Chapter 1

Introduction

An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is an airborne transportation system which is controlled

remotely or through a computer. There are different types of propulsion system used to provide
thrust and lift to the vehicle. UAVs prove to be essential when the transportation to be done is
to remotely locate places and the time available is quite little. With an average speed of about
70 - 80 km/hr, the UAVs have been successfully used to transport medical necessities and
disaster relief to the affected masses. A ducted fan is an air moving arrangement whereby a
mechanical fan, which is a type of propeller, is mounted within a cylindrical shroud or duct.
The duct reduces losses in thrust from the tips of the propeller blades, and varying the cross-
section of the duct allows the designer to advantageously affect the velocity and pressure of the
airflow according to Bernoulli's principle. Ducted fans normally have more and shorter blades
than conventional propellers and thus can operate at higher rotational speeds. With the emerging
need for an unmanned aerial vehicle with the capability to hover, the ducted-fan UAV design
is becoming a more acceptable design option over the conventional rotorcraft design. The
unique flight characteristics of such vehicles necessitate a design environment that can model
and simulate the flight dynamics of ducted fan vehicles accurately.

1
1.1 Background

It was during World War I that Twin Fuselage flights were constructed and then came into
production; a handful were delivered but few were used operationally. Now, the idea of a
dedicated re-usable mothership design capable of carrying and launching a spacecraft has
gained traction. A Twin Fuselage design offers the advantage of a clean payload area under the
wing area. [1] A ducted fan is an air moving arrangement whereby a mechanical fan, which is a
type of propeller, is mounted within a cylindrical shroud or duct. The duct reduces losses in
thrust from the tips of the propeller blades and varying the cross-section of the duct allows the
designer to advantageously affect the velocity and pressure of the airflow according to
Bernoulli's principle. Ducted fan propulsion is used in aircraft, airships, airboats, hovercraft and
[2]
fan packs. An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) (or unmanned aerial vehicle, commonly
known as a drone) is an aircraft without a human pilot on board and a type of unmanned vehicle.
UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS); which include a UAV, a
ground-based controller, and a system of communications between the two. The flight of UAVs
may operate with various degrees of autonomy: either under remote control by a human
operator or autonomously by onboard computers.

1.2 Motivation

A Single Fuselage UAV consists of a rigid wing that has a predetermined aerofoil which make
flight capable by generating lift caused by the UAV’s forward airspeed. This airspeed is
generated by forward thrust usually by the means of a propeller being turned by an electric
motor. A twin fuselage can accommodate a wing between the two fuselages. This part of the
wing won’t have any wing tip. Absence of a wing tip improves the induced drag generated by
the wing. Usually, in conventional aircrafts, the induced drag is minimized by making wings
with high aspect ratio, but not too much to avoid making wings heavy. However, this aircraft
has a wing in between with virtually no induced drag, and two smaller outer wings which
generate lower induced drag because of reduced size. By reducing propeller blade tip losses,
the ducted fan is more efficient in producing thrust than a conventional propeller of similar
diameter, especially at low speed and high static thrust level. By sizing the ductwork
2
appropriately, the designer can adjust the fan to allow it to operate more efficiently at higher air
speeds than a propeller would. For the same static thrust, a ducted fan has a smaller diameter
than a free propeller, allowing for smaller equipment. Ducted fans are quieter than propellers
as they shield the blade noise and reduce the tip speed and intensity of the tip vortices both of
which contribute to noise production. Ducted fans can allow for a limited amount of thrust
vectoring, something normal propellers are not well suited for. This allows them to be used
instead of tiltrotors in some applications. Ducted fans offer enhanced safety on the ground.

1.3 Aim

The Project aims to design a propulsion system for a Twin Fuselage UAV which can withstand
harsh weather conditions which can be used for scouting and reconnaissance.

1.4 Objective

The objective of the project is the following

• To design all the prerequisites which are required for the design of the Propulsion
Systems.
• To design the Propulsion System capable of withstanding harsh weather conditions
within the defined range.
• To analyse the Propulsion System experimentally and analytically.

3
1.5 Literature Review

V. M. Cherkassky [1] The author in his book titled ‘Pumps, Fans, Compressors’ published by
Mir Publishers shows different aerofoil that can be used as blade cross-section. It depicts the
effect of various parameters of an aerofoil, their relationship with each other and how to
calculate the required dynamic aspect from an aerofoil. The book provides with the Momentum
Equation formulation that is used to develop velocity triangle to calculate the different
velocities acting on the blade aerofoil and induced by the same. However, the methods improve
the efficiency of the impeller design for axial flow machinery is obscure.

A. J. Main, G.D. Lock, T. V. Jones [2] proposed reviews on the topic ‘Free Vortex Theory
for efficiency calculations from annular cascade data’ published by Oxford University. It
portrays how vortex is developed in the annular regions and their dynamic aspects on the
propulsion device. The theory satisfies radial pressure equilibrium condition which in turn helps
in the development of unique steady flow states. The paper shows the improvement in the mixed
annular flow state, even when the flow is not purely axial

H. Cohen, GFC Rogers, HIH Saravanamuttoo [3] The Blade designing for the propulsion is
explained using the Vortex theory by these authors in ‘Gas Turbine Theory’. In their book they
describe the process involved for the blade element parameters formulation. The various co-
ordinates that affect the blade contour is obtained using this theory. Various applications of the
gas turbomachinery for aviation purposes are enlisted for better understanding of the concepts.

S. M. Yahya [4] through his book ‘Turbines, Compressors and Fans’ helps in easy
understanding of axial flow through cascades of Turbine blade. The book also helps in
comprehending the basic propulsion principles used for the aerofoil analysis and various
dynamics acting on the same. It also enlists the different cascade profiles that can be used as
per various application requirements and how they are used for the same.

