5

Chapter 2
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter presents the ideas, concepts, and plans relevant to the Development

and Utilization of Extracts from Jicama (Pachyrhizus erosus) and Yacon (Smallanthus

sonchifolius) as Sports Drink. The researchers sort out different researchers and studies to

answer the rationale and introduce the framework of the study that compromises the main

focus of this research.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Beverages

Beverage is a liquid that you can drink. It is a kind of liquid that satisfy the thirst.

In addition, drinks have an important role in human lives. Beverages are consumed by the

consumer because of its thirst-quenching properties, yet others are consumed because of

its stimulating effects, for their food value, or simply because it is pleasurable to

consume. It is also any kind of liquid that includes juices, coffee, milk, tea, soft drinks,

and water.

Any liquid that can quench the thirst and can drink is called beverage. Drink or

beverage play an important role in human culture and providing essential nutrients. All

beverage contains water and supports proper hydration. Fruits and vegetable juices are

also good sources of vitamin C, folate and potassium, while milk and plant-based milk

beverage provide protein, calcium, and vitamin D. Other beverages can be formulated to

meet specific nutritional needs. There are two types of beverages; alcoholic and non-

alcoholic. The alcoholic beverage is a kind of drink which contains ethyl alcohol or

commonly known as alcohol. An alcohol-free or non-alcoholic beverage contains little or

 6

no alcohol. This category includes; Water, Milk, and dairy-based beverages, soy-based

beverages, juice drinks, soft drinks, sports drinks, energy drinks, tea, and coffee.

Alcoholic Beverages

Figure 1. Different Types of Alcoholic drinks

Source: http.bosphorusshipsupply.com

Figure 1 shows the different types of alcoholic beverages. It includes wine, beer,

spirits, distilled liquor, whiskey, and brandy. These drinks contain ethanol commonly

known as alcohol. This is made by the fermentation process.

The alcoholic beverage is a kind of drink which contains ethyl alcohol or

commonly known as alcohol. Alcohol beverages are made from the sugars in different

fruits, grains, berries and other ingredients such as tubers, honey, saps from the plant in

the process of fermentation and may be subject to distillation to reduce the original water

content to a liquid which has more alcoholic strength.

Beer is an alcoholic beverage which is best-known and is consume back over

6000 years and a malt family member of alcoholic beverages, which includes stouts, ales,

malt liquors, and porters. The main ingredients of beer are water, hops, and malted cereal
 7

grains, and barley. Rice, corn and other unmalted grains are added as sources of

“adjunct” or additional sugars for the fermentation by Saccharomyces yeast to make it an

ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcoholic content of beers is ranging from 2

percent alcohol to about 8 percent. Brewing is the process of hot water extraction in plant

materials it is also the process of beer making. Beer is considered to be the alcoholic

drink that is consumed most widely in the world and is to be the third-most popular drink

next to the water and tea. Beer is ought to be brewing way back 6000 years ago and until

today it is being practiced and consumed what has been gained is the way of

understanding the biochemistry and microbiology underlying in beer-making.

Wine, like in beer-making, it is consumed goes back in at least 4000 B.C. and is

practiced until today. Grapes is the primary raw material for making wine. The juices of

grapes undergo the fermentation process to make wine. Wine can be made from many

fruits such as cherries, berries, plums or apples (cider), but the grape is by far the most

often used and it is popular to use as raw material. Wine is popular in other countries like

France and Italy that produces 29 million metric tons and in the United States of America

which produces 2.6 Billion Liters.

When the grapes matured, the wine yeast Saccharomyces ellipsoideus naturally

grows and accumulate on the skins of the fruits. The matured grapes are crushed and the

juice or filtered juices is placed at a temperature of 27 degrees and proceed to

fermentation yielding the essential equal amount of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide and

other flavors. After the fermentation has been completed naturally or stopped, the mixture

will go to “racking” which allows the wine to stand until all the wine yeast and other

impurities to suspend. After the racking, the wine is aged in wine casks or tanks to
 8

prevent any air to enter in months to a year. The last step is to filter the aged wine and

bottled. Wines such as Burgundy, Bordeaux, Chianti, and Sauterne are unfortified wines

which contain 10 to 14 percent alcohol. Fortified wines are wines that which alcohol or

brandy has been added includes muscatel, port, and sherry which contains 17 to 20

percent of alcohol. Wines are named depending on its variety or their region of origin. In

the United States, wines are grouped into five classes which are the red wines, white

wines, appetizer wines, sparkling wines, and sweet wines. These terms are somewhat

descriptive of the general characteristics of grape wines and how they are brought about.

The quality of wines depends on the maturity of the grapes that are being harvested if the

grapes that are going to use in winemaking is harvested too early or too late, the

possibility of producing low-quality wines is high. The harvest time of grapes is very

critical because of its balance of accumulated sugars, acids and other flavor components

that reaches the optimal level to produce a high-quality wine produce a fine wine.

Non-alcoholic Beverages

Drinks which doesn’t have any alcohol or its sugar is not converted to alcohol or

does not undergo fermentation process is referred as a Non-alcoholic beverage. Drinks

such as coffee, tea, milkshakes, tap water, soda pops, energy drinks are all kind of non-

alcoholic beverages. They are the kinds of drinks that are considered to have depended on

the standard or choice of the consumers.

These drinks are packaged in different size of bottles or in cans or open liquids

which is ready to consume in any kind of a meal or without a meal. Mineral waters,

carbonated drinks, coffee, tea, fruit juices, syrups, and etc. are packed hygienically in

different kinds of bottles and cans in a safe manner and are sold in the markets or any
 9

convenience stores. In the United States, a non-alcoholic beverage or also known as

virgin drinks is defined as a beverage that does not have alcohol content or at least 0.5

percent only of alcohol by volume. Some alcoholic beverage like beer has a version of

non-alcoholic beer or “near beer” that is widely available in the market. There are “soft

drinks” and “hard drinks”, soft drinks are drinks that have no any alcohol content and it is

a contrast to hard drinks and drinks. The drink is a term that is naturally neutral as a

drink, but it is often used in a way to alcoholic drinks. Soft drinks is a general category

for drinks that doesn’t have any alcohol or low content of alcohol like sparkling water,

soda pops, iced teas, lemonades, fruit juices, milk, hot chocolates, milkshakes, coffee,

teas, root beers, and energy drinks that is widely enjoyed and consumed because the

consumption of it is pleasurable.

Figure 2. Different brands

of Soda

Source: http.huntrextrading.com

Another type of non-alcoholic beverages as shown in figure 2 are mainly

containing 0.5% of alcohol or completely no alcohol drinks. These drinks are made up of

sodium bicarbonate with water, caffeine, colorings, sugars and other preservatives. This

drinks are known or widely identify as soft drinks. Soft drinks are labeled “soft” to
 10

become in contrast to the alcoholic beverages or “hard drinks” because they contain only

0.5% alcohol or completely alcohol-free drinks.

Juice is also the most or one of the most popular drinks in the world on usually

known as a part of a people’s daily breakfast. This kind of beverages can attract the

interest of children, which is why most of the juice companies provide different varieties

of fruit and vegetable juices. Juice or fruit juice is a liquid that is naturally present in

fruits and vegetables that is unfermented but fermentable to produce other by-products.

