establish Lookouts in Potentially
Hazardous Situations; 8) Retain Control at All Times; 9) Stay Alert, Keep Calm, Think Clearly, and Act
Decisively.

Watch out situations that should be corrected or require special attention include: 1) Fire Not Scouted and
Sized Up; 2) Working In Terrain Not Seen in Daylight; 3) Safety Zones and Escape Routes Not Identified;
4) Unfamiliar With Weather and Local Factors Influencing Fire Behavior; 5) Uninformed on Strategy,
Tactics, And Hazards of the Incident; 6) Instructions and Assignments Not Clear; 7) No Communication
Link with Nearby Teams and Command Post; 8) Working on a Hill with Fire Below; 9) Unburned Fuel
Between You and Fire; 10) Cannot See Main Fire, Not in Contact with Someone Who Can; 11) On a
Hillside Where Rolling Material Can Ignite Fuel Below; 12) Weather Becoming Hotter and Dryer; 13)
Wind Increases and/or Changes Direction; 14) Getting Frequent Spot Fires Across Line; 15) Terrain and
Fuel Make Escape to Safety Zones Difficult.

Santa Barbara County Fire Department regulations require that all fire personnel who respond to a
wildland fire wear a long sleeve cotton undershirt with a fire resistant Nomex shirt over it and regulation
cotton pants with Nomex trousers over them. The multiple layers of clothing help protect the wearer from
both burns and heat (air between the layers act as insulation). All SAR personnel who respond to a
wildland fire callout, as a minimum, should wear a long sleeve cotton undershirt, long cotton pants, and
boots. In addition, they should also have a bandanna (to help protect the mouth, nasal, and respiratory
systems from smoke and ash), goggles, helmet, and gloves. These items should be a standard part of each
team member's SAR response pack. When working in a fire zone, do not wear synthetic fabrics, like
Gore-Tex, nylon, polyester, or polypropylene; these material catch fire at a low temperature and some can
melt when heated. If a fire shelter is issued to you, wear it attached to your belt where it is immediately
available for use if it is needed.

Evacuation Safety:

1) Always be in radio contact with someone who is visually observing and updating reports of the fire's
progress;

2) Notify the command post (CP) of your location as you move, so that they will always know your
current position and will be able notify you if you are getting into a hazardous area;

3) If the fire is near you, avoid high risk flash fuels, including eucalyptus and palm trees (both have
shallow roots, often dry leaves, a high oil content causing them to burn very hot, and often explode when
they burn);

4) ALWAYS have well defined escape routes and safety zones identified, and update as needed;
5) When parking your vehicle, park heading out towards the escape route so that turning the vehicle
around is not necessary if the fire unexpectedly becomes life threatening;

6) Be alert for special hazards, such as burning propane tanks; if encountered, notify the CP (who will
notify the fire department) and move everyone in the vicinity, including yourself, far enough away from
the burning tank so that they will not become casualties if it explodes;

7) Based on the information above describing the effects of fuel type, terrain, and weather on a fire,
constantly update a predicted course for the fire and use this anticipated fire state to establish the safety
considerations for your actions;

8) If you notice an unexpected change in the fire's behavior or state, notify the CP of this and verify that
neighboring teams are also aware of the new situation;

9) Always stay in or near your vehicle; it is your transportation out through the pre-planned escape route
and best protection if the fire becomes threatening;

10) Remember, your primary concern is your safety; your second priority is the safety of your fellow team
members; on evacuations the third priority is the safety of evacuees and fourth priority is completion of
the assignment – Remember safety and watch out for each other.

Emergency Procedures: If you are in danger of being overtaken by the fire, first try to use the pre-planned
escape route to drive out of danger. If the escape route is blocked, drive the vehicle to a planned safety
zone, roll the windows up, and get down on the floor. If you are away from a vehicle and in danger of
being overtaken by a fire (this should only happen in a rescue where the rescuers will be wearing Nomex,
helmets, goggles, gloves, and a bandanna, and carrying fire shelters), move to a pre-planned safety zone
in the immediate vicinity that will have the least burning take place and deploy your fire shelter with you
inside it. Roads, plowed fields, living green grass lawns, and previously burned areas (that have cooled
enough to enter) provide the best locations for safety zones. Also consider fuel and terrain when selecting
safety zones. Always have safety zones pre-planned; if you need to use one, you will not have time to
properly evaluate the immediate area for an adequate safety zone. If overtaken by fire and in a vehicle or
fire shelter, DO NOT soak yourself or the surrounding area with water; it can create steam, which will
cause severe burns.

Medical Procedures: For burns, flush immediately with cool water (as clean as is available) and cover
with a clean dressing. For serious or extensive burns, evacuate the victim to more comprehensive medical
treatment. If smoke inhalation is present or suspected, provide the victim with oxygen and evacuate them
to more comprehensive medical treatment. Smoke inhalation can cause irritation and swelling of the
respiratory system tissue which will eventually create serious breathing difficulties in a victim, even
though they may initially appear to quickly recover from the smoke inhalation episode.

Wildland fires are very unpredictable and dangerous. Be prepared by responding to wildland fire callouts
wearing long sleeve cotton shirt, long cotton pants, and boots. Include a helmet, bandanna, goggles, and
gloves in your response equipment. Constantly be aware of the fire's current behavior and your
environment, and use these to anticipate what the fire will be doing and how it will affect you. Establish
pre-planned escape routes and safety zones. ALWAYS think safety - your own, your fellow team
members, and other people in the fire area.