Oscar John Ohanian III [5] The paper depicts the concept of ducted fan and it’s pros over
standard open air based propellers and procedure for designing of ducted fan as per the

4
specifications required. Thus, the advantage of using ducted fan in a UAV is clearly briefed
through this paper.

R. MacNeill, D. Verstraete [6] This paper describes the use of BEMT for the formulation of
blade profile for the use in low Reynolds No. conditions. It explains the airfoil polar generated
over wide range of Reynolds No., interpolation of data extended to high angles of attack using
flate plate theory and wind tunnel data. The paper provides significant improvements in
modelling small propellers, but at low advance ratios, power coefficient is still overestimated
relative to wind tunnel results.

1.6 Problem Definition

To develop an experimental setup of a ducted fan propulsion system for a Twin Fuselage
UAV for a significant endurance and range suitable for operation under harsh weather
conditions.

1.7 Scope of the Project

The scope of the project is to design and fabricate a propulsion system capable of driving the
Twin Fuselage UAV for given flight conditions and to build an experimental setup to test and
determine the thrust of the propulsion unit. To develop a virtual aerodynamic body of the Twin
Fuselage for extracting the values for lift and drag which is to be taken as design constraints for
the propulsive unit.

In the next chapter, the design principles and analysis performed for the development of the
propulsion system is carried out to identify how each element in propulsion device functions
and understand the various interdependencies of the same.

5
 Chapter2

Literature Review

V. M. Cherkassky [1] The author in his book titled ‘Pumps, Fans, Compressors’ published by
Mir Publishers shows different aerofoil that can be used as blade cross-section. It depicts the
effect of various parameters of an aerofoil, their relationship with each other and how to
calculate the required dynamic aspect from an aerofoil. The book provides with the Momentum
Equation formulation that is used to develop velocity triangle to calculate the different
velocities acting on the blade aerofoil and induced by the same. However, the methods improve
the efficiency of the impeller design for axial flow machinery is obscure.

A. J. Main, G.D. Lock, T. V. Jones [2] proposed reviews on the topic ‘Free Vortex Theory
for efficiency calculations from annular cascade data’ published by Oxford University. It
portrays how vortex is developed in the annular regions and their dynamic aspects on the
propulsion device. The paper shows the improvement in the mixed annular flow state, even
when the flow is not purely axial

H.Cohen, GFC Rogers, HIH Saravanamuttoo [3] The Blade designing for the propulsion is
explained using the Vortex theory by these authors in ‘Gas Turbine Theory’. In their book they
describe the process involved for the blade element parameters formulation. The various co-
ordinates that affect the blade contour is obtained using this theory. Various applications of the
gas turbomachinery for aviation purposes are enlisted for better understanding of the concepts.

6
Alexandre Capitao Patrao [4] Published by Chalmers Publications of Chalmers University of
Technology, the paper titled ‘Implementation Blade Element Momentum / Vortex Methods for
designing of Aero Engine propellers’ provides a propeller code named OPTOPROP for fast and
quite capable designing of propellers and analysis methodologies. The data provided through
this paper serves as a potential baseline cases for more advanced optimization studies involving
CFD.

S. M. Yahya [5] through his book ‘Turbines, Compressors and Fans’ helps in easy
understanding of axial flow through cascades of Turbine blade. The book also helps in
comprehending the basic propulsion principles used for the aerofoil analysis and various
dynamics acting on the same. It also enlists the different cascade profiles that can be used as
per various application requirements and how they are used for the same.

Oscar John Ohanian III [6] The paper depicts the concept of ducted fan and its pros over
standard open-air based propellers and procedure for designing of ducted fan as per the
specifications required

R. MacNeill, D. Verstraete [7] This paper describes the use of BEMT for the formulation of
blade profile for the use in low Reynolds No. conditions. It explains the aerofoil polar generated
over wide range of Reynolds No., interpolation of data extended to high angles of attack using
flat plate theory and wind tunnel data. The paper provides significant improvements in
modelling small propellers, but at low advance ratios, power coefficient is still overestimated
relative to wind tunnel results.

E. Eugene Larrabee [8] The report on ‘Design of propellers for motorsoarers’ published on
official website of NASA talks about an efficient method of designing propellers based on
fundamental fluid dynamics formulas. Larrabee uses the BEMT together with Prandtl’s tip
losses and Range Kutta Joukowsky theorem to define the chord length stagger angle and
aerofoil cross- section at each section of the propeller blade

Nikolas S. Zawodny, Henry H. Haskin [9] The paper talks about small propeller and rotor
testing capabilities of the low speed aeroacoustics wind tunnel at the NASA’s Langley research
centre. The concept of test rig to experimentally determine the thrust generated by the propeller
7
using digital weighing machine has been adapted from the strain gauge concept used in the
above-mentioned paper. Thus, with the thrust of the propeller at the provided rpm, the weighing
machine displays the value which then is multiplied by the gravitational constant (9.81m/s).

Robert J. Weir [10] This paper on ‘Aerodynamic Design Consideration for free-flying Ducted
fan Propeller’ describes the simple concept of the Frozen-Rotor method of Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD). For a rotating object when a fluid flow analysis is to be performed, it can be
done by keeping the object stable i.e. it acts as a frozen rotor and the motion of the fluid is given
and analysed upon. Thus, in this project, for the analysis of the propeller, the propeller is
considered as the frozen rotor with air given the

8
 Chapter 3

Design and Analysis

It is necessary to classify the workspaces in this project and to do so, the intricate sections that
a UAV must have should be known and is important. For such project, these classifications
hold the crux of the entire work that is required to be done. While as that may be, it is necessary
to first define the dependencies that must be solved prior to the commencement of the design
proceedings. These dependencies are in some senses the scope of the project explain in terms
of equations and execute in terms of constrains.