Juice is done by simply squeezing the meat of the fruit to get the extract without applying

or using heat or any other solvents.

Tea is a type of non-alcoholic beverages and the category where the product

belongs. Tea is second to the most consumed drink which is water in the world. It is a

beverage that has the aromatic property that is prepared by pouring hot or brewing over

the leaves of Camellia sinensis. It is originated in South Western China, where it serves

as a recreational drink during the Tang dynasty of the Chinese, tea drinking spread to

East Asia countries, where it was used as a medicinal drink. One of the earliest forms of

medicine is a tea that helps to cure headaches, kidney problems, poor digestion, ulcers,

and also has antioxidants and can reduce the risk of cancer. It also helps to be the focus

and alert the mental state of mind.

Tea comes from the young leaves of the tea plant and a hot water extract of

leaves. The tea leaves are handpicked from new shoots and make it as a tea. Tea leaves

contain three important kinds of constituents which contributes to the quality of the tea or

the brewing quality: the caffeine, which is the stimulant in the teas; tannins and related
 11

compounds, which give color and strength, which often associated with the terms of body

and astringency; and the essential oils, which is the flavor and aroma giving constituents.

Energy Drinks
Energy Drink is a non-alcoholic beverage and a widely promoted beverage that

increases the consumer’s alertness, mental performance, and physical performance. The

major ingredient in most of the energy drinks is Caffeine. A 24-oz energy drink contains

as much as 500 mg of caffeine similar to five cups of coffee. Calories provide energy but

the energy from the energy drinks promise derives from the caffeine. Other energy drinks

are flavored containing other ingredients of vitamins, taurine, theanine, carnitine, herbal

supplements, creatine, sugars, and guarana, a plant product that naturally contains

concentrated caffeine.

Figure 3. Different brands of Energy Drinks

Source: https://cdn.caffeineinformer.com

Figure 3 shows the different brands of energy drinks. This kind of non-alcoholic

drinks is promoted in the whole world that increases alertness and enhances the mental

and physical performance. It contains caffeine which is the main ingredient in all energy

drinks.
 12

Protein-energy drinks are alternatives to the protein-energy providing meals due to

lack of time to prepare the said meals. These drinks are easy to carry and convenient that

has all the needs of the body. Protein is needed to the diet and it can be found in food

with high amount of protein such as milk, eggs, meat, and fish because they are

unprocessed foods that have a higher nutritional value. Protein drinks are conveniently

drinks that provide a large amount of protein and energy immediately that the body needs

to work.

Protein Drink is any beverage containing lots of protein and amino acids. It can be in

powdered form or in shake form. Commonly it has been drinking after gym workouts

especially in bodybuilders. The protein drink must contain all the necessary proteins for

the body. But then a highly pure protein drink without carbohydrates is useless because it

can only damage the muscles during the workout (Reid, 2016). Protein shakes is one

form of protein drink. It used by any engaged in physical activities after their respective

workout to replenish their body (Antonio, n.d.). Important to increase the protein intake

of the body when the objective is to reduce fat and weight and decrease the consumption

of carbohydrates and fats. It is favorable for the obese when they realize to reduce the

body mass and choose a healthier lifestyle. There are also consider what action shall be

taken. If the marathon will be the activity, it must be the higher composition of

carbohydrates in the drink to ensure the endurance of the body during the marathon but if

body-building and/or any related activities, it shall be the higher content of protein to

build the muscles.

Sports Drinks
 13

Sports drink are very popular for the young adults with ages 18-25. It is used to

retain electrolytes. Nowadays the youth have a very active lifestyle that engages in different

physical activities like sports. The more the sweat releases, the body needs more fluids and

electrolytes to replenish and rehydrate the body. However, the existing products of energy

and sports drinks contain a high content of calories so that the primary purpose of calorie

drinks become useless especially

those who become engaged in

physical activities to reduce their body

mass (Hoffman, n.d.; as cited on

Johnson, 2011).

Figure 4. Different brands of Sports Drinks

Source: https://www.runnersworld.com

Sports drinks are beverages which the main function have replenished the fluids

and electrolytes to the body after a physical activity as shown in figure no 4. It also used

a drink as an administrative drink for restoring the electrolytes when suffering from

diarrhea and loose bowel movement (LBM). Generally, the sports drink must contain a

saccharide with 2.5% w/v and inorganic salts. The saccharide from the energy drink will
 14

provide sufficient amount of glycogen for the liver as an immediate energy to be used for

different organs. It can be classified depends on the proportion of the electrolytes and

saccharide contents. This non-alcoholic beverage is formulated to replenish the people

who are working hard or during their exercise which helps them to rehydrate. Usually,

these drinks contain sugar as carbohydrates, which is the most efficient source of energy

for the body; electrolytes, minerals like calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, and

potassium which replace the electrolytes that are lost during work; and other sweeteners

and preservatives. It is important to keep rehydrated especially for people who are

diagnosed with diabetes which has an increased risk of dehydration because of high

levels of glucose in blood or blood glucose.

Sports Drinks contains various fluids, carbohydrates, and electrolytes which help

to replenish all the lost fluid of the body. Sports drinks have three main types depending

on the levels of fluid, carbohydrates, and electrolytes. These three main types are the

isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic. The isotonic sports drinks contain the same salt and

sugar concentration in the body which helps quickly in replacing lost fluids through

sweating and supplies a lot of carbohydrates or boost of energy. The hypertonic sports

drinks contain the higher salt and sugar concentration than in the body which meets the

demand of high energy of the body and it is also consumed after a workout to supplement

the daily energy intake. The hypotonic sports drinks contain the lower salt and sugar

concentrations than in the body which quickly helps replace the fluid that is lost by

sweating but does not provide a boost of energy like the isotonic. It is suitable for people

who only need to replenish the fluid that they lost during or after work. The absorption of

fluids in the body from the drink depends on the factors that affect the osmolality of the
 15

fluid. There are particles in the fluid that is measured to identify the osmolality of the

particular fluid. In the sports drinks, that particle that is has comprised of electrolytes,

carbohydrates, preservatives, and sweeteners. The blood has it owns osmolality and its

osmolality is 280 to 330Osm/Kg. If the sports drink has the same particles or not that

lower or higher to the osmolality of the blood then it is balanced with the fluid in the

body, therefore, it is isotonic. Hypotonic drinks have high amounts of fluid but fewer in

the particles than the blood and the hypertonic has more particles in blood but low in

fluids.

Water is the main component of the body. The body is made up of almost 70

percent of water. The body needed to get moisture and nourished from the water it also

needs it for regulating the body temperature. Water has a lot of function in the human

body, it transports nutrients in all parts of the body, it is a medium for the development of

blood, and it carries all the possible by-products of digestion which comes out in the body

in the form of urine. Water is a vital ingredient in preparing food and in food. In some

foods, water has properties that can flow and act as a solvent. However, if the water is

bonded to hydrogen within the food or with food it loses its free-flowing property. Most

of the foods, even those which are hard and dry, contains moisture or water. Water

activity in the food is the ratio of vapor pressure. In some foods, the vapor pressure is

0.95 and is just less in 1.00 and in highly salted foods and foods with high amount of

sugar content the vapor pressure is between 0.80 and 0.90.