Figure 3. 1: Isometric view of the Designed

aircraft

9
3.1 Design of the Craft Body

To design any system, large or small, it is necessary that the input as well as the physics defining
the conditions of the system to be predefined. When considering the said scope of the project,
it is but obvious that the input conditions for the propulsion system are similar to the conceptual
considerations taken in to account will constructing the idea behind the UAV, as well as the
outputs obtained by the preliminary design of the UAV body. Therefore, it is necessary to define
the construction and the parameters taken into consideration, with respect to the UAV's
aerodynamic body.

The primary considerations while ideating the TWIN FUSELAGE UAV included:

1. The total weight capacity of the UAV is 6 kg, including dead weight.
2. The total time of flight must be minimum 2-3 hr.
3. The total electronic power consumed should not be more than 10,000mAh.

Based on the above consideration the UAV designed had the following characteristics:

1. The fuselage was divided into two parts, hence the twin fuselage. Therefore, the front and
the rear wings could be divided into 3 sections each- right wing, mid wing, left wing. The
reason for selecting 2 fuselages was to reduce the bending moment and the reaction
forces. We can understand the significance by relating the conventional single fuselage
aircrafts as cantilever beams and the twin fuselage as simply supported beams as shown
in the Figure 3.2. While, the stress may be reduced by this, the manoeuvring capabilities
of the craft gets restricted.

10
 Figure 3. 2: Reaction Forces on wing

2. The right and the left wings of both, the front and the rear, are of the elliptical profile.
This is because elliptical profile reduces induced drag, which is plays a major part in the
drag losses. Induced Drag is given by the formulae
𝐶
𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 {𝐶𝑑 𝑝 + 𝜋Æ𝑙 𝑆} (3.1)

where Cl is coefficient of lift, S is span area, AE is profile coefficient, which is 1 for

elliptical. Elliptical profile was being generally avoided because of the stress increase
compared to direct tapered wings, but since in this case the stress is being taken care of
by the Twin fuselage configuration, it becomes compatible to be used.
3. There are 2 control flaps in the either side of the front wing and rudders at the rear end of
the craft, to navigate the craft as required. The craft is design keeping in mind the
electronic components as well as electricity supply sources necessary to control the UAV.
The UAV is expected to be controlled on-ground, by a remote-control computer, through
which an individual can also see the current location as well as the status of the UAV via
GPS. The control messages are relayed using telemetry module and GPS system. The
main controller is AMP30 microcontroller, which along with all the major components
are to be placed in the front mid wing, since it has enough thickness to accommodate
them. The batteries are designed to be placed with in the left and right front wings, either
Li-Po or Li-ion batteries are to be used.
4. When considering payload, there are 3 possible ways for the UAV to carry it. The first
one involves the payload to be split into 2 parts of equal weight, and to be attached at the
head of the fuselage support rods. The second way is to carry it hanging down from the
support rods as a single entity. The third and the final method involves a special container
attached only to the front wing which can carry all the payload together.

11
 Figure 3. 3: Different ways of loading payload

5. The harsh weather conditions are defined based on the following data:
a) Cross and Normal wind: High Wind, near gale of speed 16.5-17.5 m/s and at a height
of 5.5 m.
b) Rain fall with a velocity of 10 m/s and air density of 1.225 kg/m3.
c) Thunder and lightning conditions.

While these are the fundamental features distinguishing the said project UAV from the
conventional ones, it is but important to brief the design process.

3.1.1 Aerofoil

For designing the aerodynamic curves of the UAV, the fundamental curve to be kept in mind
is the aerofoil profile. The different aerofoils used to design the UAV are given below in the
form of table:

1 Front wing N10

2 Rear wing Ag03
3 Rudders NACA0010.

12
 Figure 3. 4: Aerofoils

3.1.2 Front Wing and Rear Wing

The Front and the Rear wings are divided into 3 sections with the view of ease in modelling.
The dimensions of the front wing are 700mm, 700mm and 600mm for left front wing, right
front wing and mid front wing respectively. Similarly, for the rear wing the dimensions are
200mm, 200mm and 600mm for left rear wing, right rear wing and mid rear wing respectively.

The total length of the front wing is 2m, whereas it is 1m for rear wing. The profile of the wings
was defined with their respective aerofoils. The span profile is elliptical for left and the right
wings for both front and rear, as mentioned above. The elliptical profile was constructed by
taking 30% of the chord length to be the reference axis, this is because the maximum thickness
for the said aerofoil profile is at 30%. Therefore, the span profile can be split into two: i.e. upper
curve and the lower curve.

Figure 3. 5: Wing ellipse curve

13
The upper curve is defined by the equation:

𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑏 ∗ √1 − (𝑎) (3.2)

Where a is the span length and b is 30% length of the maximum chord length,
For front wings a=700mm, b= 120mm
For rear wings, a=200mm, b= 30mm

The lower curve is defined by the equation:

𝑥 2
𝑦 = −𝑑 ∗ √1 − ( 𝑐 ) (3.3)

Where, c is the span length and d is 70% of the maximum chord length
For front wings, c=700mm, d=280mm
For rear wings, c=200mm, d=70mm.

The total front wingspan area is 2.765m2

The total rear wingspan area is 1.008m2.

These values have been selected keeping in mind the physics considerations such as lift, drag,
centre of gravity, neutral point. For ease in on air control, the neutral point is made co-incident
with the centre of gravity. In case where the payload is less or more than given the design is
kept flexible such that the neutral point can be varied by controlling the distance between the
two wings. This will be further explained in the construction of the UAV.

From the analysis, the lift generated by an aerofoil/ wing is directly proportional to angle of
attack of the aerofoil. But, the maximum angle of attack without flow separation is about 15⁰.
Since, lift this high is only required during take-off and landing and high lift also means higher
drag, the craft is designed for cruise condition, which is for 20m/s velocity. The angle of attack
of the aerofoil at normal (cruise) condition is 5⁰, which can be increased to 15⁰ using flaps. The
flaps are installed on the left and the right front wings, closer to the fuselage and within 70% of
the span. This is because the length and thickness make the manufacturing of the flaps easier.
The Flap has a span wise length of 300mm and takes a stream wise length of 30 % to the trailing
edge of the aerofoil, the flap gasses the flexibility to rotate 70⁰ to control the angle of attack.

14
The lift generated by the front wing with flaps at normal position is 51.9N. The lift generated
by the front wing with flaps at extreme position is 114.9N. The lift generated by the rear wing
is 14.44N. Therefore, the total lift that the wing can generate is 66.34N. This is sufficient to lift
the weight of the craft and the payload. During take-off, the craft will be able to lift the craft at
a speed of 20m/s only.

The rudders are designed to give a torque of 6.72N-m, which is required to turn the aircraft by
a radius of 2.5m. To achieve this, flaps of span wise length 100mm and stream wise length of
40mm was employed for both rudders. Therefore, the rudder has a height of 120mm and an
average chord length of 100mm, with smallest chord length of 70mm and largest chord length
130mm.

Figure 3. 6: Wings with flaps at extreme positions

3.1.3 Construction of UAV

The UAV is to be majorly manufactured using adhesive manufacturing or 3D printing. This is

because it has high finish and can easily manufacture complex curves. While the wings and the
rudders are to be 3D printed, the fuselage is a single aluminium rod (aluminium - to reduce
weight). The 3D printed wings will be internally supported using spar and rings, thus increasing
the structural integrity of the wings. The spar will also be an aluminium rod but of smaller
diameter. The rear wing will have lesser number of rings compared to the front wings. Flaps
will be employed at the 30% portion of the left and right front wings closer to the fuselages.
The flaps will be supported on hinges and will be operated by servo motors. The rudder flaps
will also be similarly constructed. While most of the electronic components will be located

15
inside the mid front wing, the batteries will be kept in the left and right wings, so that the weight
may be balanced symmetrically.

3.2 Design of Propeller and Shroud

The design developed requires two propulsion generating instruments which are to be attached
to either ends of the front wing. The propulsion system is basically inclusive of 2 major
components i.e. the propeller and the shroud. The propulsion system should be capable of
providing the thrust which is greater than the drag of the craft for the system to be stable and
working. Also, the thrust must be provided at medium power inputs (rpm). The duct plays an
important role as to enclose the flow and give it direction and also importantly to obstruct cross
winds and other projectiles to harm the propeller.

The cruising angular velocity for the propeller is set to be 5000rpm, which was decided based
on the basic given by the motor. The inlet velocity remains the same as the cruising velocity
viz. 20m/s, the diameter of the propeller is 120mm taking into consideration the design
restrictions. The hub diameter is 14mm and the thickness of the hub (i.e. propeller) is 12mm.
The inner diameter of the shroud is 130mm, this is because there needs to be a developed flow
in the clearance section.

Figure 3. 7: Shroud CAD, and Assembly

The flow development cannot be in the propeller area; therefore, the shroud is designed such
that the propeller is placed at 30% from the start of the shroud. The total height of the shroud is

16
100mm, which is to be 9-10 times of the propeller thickness. The shroud is made to incline at
an angle of 5 degrees, so that the shroud becomes a convergence nozzle which amplifies the
thrust. The aerofoil used in both the shroud and the propeller is CLARK Y, but the thickness
for shroud is reduced to about 6.7% to decrease drag. Support structure in the shroud is designed
with the propeller and the motor in mind.

So, a case is made at 46mm from the start of the shroud. The case holds the motor and has a
radius of 32mm and thickness of 1.5mm. It is held together with the shroud by 5 arms of 1.5mm
radii. The final design of the shroud also contains holding support for the shroud to hold on to
the aluminium support in the wing, but for testing purposes, the holding support has been
removed.

3.2.1 Larrabee’s Design Theory

Based on the literature study, it was decided to start with the simpler BEM and vortex methods
because of their approachability and simplicity in comparison with the lifting line and vortex
lattice methods. The induction factors a and a′ denote the induced axial and tangential velocities
at the blade element, giving velocities and flow angle at the blade element corresponding to:

𝑊𝑎 = 𝑉(1 + 𝑎) (3.4)
𝑊𝑡 = Ωr(1 − a′) (3.5)

𝑊 = √𝑊𝑎 2 + 𝑊𝑡 2 (3.6)

𝑉(1+𝑎)
𝑡𝑎𝑛Ø = 𝛺𝑟(1−𝑎)′ (3.7)

17
 Figure 3. 8: Velocity triangle of the propeller [8]

This is done assuming that the inflow is uniform with velocity 𝑤𝑖𝑛 and no upstream induced
tangential velocities (from other propellers or nacelles). The Prandtl tip loss factor is a simple
model that accounts for the effects of a tip vortex on the flow passing through it. This is done
by decreasing the amount of momentum that the blade tip can impart on the flow at the blade
tip. The definition is as displayed below:
2
𝐹 = 𝜋 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 −𝑓 (3.8)

Where the factor f is defined differently for the various methods in this article.