Water is the principal solvent for the organic and inorganic chemicals that are

involved in the biological reactions which are essential to the life. The molecular level,

cellular level, and the metabolic and functional levels are considered for the need for
 16

water. Water is a medium that carries all the nitrogenous waste and the by-products from

the cells of the body for elimination. Without food, the human body can last weeks, but

without water, the body can only last days. Water is needed to be replenished in the body

every time since the body can’t store water. The body can have health risk if the water is

not enough in the body like kidney stones, urinary tract infections, salivary gland

function, and lowers the physical and mental performance. When the water is too low in

the body, dehydration occurs but it is easily fixed by drinking a lot of water and fluids.

Since water is the best option for rehydration of the body, having excessive amounts of

water can cause an imbalance in the body of electrolytes. These refer to water

intoxication, it is very rare to happen but it is fatal.

Sweet is one of the four basic tastes of the human. The sweet taste is provided by

a variety of compounds in every food. Although the monosaccharides and disaccharides

are among the carbohydrates that have natural sweet taste, there are sweeteners that are

noncarbohydrate compounds such as aspartame and saccharin that are widely used by

many food companies. Each of the sweeteners has a unique characteristic of the specific

sugar or sugar substitute that is going to use, it is important for the food scientists to be

familiarized and know the behavior and properties of the possible sugar substitute or

sweeteners and the required performance of sweeteners in different food products.

Sugar is a carbohydrate that is sweet and soluble. The sugar that is available in

most of the markets is sucrose which is derived from sugarcane or sugar beets which

undergone several processes to produce the desired degree of purity.

 17

Figure 5. Different types of Sugar

Source: http://www.whitegloveconsultancy.com/z

Figure 5 shows the different types of sugars that are available and commonly used

in the household. The food companies use a certain type of sugar for their product to

meet the specific requirement.

When sugars are dissolved it is sweet to the tongue but others are sweeter than

others. Sugars have the ability to sweeten the foods and it also contributes 4 kilocalories

per gram in the food. If the sugar is very sweet to use in sweetening food then it can use a

smaller amount of sugar than the lesser sweet sugars, resulting in the reduction of calories

without sacrificing the

sweetness of the food. Even though

these sweeteners are the

responsible in the perspectives of

taste and calories, the

sweetness is not the only property to

merit in using the sugar in

sweetening in food, as is evident in the section as functional properties of sugars. Sugars

 18

do not only contribute to the taste of the food but also in the color. It contributes to the

color of the products that are heated or in high temperature or for the extended period of

time. Some of the color that is noted in the foods are due to some chemical breakdown of

the sugar. The nonenzymatic browning is responsible for the much development of the

color while boiling or in high temperature.

Carbohydrates, from the name itself, implies the hydration of carbon. The

carbohydrates have different types of carbon chain such as monosaccharides,

disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The monosaccharides and

disaccharides are considered to be simple sugar and the oligosaccharides and

polysaccharides are the complex carbohydrates.

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates which contains three and

six or more carbon atoms. The types of sugars that are monosaccharides are glucose,

fructose, and galactose which are hexoses. The structures of disaccharides are related to

the monosaccharides because disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides join

together and eliminate a molecule of water. The disaccharides that are common in food

are the sucrose, forms from glucose and fructose; maltose, forms from two unit of

glucose; and lactose, forms from glucose and galactose. The glucose is the single unit

monosaccharides that is common in all three structures.

Oligosaccharides structure is made from three to ten glucose unit or

monosaccharides. They are the type of sugar that are not common on foods but form as

some polysaccharides that turns into basic components. Polysaccharides structures are

very large that the saccharides are linked together by 1,4 linkages and 1,6 linkages. The
 19

common polysaccharides in foods are the cellulose, pectin, dextrins, and the two starch

which are the amylose and amylopectin.

Electrolytes are chemical substances (nutrients) in the blood or body fluid that is

essential and have many functions. These substances are becoming ion in solution in the

body and have the capacity to conduct electricity for the body to work such as regulating

the muscles to contract so it can move. Electrolytes are vital for the proper functioning

and regulating of the body. It regulates our nerves and muscle functions as well as the

body’s hydration, pH in the blood, blood pressure, and repairing of damaged tissue.

The electrolytes that are found in the body are calcium, potassium, magnesium,

sodium, and chloride. These nutrients are essential in regulating and stimulating the

nerves throughout the body and the level of fluids in the body. Eating a different variety

of foods and drinking certain fluids is the way in obtaining electrolytes in the body, while

doing exercise, sweating, going to the bathroom, urinating, and working uses electrolytes

in the body. Poor diet, too little or too much exercise, becoming sick, and blood pressures

changes will lead to electrolyte imbalance. Having electrolyte imbalance can lead the

body to different kinds of factors including the dehydration, chronic disorders, vomiting

and short-term illness. Electrolyte imbalance occurs in the body when the level of

electrolyte is either too high or too low. Maintaining right levels of electrolytes in the

body is important. Electrolytes must be replaced right after doing work or exercise.

Eating fruit and vegetables or food which are high in sodium and potassium can replace

lost electrolytes during work, excess electrolytes are filtered by the kidney and turning it

into a by-product of the body into the urine.

 20

The different types of electrolytes within the body includes: calcium, which helps

in the muscle contractions, nerve signaling, and forming and maintaining muscle, bones

and teeth; sodium, which helps in maintaining the fluids in the body; chloride which

maintains body fluid balance; magnesium, which helps in muscle contractions, reduce

anxiety and keeping a stable protein fluid balance; potassium, which keeps the blood

pressure level stable, regulating heart conditions, and maintaining muscle functions.

Sports Nutrition

In a simple definition, the sports nutrition is the study which the enhancement of

recovery, training, exercise, and performance applied by the principles of nutrition. This

study is a very essential for athletes, bodybuilders or doing a simple exercise. The

application of sports nutrition needs allied courses such as sports science, nutrition and

exercise are important to understand the principles (Negro, et. Al, 2012).

Energy and Nutrients

The human body has always a reserve energy for daily activities by obtaining in

the diet. These are stored in the form of fat, glycogen and Adenosine Triphosphate

(ATP). The ATP used by the muscles to perform its specific function that produces work

and to perform activities. If the expenditure exceeded the energy intake, it will lead to

weight loss (Negro, et. Al., 2013). In long-term results, energy balance if maintained will

result in weight-stable individuals.

 21

Energy Balance

Energy balance commonly measured by means of time by day, week or month

and calculates the intake and expenditure. In the line with this relationship, it is related to

thermodynamics which dictates that energy does not destroy, rather it only changes by

form. This rule states also that energy comes in, must come out. The potential energy

which founds in foods is been used for different working activities. It also determines

whether the intake overcomes the expenditure, it will cause weight gain or vice versa.

When energy balance is negative, it will have a tendency to decline in mass, hormone

levels, and activity performance. It will attribute also to the loss of weight. On the other

hand, the positive energy balance can define through overfeeding but not just only in

weight but also in terms of health and wellness. The excess energy can lead to a risk of

diabetes and heart-related conditions. Calorie intake is the primary indicator of weight

and overall health. There are needed mechanisms to maintain the stability of energy

transfer and energy intake.