The helical wake is modelled as a vortex sheet extending from the propeller section, and its
tangential velocity is determined by:
𝑤𝑡 = 𝑤𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø = 𝑣′𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø (3.9)

This is the tangential velocity of the helical wake that the whole propeller produces and varies
with radius. The circulation can then be calculated for annular strips of the wake as follows:
𝐵𝛤 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑤𝑡 𝐹 (3.10)

Where F is the Prandtl tip loss factor, and Γ is the circulation produced by each blade. The
trigonometric terms can be rewritten using the velocities in figure 2.8, and assuming light
loading one can neglect the induced velocities to obtain:
1 𝑥 𝛺𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø = √1+𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø = √1+𝑥2 𝑥= (3.11)
𝑉

This is a rather major simplification, which will later lead to the Larrabee design and analysis
routines returning slightly different results. Combining above equations:

𝐵𝛤𝛺 𝑥2
= 1+𝑥 2 𝐹 = 𝐺 (3.12)
2𝜋𝑉𝑣 ′

𝐵√𝜆2 +1 𝑉
Where: 𝑓= (1 − 𝜉) 𝜆 = 𝛺𝑅 (3.13)
2𝜆
18
The non-dimensional radius is denoted with 𝜉.

Figure 3. 9: Thrust and drag force directions [8]

The thrust is given by the equation mentioned below:

1 1 𝜀
𝑇 ′ = 2πrρGV 2 ζ (1 − 2 ζ 1+𝑥 2) (1 − 𝑥) (3.14)

The design will now be constrained to a thrust or power. For this document only thrust will be
used, but power can easily be implemented. First, the sectional thrust is rewritten with the help
of the thrust coefficient Tc:

2𝑇 dT 1 𝑑𝑇𝑐
𝑇𝑐 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑇′ = = 2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜋𝑅 (3.15)
dr 𝑑𝜉

Where ξ is the dimensionless radius.

𝑑𝑇𝑐 𝜀 1−𝜀
= 4𝜉𝐺𝜁 (1 − 𝑥) − 2𝜉𝐺𝜁 2 (𝑥 2+1) (3.16)
𝑑𝜉

Integrating this expression from hub to tip will allow the velocity displacement to be solved for
given a thrust coefficient Tc:

𝐼 4𝐼2 𝑇𝑐
𝜁 = 2𝐼1 (1 + √1 − ) (3.17)
2 𝐼12

Where integrals I1 and I2 can be computed from:

19
 𝜀
𝜉2 𝜀 𝜉2 1−
𝐼1 = ∫𝜉1 4𝜉𝐺 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝜉 𝐼2 = ∫𝜉1 2𝜉𝐺 (1+𝑥𝑥2) 𝑑𝜉 (3.18)

Hence the flow angle can be formulated using:

𝑉(1+𝑎)
Ø = tan−1(𝛺𝑟(1−𝑎′)) (3.19)

3.2.2 Propeller and Shroud Designs

Using the Larrabee formulation, affirmative propeller design was generated in excel. The
propeller is designed to have a total dimension of 120mm in diameter with a hub diameter of
20mm and for shaft of 5mm to fit in. The initial design was structurally weak and couldn’t
generate the desired thrust as per analysis hence redesigning was performed.

From the previous design, there was a change in the parameters, like of the inlet velocity to 20
m/s from 28 m/s. The desired thrust was increased to 7.5N from 1N, as per design data obtained
from modified craft design while some parameters like RPM remained the same, i.e., 8000
RPM. The number of iterations considered while integrating were reduced while the number of
plots taken towards the tip were increased to improve accuracy. To plot the propeller, a greater
number of plots were taken into consideration.

The images of the new propeller and the it’s assembly together with the designed shroud has
be illustrated in the figure 2.10 and figure 2.7.

20
 Figure 3. 10: Comparing between the old (right) and new (left) propellers

The design of the shroud required us taking the basic dimensions of the motor and propeller
into account. The diameter of the shroud was about 140mm with a length of 100mm. for ease
in give the basic structure for the shroud. Arms for support, spar support and motor holders
were added to complete the design. Figure 2.23 is a picture of the front view of the completed
CAD model of the shroud. Figure 2.22 is the side view of the same.

With a third design alteration of the propeller a successful and analytically acceptable propeller
was obtained through Solidworks. The image for the same are given below and the excel sheet
for the dimensions are labelled in the annexures.

3.3 Analysis of UAV

It can be inferred from above that analysis of every system designed is necessary to validate as
well as to provide design inputs for further designing. To validate the design of the aircraft as
well as the shroud and the propeller, CFD, i.e. Computational Fluid Dynamics approach was
used.

The different simulation methodologies used to simulate different physical conditions are:

21
 1. To determine Lift and Drag of wings, fuselage, flaps and rudders – Direct CFD.
2. To determine stresses in wings and structural analysis of wing section- Fluid Structural
Interaction Method.
3. Optimization of angle of attack for wings – Parametric Study.
4. Thrust and flow analysis of propeller, with and without drag – Frozen Rotor method.

3.3.1 Lift and Drag Analysis of UAV

For lift and drag analysis of the UAV, initially all parts were considered individually after
analysis of which all were combined and analysed as a collective.

The general physics utilised was:

1. Material – Air (15⁰ C, 1.225 kg/m3, 1.47x 10-5 m2/s)

2. Turbulence Model RANS based k-ω (SST model)
3. Inlet (20 m/s, normal to the surface)
4. Outlet (0 Pa relative pressure, normal flow)
5. Open Boundary (0 Pa viscous stress)
6. Wall (roughness 100μm, no slip)

The geometries were meshed using hex-dominant quad/tria method and tetrahedron patch
conforming method. The number of mesh elements varied according to the size geometry.