Food and Nutrients

In this section, there are five major nutrients that are very important in the study

of sports nutrition. Food still the one that affects the lifestyle of everyone. Food is the

primary source of nutrient needed for different activities. In the study of sports nutrition,

it one of a critical point. In the study, it must check the macronutrients namely

carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins, and minerals.

 22

Carbohydrates

The carbohydrate is essential when doing a physical activity that serves as a fuel

for the body. This nutrient must be replenished through the times to support the activity

currently doing. Carbohydrates requirement of the body largely influenced by the active

load. So that the energy intake must be reflected by the same amount of activity

corresponding to energy expenditures.

Protein

The protein by means of training stimulus needed to support the tissue repair and

production of new protein. The extra protein produced can be used as a reserved energy

to cover it from the heavy training and serves also for repair and recovery of the muscles

after the workout. It used to increase the muscle size especially to the weightlifters,

bodybuilders and strength-powered sports and also to have resistance during training.

Negative energy balance encourages high protein intake to serve as an immediate source

of physical activities. Natural protein sources are meat, poultry, milk, eggs, fish, cheese,

etc. It is easy to take care the protein need when the protein amount from sources are

adequate.

Fat

The fat is mainly located in the adipose tissues of the body. It can be stored

unlimited compared to carbohydrates. It is mixed with carbohydrates and oxidized during

an activity. Fat oxidation increases from low to moderate intensities when the level of

exercise increase from low to moderate and so on. Generally, the high-carbohydrate low-
 23

fat diet will decrease the fat oxidation while low-carbohydrate high-fat diet can increase

the fat oxidation, therefore, the carbohydrate is inversely proportional to the fat in terms

of fat oxidation. However, there is no study yet whether the fat utilization has a relation

in metabolism to become an energy expenditure.

Vitamins and Minerals

It is essential for the growth, repair of tissues, coenzymes in catabolic reactions,

for oxygen transport and oxidative metabolism and serves as antioxidants. The
deficiencies of this nutrient can cause several illnesses.

The vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in the diet in trace amounts.
The physical activity can increase the number of vitamins needed by the body then it will
be attributed by consuming a balanced high-carbohydrate, moderate-protein, low-fat diet.
There are some acts of antioxidants that utilized to become for defense mechanism from
the free radicals. Many of the athletes consume a lot of vitamins but the excessive
consumption cannot be helpful.
The term minerals refer to the inorganic substances that are essential constituents

of the body processes. It is classified by the amount needed, the macronutrients wherein it

is needed in large quantities while the micronutrients refer which has needed in small

quantities (Rucci, et. Al, 2014). It is needed to maximize the health and physical

performance. There are some used for building blocks by the body e.g. calcium and

phosphorous; there are some essential for the normal function of the enzymes especially

involved in the regulation of metabolism and cell functions. Others act as an electrolyte

or ion dispersed in the extracellular or intracellular e.g. sodium and potassium. By the

physical activities and processes, the mineral losses by excretion of sweat and urine so

that people engaged in the physical activities require more minerals during an activity.

Like vitamins, it cannot provides energy.

 24

Sports Supplements

Dietary supplements are used by the athletes worldwide by helping to control the

proper amount of protein, calories, and carbohydrates in the diet. But then it should not

be a substitute for a good diet. Though it is used to improve the diet plan in many persons

like many claims on nutrition, there are only a few or no scientific evidence proves the

effectivity of the sports supplements.

Figure 6. Sports Supplements

Source:

www.legalsteroidsreport.comcontent

Sports Foods
 25

The sports foods include ready-to-drink (RTD) beverages and meal replacement

powders (MRP) are the ones that were used to meet the nutritional needs of the athletes

as the most convenient and easy way. It contains vitamins and minerals and the

carbohydrates, protein, and fats vary depending on the purpose of weight gain, weight

loss, bodybuilding, etc. This is better to use for the athletes does not have time to prepare

for the conventional foods or diet they need to intake or for immediate use purposes. Like

supplements, it should not change with the regular diet.

Figure 7. Sports Foods

Source: www.sportsdietitians.com.au/

Sports Drinks

These are drinks designed for rehydration and replenishing fluids at the same time

the balanced amount of carbohydrate during exercises or training. The optimum levels to

provide adequate carbohydrate simultaneous with fluid, it shall have 4-8% of

carbohydrates and 23-69 mg/mL of sodium. It was drinking before or after exercise.

During an activity, the function of this is to refuel and rehydrates the body from the fluid

loss. It used for faster recovery of the muscles and other parts after an exercise.
 26

Figure 8. Sports Drinks

Source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com

Sports Gels

Sports gel also known as energy gels replenish carbohydrates during physical

activities to overcome the gut uptake of carbohydrates. Sports gels can be easily

consumed before or during assist with meeting carbohydrate intake targets. This can help

to replenish the glycogen and calorie losses during a hard activity. Frequency and time

shall take care to avoid the bonk. Often, a gel helps in waking up and help and energized

the mind, but it doesn’t necessarily prevent the bonk in your legs (Gaudette, 2014).

Figure 9. Sports Gels

Source:

https://gzmyu4ma9b-flywheel.netdna-ssl.com/

Ready-To-Drink and Meal Replacement Powders

 27

It is used for very quickly or immediately after the exercise. MRP used by mixing

into milk or water to produce a meal shake to enhance the training adaptations and

outcomes. It has been included with macronutrients like protein, carbohydrates, and fats.

It was been also fortified with vitamins and mineral with some inclusion of other active

ingredients. The RTD’s and MRP’s are the ones can be substituted for a food for energy

and macronutrient intake. The overuse can cause inappropriate and dependence on

expensive of replacement of foods.

Protein supplements

As going in an intense exercise, it also increases the need for protein in the body

to the diet. Lacking protein can cause slower recovery and adaptation. However,

excessive consumption will not contribute to additional muscle gain and strength. These

vary in different forms like whey, casein, and soy. Whey is commonly used because it is

the most common due to its solubility in water. At the same time, it consists of complete

protein because of animal derivation. Protein supplements can be a convenient source of

protein due to its easy preparation even it is costly. This is used more often for growing,

work-outs, recovering and vegans also.

Branched - Chain Amino Acids

BCAA derived nutrients from proteins in foods such as meat, dairies, and

legumes. It includes leucine, isoleucine, and valine which has branched chain in their

chemical structure.

Originally, it has been used treat amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, Lou Gehrig's

disease), brain conditions due to liver disease (chronic hepatic encephalopathy, latent

hepatic encephalopathy), a movement disorder called tardive dyskinesia, a genetic

 28

disease called McArdle's disease, a disease called spinocerebellar degeneration, and poor

appetite in elderly kidney failure patients and cancer patients. It also an alternative for

those confined to build their muscles during the recovery stage. It used by some athletes

to prevent fatigue, improve exercise performance and concentration and reduce muscle

breakdown.