Figure 3. 11: Aircraft analysis velocity streamline diagram

22
Lift and drag analysis of the following systems were computed:

a) Front Wing without flaps or with flaps at normal position.

b) Front Wing with flaps ant extreme position.
c) Rear Wing
d) Front and rear wing at different angle of attacks for optimization.
e) Complete UAV analysis.

The review of the CFD performed on the UAV structure are as follows:

Table 3.1: Lift and Drag with different components

Sr.
System Lift Drag
No.

Front Wing without flaps or with

1 51.9N 3.12N
flaps at normal position.
Front Wing with flaps ant extreme
2 114.9N 7.2N
position.
3 Rear Wing 14.4N 1.44N
The lift varies as the The drag varies as the
Front and rear wing at different angle of attack varies. angle of attack varies.
4
angle of attacks for optimization. See table below. See table below.

5 Complete UAV analysis. 74N 3.5N

Table 3.2: Lift and Drag of the wings at different AOA

Wing Angle of Attack Lift Drag

0⁰ 21N 5.5N

Front Wing 5⁰ 75N 2.5N

9⁰ 145N 7N

0⁰ 7N 1.54N

Rear Wing 5⁰ 14.4N 1.2N

9⁰ 22N 2.5N

23
It is understandable from the above table that 9⁰ is most optimum angle of attack for take-off
and landing conditions when the lift has more prominence, but for cruising conditions 5⁰ gives
just enough lift to keep the aircraft stable while has the least amount of drag which in turn
increases the endurance and capacity of the UAV. The extreme position of the flap is kept being
9⁰ therefore, and the normal wing angle of attack is kept as 5⁰.

3.3.2 Structural Analysis of the Wings

The method used to simulate the structural condition of the wings was Fluid Structural
Interaction. In this method first a CFD is performed to obtain the pressure variations on the
surface of the wings, which is then used as inputs for performing structural analysis.

As physics for this method first for CFD:

1. Material – Air (15⁰ C, 1.225 kg/m3, 1.47x 10-5 m2/s)

2. Turbulence Model RANS based k-ω (SST model)
3. Inlet (20 m/s, normal to the surface)
4. Outlet (0 Pa relative pressure, normal flow)
5. Open Boundary (0 Pa viscous stress)
6. Wall (roughness 100μm, no slip)
7. Symmetry

Figure 3. 12: Deformation in wing section due to pressure loading

On analysis the pressure contour on the wings were taken as output from the CFD and made as
input for structural analysis. The physics for structural analysis used were:

24
 1. Material
a. For the wing - PLA
b. For main support rod - Aluminium
c. For wing contour supports – Mild Steel
2. Steady State Structural Analysis
3. Imported Pressure Load – CFX
4. Rigid Support – Support Rods
5. Elastic Support - Wing surface

On analysis it was found that the maximum deformation possible due to bending is 0.00126mm
which is very small and can be neglected. Thus, by the structural analysis we were able to
validate the place of attachment of the propulsion system, which is close to the fuselage. Also,
by this analysis we were able to reconfirm the selection of the lift and drag loading of the wing.

3.3.3 Thrust and Flow analysis of Propeller and Shroud

This is the most important part of the analysis, i.e. to validate the design before going for
manufacturing, this helps in reducing the cost of manufacturing and also to conform on the
design of the propeller.

The method used for the analysis is Frozen Rotor Method, this method freezes the propeller and
instead of the propeller inducing the flow the flow is made to pass through the propeller and the
effect of the boundary layer and no slip condition of the propeller walls are observed.

The physics used in this analysis are:

1. Material – Air (15⁰ C, 1.225 kg/m3, 1.47x 10-5 m2 /s)

2. Rotating Domain – the entire fluid domain inside the shroud (5000/8000 rpm, y-axis, at
origin)
3. Turbulence Model RANS based k-ω (SST model)
4. Inlet (20 m/s, normal to the surface)
5. Outlet (0 Pa relative pressure, normal flow)
6. Symmetry (1/5th of the propeller, i.e. only a single blade is simulated to reduce the
computational time and effort and by using symmetry the condition is made symmetric)
7. Wall (both the propeller and the shroud, roughness 100μm, non-rotating, no slip)

25
For meshing the propellers, the Tetrahedron Patch Conforming method was used. The boundary
layers were made of 6-8 layers based on the size possible. Refinement of the meshing near the
edges were done to decrease curvature capture as well as mesh deformation.

Following analysis were done using this method:

1. Old Propeller, 8000rpm (design rpm)

2. Old propeller, 5000rpm
3. New propeller, 8000 rpm
4. New propeller, 5000rpm (design rpm)

The result obtained are tabulated in the table below:

Table 3.3: Thrust and Exit Velocity of propellers at different RPM

System
Sr.
Outlet Velocity Thrust
No.
Propeller Rpm

1 New 5000 23.45m/s 2.0757N

2 New 8000 30.59m/s 7.41N

3 Old 5000 20.46m/s 0.2577N

4 Old 8000 24.72m/s 2.922N

Figure 3. 13: Streamline velocity inside the propeller

26
The thrust is not directly obtained but must be calculated from the outlet velocity with the
formula.

𝑇 = 𝜌𝐴(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 2 ) (3.20)

Where, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3,

A (area of the propeller disc) = 0.0113m2 and Vin = 20m/s

Thus, it can be seen from the analysis that the design is successful and will be capable of driving
the aircraft.

Figure 3. 14: Pressure contour at z=40mm

27
 Chapter 4

Setup Fabrication and Experimentations

In chapter 3, we have seen how designing of the propeller along with its duct took place for the
purpose of driving a twin fuselage UAV. The aim of the experiment being to develop a
propulsion system for twin fuselage flight, hence, to experimentally determine the thrust
generated by the designed propulsion system, we need to fabricate and develop a test rig to do
so.

4.1 Elements of the Setup

The major components of the above-mentioned test rig setup are as follows:

• Ducted Propeller
• Arduino UNO and Jumper wires
• BLDC motor and Electronic speed controller (ESC)
• Potentiometer
• Wooden base with Supports

28
 • Square rods
• Digital Weighing machine

4.1.1 Ducted Propeller

The setup is being developed to experimentally calculate the thrust generated by the designed
ducted propeller. The propeller is designed for ClarkY aerofoil using the formulae’s mentioned
in the paper by Eugene Larrabee and consists of 5 blades. The shroud is 1mm thick with the
propeller placement at approximately 30% of the shroud length.

4.1.2 Arduino UNO and Jumper Wires

The simplest, easiest and most used microcontroller is Arduino UNO which will be used to run
the BLDC motor at the specified rpm to generate the thrust by the propulsion system to drive
the UAV at the cruising range of velocity. The connections to the Arduino and other
components are done with the help of Jumper wires.

Figure 4. 1: Arduino Uno and jumper wires

29
4.1.3 BLDC Motor and Electronic speed controller (ESC)

To run the propeller, we use a brushless DC motor which is of the series A2212 type. The motor
is of 2200KV specification. The variable speed of the motor is accordingly controlled by the
ESC. The ESC is connected to the Arduino, which provides it with the basic source power and
the platform of controlling.

Figure 4. 2: BLDC motor and ESC controller

4.1.4 Potentiometer

Potentiometer is used for variable resistance factor, which is needed to provide change in speed
of the motor rotation i.e. rpm variation provision.

Figure 4. 3: Potentiometer

30
4.1.5 Wooden Base with Supports

This is the base for the test rig assembly. The testing setup rest on the same which is a plywood
which is 15-20 mm thick, it also has a vertical plywood support on to which the weighing
machine is to be attached rigidly. There are also 2 wooden cuboidal supports of dimensions
50*50*150mm which are place at 1ft so as to fit the 32*32 hollow square rods.

Figure 4. 4: Wooden base with supports

4.1.6 Square rods

For the test rig construction, there are 2 types of square rods used. A 32*32 mm and 1ft long
hollow rod is used as the fixed part whereas a 25*25 mm and 2ft long square hollow rod is
placed within the rod acting as the fixed part. This 2ft long rod is the movable part which holds
on to the propulsion system at one of its ends and the other end is connected to the weighing
machine for the display of the generated thrust. The reason for choosing square rods is to
prevent the rotation of the rods internally.

31
 Figure 4. 5: Square rods acting as fixed and movable part respectively

4.1.7 Digital Weighing machine

The digital weighing machine in this setup acts as the display unit, where the weight is shown.
Propulsion system attached to one end will generate thrust which will pull the movable rod and
in turn the weighing machine attached to the other end of the movable rod. This thrust is
displayed as weight (in kg) on the weighing machine display.

Figure 4. 6: Digital Weighing Machine

32
4.2 Construction and Working

The construction of the test rig begins with the plywood base also having vertical support made
of plywood where the weighing machine is to be attached rigidly. Along with the vertical
support there are 2 cuboidal wooden blocks on which the 32*32 square rod acting as the fixed
part. The 2ft long rod is placed inside the fixed rod which acts as the movable part, one end of
the rod is connected with the propulsion system which will generate the thrust and result in the
motion of the movable rod, this motion of the rod pulls the weighing machine and the weight
(in kg) is displayed on the digital weighing machine. This displayed weight indicates the thrust
generated by the propulsion system in kgs.

Figure 4. 7: CAD model of Test rig

Figure 4. 8: Section diagram of the complete assembly

33
4.3 Final Setup

After fabrication of the complete setup the setup looked like figure 3.9. To support the vertical
plyboard, two L-brackets were used. They were screwed onto the base and the vertical board.
Instead of hook to connect the weighing scale and the inner rod, nylon rope was used. The
weighing scale was tested and calibrated to standards.

Figure 4. 9: Final setup

4.4 Manufacturing of propeller and shroud

Propeller and the shroud were 3D printed using the SLS (Selective Laser Sintering) method,
this procedure was opted due the fact that the required layer thickness and the surface roughness
were very high as well as the toughness required. SLA method could also have been opted, but
the cost was high, and the product would have been brittle.

After fabrication of the first set of propellers, it was found that the propeller was not able to
produce enough thrust as will be explained below. Therefore, the design was redone and sent
for production.

34
 Figure 4. 10: Manufactured first set of propellers

The shroud was similarly 3D printed and the final product turned out to be better than
expectation, the finish was good as well as the stiffness.

Figure 4. 11: Final 3D Printed Shroud

4.4 Testing of propeller

The 3D printed propeller was tested for thrust and strength by using the thrust measuring setup
as described above. The propeller was fastened to the motor which was attached to the motor
extension. The propeller was driven to about 4500rpm, but the thrust obtained due it this was
only 0.06kg which on conversion to N gives only 0.59N. This is very less compared to the
requirement of 1.75N from one propeller. Since the thrust obtained was very low, the propeller
35
was redesigned but this time with an angular velocity of 5000rpm instead of 8000rpm. This
change not only increases the thrust thus obtained but also decreases the amount of power to be
consumed by the motor, therefore increasing the time of flight and endurance.