Nutritional strategies for training and competition

In making strategies for the incoming competition, it shall consider the diet

program that is easily manipulated due to situations. It shall provide with adequate

nutrients and energy in order to adapt to hard exercises and optimal fast recovery to the

stress. By being the difficulty of training and exercise, increase the need for nutrients,

particularly carbohydrate, protein, water and electrolytes to maintain the body regulations

and stability.

Strategies for the endurance and team sport

The fatigue can occur due to environment, diet, stress or other various reasons.

Primarily, the fatigue is caused by carbohydrate depletion during exercise for long period

of time. It is directly related to the glycogen in the muscles because of too slow uplift

during exercise even with normal blood glucose level. Without muscle glycogen, it can

affect the one’s agility and quickness of movements in different sports like basketball or

tennis. Glycogen level is very critical in measuring performance during a sports activity.

Diet Strategy

In endurance activities, it is important to elevate the muscle glycogen in the start

to prevent the fatigue in the future. There is evidence shows that optimal muscle

glycogen level can be achieved by high carbohydrate intake with the corresponding
 29

exercise. When it will be the last exercise session for the day, it is advisable to take a pre-

event meal to restore the muscle glycogen stores.

Timing and amount of carbohydrate intake

Generally, the intake must be prepared four hours before an activity in order to

allow the liver and glycogen stores. In the beginning of the exercise, excessive

carbohydrate oxidation and an immediate decrease of blood glucose concentration can

cause hypoglycemia that can cause fatigue. Consume enough amount only of

carbohydrate snack with low glycemic index (GI) foods before the event. Advisable to

have a small portion of meal or snack before the event and lesser intake of carbohydrate

on the recommended during an event.

Type of food for Quality Carbohydrates

The most suited carbohydrate food to avoid the risk of a gastrointestinal upset

should be low-fat, low-fiber and low to moderate content of protein. It is recommended to

consume low GI foods. The GI or Glycemic Index is a measure following an ingestion of

carbohydrate-containing foods responded can raise the blood sugar level of a patient

(ADA, 2013; Harvard, 2015). It is faster to become digested and absorbed by the body

the high GI foods compared to low GI foods which have slower transport and yielding of

glucose into the bloodstream. It is supposed that low-GI foods shall be consumed to

control the rapid increase and decrease of blood glucose during an exercise activity.

Nutrition during Exercise

Carbohydrate intake proves that it can build up a performance of an athlete during

faster events and ‘stop and go’ intermittent sports such as football and badminton. It has

also a protective effect on the immune system during post-exercise, while also
 30

maintaining an adequate supply of energy substrate for the immune system during

exercise.

There are plenty of choices for carbohydrate intake prior to an activity, however

sports drinks considered one of the most advantageous for taking fluid and carbohydrate

intake at the same time during a sporting event. If other forms will be used, it shall have

equivalent amounts of fluid should be taken.

Nutrition for recovery

Recovery from exercise is an important point for many players. This is critical to

making a good performance in their future events. The important points are the liver

glycogen, muscle recovery and fluid and electrolyte rehydration.

The recovery must be given appropriate time to regain the energy and normal

body conditions but it can be interfered by fatigue and appetite loss. Post-exercise

commitments such as debriefings and post celebration activities must be set apart to give

way the body recoveries. An athlete must be careful with the strategy for the post-

recovery stage.

Refueling post-exercise

To restore the muscle glycogen level, it shall have allotted at least 24 hours for

restoration. Strategies are studied how will speed up the retrieving of glycogen stores by

means of manipulation of the carbohydrate ingestion, changing the type of carbohydrate

consumed and how it will combine the intake with other nutrients. If there are less than

eight hours of preparation, it shall have a special plan. Aggressive refueling shall take

considerations inadequate carbohydrate stores for a successive exercise session.

 31

Extreme workloads of athletes require with high loads of carbohydrates. It will

require less of carbohydrates who do not fully used the glycogen stores for the athletes.

Smaller energy plans need to incorporate with normal meal habits to avoid energy

imbalance. If the recovery is more than eight hours, it can follow the normal recovery

patterns.

Athletes with smaller energy budgets will follow their normal meal habit with the

incorporation of recovery eating to prevent excessive consumption of calories. When the

recovery period is longer than eight hours, aggressive refueling is not important and

athletes can consume their normal carbohydrate intake pattern in their meal schedule.

Addition of protein to a carbohydrate supplement

Several studies have also documented that the addition of protein to a

carbohydrate supplement will enhance the rate of muscle glycogen synthesis. These

results have important implications for athletes who wish to limit their carbohydrate

intake in an effort to control body weight and for those athletes who participate in sports

that have very short recovery periods during competition

Water and electrolyte balance

In sports activity, hydration shall have a big consideration in doing a sports

performance because it can determine the optimal level of a performed activity and it has

a risk of life-threatening, especially when doing outside wherein it has an extreme

temperature of the environment. Water balance refers to the difference of the water gain

from the intake and water losses due to body excretion. Kidney primarily regulates the

water balance through urine adjustment by glomerular filtration and renal blood flow

during exercise and heat stress. Meanwhile, the sweat regulates the body temperature to
 32

prevent an excessive rise in temperature due to muscular activity during an activity that

causes inefficiency of metabolism.

Electrolytes content in sweat

When the water losses due to excretion, electrolytes also losses out as well. The

electrolyte loss depends as well on the water released. The concentration of sodium in

sweat averages with 35 mEg/L depends on genetics, sweating rate, diet, and heat

acclimatization. Other electrolytes are potassium with 5 mEq/L, calcium 1 mEq/L,

magnesium 0.8 mEq/L and chloride 30 mEq/L. By dehydration can increase the

concentrations of the electrolytes in the body that can increase the sweating rate.

Hydration before exercise

Hydration becomes a part of the preparation before an exercise. There are some

that hydrate themselves rather than normal body water content by drinking large amounts

of fluid because of belief of thermoregulation improvement during the performance. But

it is discouraged by doing this habit according to the findings because it does not have to

prove that it will become an advantageous effect on the body. Instead, drink the

recommended volume of fluids four hours prior to the exercise in order to have enough

time for body hydration.

Hydration during exercise

Consumption of beverages containing electrolytes and carbohydrates can help

sustain fluid and electrolyte balance and improve endurance exercise performance. Fluids

containing sodium and potassium helps to replace the electrolytes released in the body by

which the sodium and potassium retain fluid then the carbohydrates provides energy. But

then it is not always balanced because of sweat rates exceed maximal gastric emptying
 33

rates that in turn limit fluid absorption. Commercially available sports drink with 4-8% of

carbohydrates and 10-25 mEq/L of electrolytes to promote effective rehydration during

exercise and become a source of fuel at the same time.

Effect of fluid and electrolyte loss

The major risk for fluid loss during exercise is dehydration during exercise. It can

be also influenced by the temperature of the environment as well as from the body and

also by relative humidity. When the temperature and relative humidity is high, it shall

have enough hydration and have an accessed to prepared fluids and monitor the body

temperature regularly. The risk will lead to heat-related illnesses but also to death when

exceeded to the maximum capacity of the body. Dehydration not just only occur when

the temperature is hot but also in cold temperature. It can happen by sweating and

respiratory fluid losses due to clothing are worn by an athlete and low fluid ingestion.