The reason as to why the thrust obtained is so low, it might have been because of the loss in
thickness due to shrinking and sintering during curing period of the post processing session of
the 3Dprinting. The effect of shrinkage was taken care of when the shroud was printed by taking
shrinkage allowance. While the diameter or the depth of the propeller did on decrease, the
thickness of the blade decreased from 1.12mm to 0.56mm.

36
 Chapter 5

Conclusion

As seen in the previous chapter, we were able successfully design, manufacture and to some
extent test the propulsion system as specified in the project objective.

To reach this, the perquisites and dependencies were first designed and decided on based on
which the propulsion system was to be designed. The perquisites included design on a
fundamental level the structure as well as the aerodynamics of the proposed aircraft UAV. The
first level design showed immense promise as it was capable of flight even in harsh weathers,
the power required was lesser as well as the endurance of the flight was commendable.

The dependencies like material selection of the UAV as well as payload determination and
flight manoeuvring capabilities were decided so that the load on the propulsion system could
be accurately identified.

Based on the formulas and theory as prescribed by E. Eugene Larabee[9], the propeller was
designed. Due to some manual error in the first iteration, the first designed propeller turned out
to be very weak on testing. After improving the formulation as well as the input parameters, the
second propeller was design.

37
Before rejecting the first propeller design, simulation using Frozen Rotor method was done
using Ansys and Comsol software. The analysis on the propeller should marginally thrust and
high drag. On analysing the second propeller, it was found that the new design was capable of
more thrust at even lower RPM’s. Analysis on the aerodynamics of the flight as well as lift
determination was also carried out.

To test the propulsion system, a testing rig was made and calibrated with reference to the
NASA’s Thrust measurement setup. During the testing of the first propeller, the propeller was
providing marginal thrust and after a while broke at a weak cross section near the hub. The
testing on the second propeller had to be paused due to nationwide lockdown during corona
pandemic, but there is confidence that this design will work with supports from the simulation
results.

38
 References

[1] V. M. Cherkassky, “Pumps, Fans, Compressors”, Mir Publications.

[2] A. J. Main, G.D. Lock, T. V. Jones, “Free Vortex Theory for efficiency calculations from
annular cascade data,” Department of Engineering Science, Oxford University.

[3] H. Cohen, GFC Rogers, HIH Saravanamuttoo, “Gas Turbine Theory”, Addison Wesley
Longman Ltd. Publications, 4th Edition.

[4] Alexandre Capitao Patrao, “Implementation Blade Element Momentum / Vortex Methods
for designing of Aero Engine propellers”, Chalmers Publications, Chalmers University of
Technology, Sweden.

[5] S.M. Yahya, 2005, “Turbines, Compressors and Fans”, TATA McGraw Hill.

[6] Osgar John Ohanian III, “Ducted Fan Aerodynamics and Modeling, with Application of
Steady and Synthetic Jet Flow Control”, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

[7] R.MacNeill, D.Verstraete, “Blade Element Momentum Theory to model Low Reynolds No.
Propeller Performances”, Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Sydney.

[8] E. Eugene Larabee, “Design of propellers for motorsoarers”, NASA. Langley Res. Center
The Sci. and Technol. of Low Speed and Motorless Flight, Pt. 1"; p. p 285-303.

[9] Nikolas S. Zawodny, Henry H. Haskin, “Small Propeller and Rotor Testing Capabilities of
the NASA Langley Low Speed Aeroacoustics Wind Tunnel”, NASA Langley Res. Centre,
Hampton, AIAA 2017-3709, 5-9 June 2017.

[10] Robert J. Weir, “Aerodynamic design considerations for a free-flying ducted propeller”,
Sandia National Laboratories Albuquerque. New Mexico, 88-4377-CP.

39
 Annexure 1

A.T 1: Chord length, stagger angle with respect to the radial distance

Radial Distance (m) Chord length (cm) Stagger angle (°)

0.017 2.254947005 1.300029533

0.01915 2.509261866 1.253004243
0.0213 2.712456374 1.208168635
0.02345 2.866762187 1.165540934
0.0256 2.976528812 1.125105581
0.02775 3.046958084 1.086819919
0.0299 3.083265938 1.050620491
0.03205 3.090177283 1.016428671
0.0342 3.071650606 0.984155498
0.03635 3.03074414 0.953705688
0.0385 2.969556412 0.924980852
0.04065 2.889191619 0.897882012
0.0428 2.789710505 0.872311488
0.04495 2.670027093 0.848174287
0.0471 2.527694015 0.825379059
0.04925 2.35846508 0.803838731
0.05 2.291933764 0.796604567
0.0514 2.155371907 0.783470877
0.0525 2.034842733 0.773478189
0.05355 1.906577646 0.764197894
0.0545 1.776924447 0.756011661
0.0557 1.589412841 0.745947036
0.05785 1.146904 0.728650333
0.0584 0.994437262 0.724371107
0.0592 0.70833865 0.718248726
0.0594 0.614552964 0.716736701
0.0596 0.502688062 0.715232011
0.0598 0.356094726 0.713734608
0.05985 0.308525598 0.713361391
0.0599 0.252023139 0.712988625
0.05995 0.178287164 0.712616311

40
 Annexure 2

A 2. 1: Lift and drag analysis of wings at normal flap positions

A 2. 2: Drag on the propeller, Outlet velocity of the propeller and the torque required for new propeller at
5000rpm

41
A 2. 3: Pressure contour of the new propeller when rotated at 5000rpm

42
A 2. 4: Front wings with flaps

43