Dehydration with electrolyte deficit can cause muscle cramps and fatigue.

Hypohydration practiced in weight class sports by dehydrating themselves before the

event begins due to the belief that additional weight can affect their performance during

an activity. Hyponatremia or lowering of the concentration of sodium in the fluids

resulted from heavy sweating then inadequate replacement of sodium while excessive

take of water. It commonly occurs in marathoners. Associated with symptoms such as

confusion, headache, fatigue, and coma.

Hydration after exercise

After exercise, the athletes must rehydrate themselves and give adequate time to

recover the fluid and electrolyte loss after exercise. To replenish the fluids in the body, it
 34

must drink at least 450–675 mL of fluid for every pound (0.5 kg) of body weight lost and

consume rehydration beverages and salty foods at meals/snacks.

Singkamas

Singkamas (Pachyrhizus erosus) is an underground tuber that belongs to the

legume or bean family. The tuber was originated from Mexico and has said to spread in

the Philippines during Spanish colonization. It has other names, including Yam bean,

Mexican potato, Mexican Water chestnut, Mexican turnip. In Japan, kuzuimo is the name

of Singkamas, cây củ đậu in Vietnam, Seng Kuang in Malay, di gwa in Chinese, man

kaeo in Thai, sankalu in Hindi. The word Pachyrhizus comes from the Greek word

meaning “thick root”. Singkamas may be a rough, vine developing from large, edible,

turnip-shaped, meaty roots. Leaflets, no less than those terminal ones, would be more

extensive, dependent upon 15 centimeters in length and 20 centimeters wide, with a

deltoid base, shallowly lobed upper half, and the parallel ends inequilateral. Racemes are

up to 45 centimeters done length, same time the more level hubs transform short

extensions and the other hubs bloom each. Blooms can be pale blue or white, 2 to 2. 5

centimeters long, regarding 1. 5 centimeters totally. Pods need aid regarding 10

centimeters long, 10-12 millimeters wide, a level which is more hairy, holding 8 will 10

seeds. Singkamas is native to Tropical America. The parts that are commonly used are

roots and stems.  Studies have recommended antiviral, anti-osteoporosis, antifungal,

antioxidant, immunomodulatory, insecticidal, and skin whitening compositions.

Yam bean seed poisoning. Five patients introduced with indications and side

effects mimicking intense cyanide inebriation for perioral numbness, queasiness also
 35

vomiting following ingesting soups made with yam bean seeds. One tolerant advanced on

extreme metabolic acidosis and coma, requiring forceful help.

Singkamas is known to be a summer savory snack in our country. This is also

partnered with bagoong that is commonly sold anywhere. In other parts of the world, it is

famous by the name Jicama. Singkamas is sometimes misinterpreted to be a radish

because of its crispiness and other characteristics similar to it, but raw singkamas differs

in taste that is slightly sweet and nutty. It is sometimes used as an alternative to a water

chestnut. It has a thin brown skin with white fleshy content. This white flesh is used as a

thirst quencher for some and is an alternative staple on board or in times of crisis because

of its ability to have long shelf-life if

properly handled and stored. The

tubers are commonly

weighed from less than a pound to

six pounds but the heaviest

Singkamas ever recorded in our

country weighed up to 20 kilograms.

This is not genetically modified.

Figure 10. Singkamas Tuber

 36

Source: kalusugan.ph

Availability

This is available whole year-round but is really abundant during the months of

October through May. San Marcelino in Zambales is a town famous for its abundant

source of singkamas. The warm and moderate temperature of the Philippines is the ideal

weather condition for a singkamas to grow. Singkamas is commonly eaten raw and also

prepared as a salad. In more stable areas, Singkamas are available throughout the

Philippines at low and medium altitudes back then but now, Singkamas is already

pantropic which can either plant ate any altitude and temperature.

Composition

Just like other fleshy crops, Singkamas is dominantly contained water which is

80-90 percent. It is rich in carbohydrates in the form of Dietary fiber and low content in

for protein and lipids. It is also considered diet food for diabetes because of its trace

amounts of saturated fats, cholesterol, and sodium. Not all of its parts are edible. Studies

show that pounded seeds are toxic to fish and reportedly fatal to other animals. The plant

is widely cultivated for its edible roots because other parts are toxic. Singkamas contains

a high amount of Vitamin C and is a good source of fiber that can be helpful in the

human body. The tuber has a low amount of sodium and fat content.

Yacon

Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) belongs to Arteraceac/composipae family, a

distant relative of sunflower. But unlike sunflower, Yacon was grown for its edible roots

and not for its seeds. It is traditionally grown in the northern and central Andes from
 37

Colombia to northern Argentina. History says that Yacon comes from yakku which

means tasteless and unu which means water. In the US, this tuber vegetable is called

Yacon strawberry and Diet Potato or Yacon Potato in Brazil, Jiquima is Yacon’s name in

Ecuador, Llakuma in Peru and Bolivia, while in other countries it is really known by the

name of Yacon. But as researchers grow deeper about this crop, above mentioned

tasteless is disapproved and people already believe that the sweetness of Yacon is similar

to honey or sugar cane syrup. It is known for its crisp, sweet-tasting and tuberous root. It

is commonly compared to other crops including potato and turnip, also in fruits

particularly apple. But Yacon’s juicy, sweet flesh taste, succulence, and crunchiness is

Yacon’s uniqueness.

Tuber’s flesh color varies from

white, cream, yellow and

sometimes pinkish in color. The

shape depends on the soil texture

and pressure of neighboring

roots, the shape is common in a fusiform shape or irregular. Yacon is sweeter because of

the presence of Insulin. It is said to be introduced by Japanese businessman during 2000s

that’s why up until now, Yacon is one of the most sought-after potential crops that can be

used for research and maximization or utilization. The edible plant weighs a few hundred

grams to the kilogram. Yacon may have a number of benefits but has limited research.
 38

Figure 11. Yacon

Source: https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=yacon&source

Availability

Due to the capacity of the Yacon to grow in gentle frost, it is mostly found in the

higher provinces in our country including the Nueva Vizcaya, Benguet and Mountain

Province. Farmers are very much in favor of planting Yacon because it can be easily

grown without fertilizers and other materials that can reduce cost. Farmers produce only a

few yacon because of the love demand of the crop. Since it was introduced as a new crop,

Doalnara Multi-purpose Cooperative is one of the few growers of Yacon in the country,

specifically at Claveria, Misamis Oriental, in northern Mindanao. This cooperative helps

in promoting Yacon. In the recent event of Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR),

Agriculture and Fisheries Techno Forum, Doalnara participated and showcase the Yacon

in a form of free taste promo for people. Because of growing expenses is low and the

yield is high, this vegetable crop can really be a great alternative to reduce sugar

consumption in the country.

Composition

Yacon tuber composed of 85 percent to 90 percent of water. Carbohydrates (9-

13g/100g) and dietary fiber (3.1–4.1mg/100g) of which 40-70 percent of the root's dry

mass is consist of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) while 15-40 percent of the dry weight is

said to be simple sugars, proteins (2.7–4.9g/100g or less) as cited by Dela Cruz. It is

 39

sometimes called “diet potato” which is thought to be connected to the

Fructooligosaccharide. This comprises of a high percentage of FOS that made the crop

sweet taste. Yacon syrup has a faintly acidic pH (5.4) and a Brix of around 73° when

standardized for 40-50 percent FOS. The short-chain fructooligosaccharides act as a

bioactive component of yacon since there has no other component of Yacon tuber. This

kind of Polysaccharide cannot be digested by the body. The researchers saw its potential

use for diabetics and body weight control. They also found out that high amount of

intakes for this crop could be the cause of improvement of gut health, colon or digestive

health because of the capacity of the Fructooligosaccharide to give prebiotic effect. It

contends for nutrients and binding sites and produces antimicrobial compounds. Research

shows the inhibition of growth of harmful bacteria is from the fermentation of

oligosaccharide, results in the restoration of normal intestinal flora and acts as

immunomodulator (Sahelian, 2005). It is a healthy food due to its incomparable

medicinal and nutritional value. Yacon’s high moisture content is a good bleed purifier.

Studies show that Yacon tuber composes of iron, phosphorus, retinol, calcium, sodium,

potassium, carotene, magnesium and Vitamins A, B1, B2 and C which are belong to the

essential elements needed by the body. Because of its high fiber content, Yacon can also

be used as a cure for constipation. The presence of insulin helps the blood glucose to be

in the normal state. Comparing to a jar of honey, jar of yacon syrup contains half of the

honey’s calories. Its sugar does not raise blood glucose level, which made the conclusion

of its suitability for diabetics. Yacon is already compared to other vegetables which

contain Fructooligosaccharide, specifically, Jerusalem artichoke, Chicory that is too

expensive to produce. Sometimes these two plants are misinterpreted to be the same
 40

because of Yacon’s fructose content which is slightly similar to Jerusalem artichoke, a

major inulin bearing plant. (E. (2017, April 29).

Derived Product
Yacon is one of the priority crops of DOST for the year 2017 to the year 2022.

There are already products derived from Yacon’s tuber, one of which is Yacon syrup that

is used as an alternative sweetener. When treated with a syrup, the general composition of

the syrup is around: 67.04-75 percent carbohydrate, of which 40-60 percent is

fructooligosaccharides (FOS), 2.16 percent protein, 0.14 percent lipids, Potassium

(936mg/100g), Sodium (84mg/100g). Yacon tends to have high heat tolerability up to

140°C. It breaks down the FOS which results in improvement of sweetness. Due to its

high water content, the crop has short shelf-life with a pH greater than 3. The production

of Yacon syrup avoided the idea of shorter shelf-life because it lowers the water content

at a stable room temperature and standard condition at least a year.

Osmosis

In a simple definition, it is a movement of diffusion of water and/or other solvents

through a semipermeable membrane. A total number of particles suspended in the

solution will determine the rate of osmotic movement. The more particles are

concentrated, the faster rate of osmosis. It is termed osmolarity. When having two

solutions which have different osmolarities which have a membrane separates the

solutions, the water on the solution that has greater concentration will move to lower

concentration.

Tonicity
 41

Tonicity is directly related to osmosis which the pressure of osmosis was

measured. This is the ability which the water will move in and move out to the cell of the

extracellular membrane which has related to osmosis. It can also pertain how the volume

of a cell affected by the extracellular solution. In common terms, it is the measure of the

concentrations between the inside and the outside of a cell or an object. When the

solutions are separated into different tonicity and osmolarity in a water permeable

membrane, the water will move from the region of lower osmolarity to higher osmolarity.

In the living systems, it is important in the environment of cells especially in plant

cells and into the blood cells. The different concentrations are hypotonic, hypertonic and

isotonic solutions.

Hypotonic Solutions
In a hypotonic solution, the concentration of the extracellular fluid has lower

osmolarity rather than inside of a cell or an object. So that it has greater molecules of

water in the extracellular fluid than inside of a cell. Entering of water into the cell will

happen then expand the cell but when it exceeded the capacity, the will burst suddenly.

Hypertonic Solution
Opposite to the hypotonic solutions, the extracellular fluid has high osmolarity

rate compared to the solution in a cell or object. So that the extracellular fluid has less

water then the flow of water will come out from the cell into the extracellular fluid to
 42

maintain the equilibrium. The best example is the putting of salt into a water vegetables

to remove the water inside the flesh of a vegetable.

Isotonic Solution
The concentrations of extracellular fluids and osmolarity inside of the cell are

equal. In this phenomenon, there will not have a net movement of water although there is

movement inside and outside of the cell. This is the ideal concentration needed by the

cells to retain the shape and maintain the normal conditions.

Distillation
Distillation is a liquid to liquid continuous separation procedure that can be used

to separate pure liquids from the impure liquid mixture using boiling and cooling method.

It works when the liquidity has different boiling breaker point. This process is usually

done to separate ethanol in alcoholic drinks from the water. It is a very old process of

desalination.

Distillation is a commercially utilized process in the production of gasoline, to

separate crude oil into more fractions for transportation, power generation, and heating.

In distilled water to eliminate impurities like salt from seawater. Air or gas is also

distilled to separate elements like oxygen, nitrogen, and argon for industrial use.

Fermented solutions’ distillation process has been used since ancient times to generate

higher alcohol content distilled beverages. The proposition where distilled is carried out,

especially alcohol’s distillation is known as a distillery.

Types of Distillation
 43

There are different types of distillation and this includes simple distillation,

fractional distillation (as different volatile ‘fractions’ produced, they are all collected),

steam distillation, vacuum distillation, azeotropic distillation and short-path distillation.

Simple Distillation

When boiling points of two liquids are significantly dissimilar from each other or

to set aside the liquid portion from solids or non-volatile element, simple distillation may

be used. In this type of distillation, the solution is heated to convert the most volatile

element from liquid to vapor. The vapor rises and turns over a condenser. Normally, the

condenser is cooled by running cold water throughout the process to promote the

collected condensation of the vapor.

If water is put in an air-tight container and let it evaporate, it will surely achieve

an equilibrium such that the water vapor is condensing faster as evaporating water, and

the pressure of the vapor in that equilibrium is called vapor pressure. This vapor pressure

is different for a variety of substances and differs with the temperature. The vapor will

have more volatile liquid in a mixture of two liquids with different boiling degrees, i.e

rapidly evaporates. This process is called simple distillation.

Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is the same with simple distillation, aside the same

procedure is repeated in the successive rotation. Each rotation or cycle results in a

mixture richer in the more volatile element than the mixture before it. This type of

distillation process is required when the boiling degrees of the liquids in the original mix

are close to each other but simple distillation is not enough to purify even compounds.

The fractionating column will be used to separate those components utilized an

 44

arrangement from claiming distillations called a correction. A mixture will be warmed in

fragmentary so that, vapor will ascent furthermore enter the fractionating column. When

the vapor will be recently cooled, it will condense on the pressing material of the column.

The fluid vaporizes due to those heat of the ascending vapor, moving it along the column

also yielding and expanding purity sample of the additional unstable component of the

mixture.

Steam Distillation

Steam distillation is used to differentiate heat-sensitive parts. Steam will be

included in the mixture, causing some of it to vaporize. This vapor is cooled also

condensed under two fluid portions. Frequently those portions need aid gathered

separately, or they might bring distinctive thickness values, so they differentiate on their

own. A sample is steam distillation about blossoms should yield essential oil also a

water-based distillate. Steam distillation is utilized mixtures purification wherein the

elements are heated sensitively like organic compounds. In this method, steam is

presented to the apparatus and the temperature of the compounds are depressed, by

vaporizing them in bringing down the temperature. In this procedure, the temperature

sensitive elements would divide before decomposition. In the same way as other types of

distillation, the vapors are collected and condensed. The produced liquid consists of two

parts, water, and compound that is purified by simple distillation. However, this

procedure requires some advanced training and skill to handle and operate the equipment,

at the same time, it should be periodically maintained. Steam distillation is generally used

for separation of essential oils, fats, waxes, and perfumes in large-scale process.

Vacuum Distillation
 45

Vacuum distillation is utilized to different segments that have high boiling

degrees. Bringing down the pressure of the equipment also bringing down boiling

points. Otherwise, this process has also similarities to other forms of distillation. This

kind of distillation is particularly advantageous when the boiling point surpasses the

decomposition temperature of a compound.

In such high temperature, some liquids boil that simple or fractional distillation

using the method mentioned above may be impractical or hazardous. But vacuum

distillation offers another alternative way. When the pressure is reduced, the boiling point

of the liquid becomes lower. For example, the boiling point of the water is lower at high

altitude than at sea level. The boiling point of the liquids in the mixture can be reduced

and the mixture distilled at a lower temperature by reducing the pressure in the container.

This kind of technique is known as vacuum distillation.

Azeotropic Distillation

Owing to the intermolecular attractions in the middle of the molecules in the

mixture, the mixture might bring a higher or lower boiling degree than either of their

components. This kind of mixture is called azeotrope. After the evaporation of the liquid

in the azeotropes, the vapor has the equal composition of the mixture., so the techniques

described above will not be used in distilling azeotropes. However, it can still be distilled

but only by one of the other kind of methods.

In extractive distillation, a solvent that will combine freely with one element but

not the other is added to the mixture. This new mixture may also be separated by

distillation. By contrast, in reactive distillation, a chemical that will react with one agent
 46

but not with the other is added, making a new mixture that can be separated by the

distillation process. Lastly, ionic salts when added may alter the volatilities of the

compounds in the mix in some ways that it can be distilled. Overall, these three

techniques are called azeotropic distillation.

Short-path Distillation

The separated compounds in short path distillation are immediately condensed

without using the condenser. The condenser is arranged in a vertical manner in the

middle of the heating flask and collecting flask. The same with vacuum type, the pressure

is maintained below the atmospheric pressure. By following the short path distillation,

thermal sensitive compounds can also be separated. This process is usually used for

separation organic compounds with high molecular weight, particularly in the

pharmaceutical industries. This is also used for processing edible oils and fats.

Equipment Available

There is equipment used on distillation. This equipment varies according to the

application and liquid to be distilled. It has also differed in the temperatures and also to

the yield can be produced.

Simple Distillation
 47

The simple distillation by which two miscible solutions will be separated by two

different boiling points to obtain a pure liquid. These are applicable to 50°C difference in

the boiling points. The purified part will be converted into vapor then cooled at 2 to 3 C

in a condenser.

Figure 12. Equipment

used for Simple
Distillation in the
laboratory

Source:
Chemhelper.com

Figure 12 shows the

apparatus needed for Simple Distillation and it consists of a boiling flask connected to an

adapter holding a thermometer (to know the boiling temperature of the liquid). The

adapter attached to a condenser into which cold water is constantly passed through. The

condenser leads into a collecting flask to receive the purified liquid.

Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation’s used equipment is the same with simple distillation

aside in placing the fractionating column between the boiling flask and the condenser.
 48

The fractionating column is normally filled with glass or plastic beads that improves the

separation process between the liquid being distilled because the fractionating column

provide “theoretical plates”

wherein the refluxing liquid can

condense, re- evaporate and then

condensed again, essentially

distilling the compound over and

over.

Figure 13. Equipment used for fractional distillation in the laboratory

Source: Chemhelper.com
Steam Distillation
Steam distillation is a process which the temperature sensitive substances are

being isolated. This is applied in aromatic compounds dissolved in liquids. The apparatus

of steam distillation contains two parts. The steam is generated in the first part while the

compound or material is distilled in the other part. These parts are heated separately.

Since organic compounds are mixed with an immiscible fluid, the distillate is composed

of two phases. Decantation is the primary process to obtain the organic compounds.

However, these apparatus is complicated and not easy to handle.

 49

Figure 14. Equipment

Source: http://www.swarajindia.com/steam-distillation.html

Figure 14 shows the equipment used for steam distillation in large industries for

larger areas and for continuous work. A boiler operated steam distillation unit is used for

the extraction of essential oils.

Vacuum Distillation

Vacuum distillation system lessened weight distillations for petroleum results.

This framework is backed by panel and base, warming mantle and clamps. It also

includes, vacuum jacketed, strip silvered column with entire primary and secondary

condenser, also, 35/25 circular joints, PRT thermocouple connector PRT temperature

Probe, quartz distilling flask with thermowell, water jacketed receiver, vacuum adapter,

two Dewar-type cold traps graduated recipient and stopcock channel and 35/25 ball

connector for additional cold trap.

 50

Figure 15. Vacuum Distillation System

Source: kjhil.com

Completed aluminum panel and base and stainless steel spring leashes. Glassware

is assembled by adjustable clamps to verify those correct arrangement panel and base. In

addition, the accessory control unit incorporates advanced temperature pointer for

selector switch for reading pot temperature or overhead temperature; vacuum gauge;

variable controls for warming mantle and line switch. Control unit is put clinched

alongside and done aluminum storage.

Multi-purpose Distillation

Multi-purpose distillation unit is advantageous for separating the azeotropic

mixture by using distillation processes like extractive distillation, heterogeneous

azeotropic distillation, and distillation using ionic salts, pressure- swing distillation,

reactive, distillation and other types of distillation processes.

Figure 16. Multi- purpose

distillation unit
Source: Hoskin Scientific LTD

Application
 51

Distillation can roughly separate into four designations, the laboratory scale, and

industrial scale distillation, the process used in herbs for perfumery and medicinal (herbal

distillate) and food processing. The latter two are dissimilar in the processing of

beverages and herbs with the former two because the distillation is not utilized as real

purification process but more on transferring all volatiles from the source materials to the

distillate.

The number one difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial

distillation is that laboratory scale distillation is frequently performed batch-wise while,

industrial distillation often occurs constantly.

Distillation performs by the application and discarding heat to exploit the

differences in volatility connection. The heat allows elements with lower boiling points

and a higher volatility that will be vaporized, leaving small volatile element like liquids.

It is easier to separate the mixtures with high relative volatiles. This allows the separation

of close-boiling and azeotropic feeds harder, so special distillation techniques may be

used is separating these mixtures.

Distillation process may be utilized in the separation of binary or multi-

component mixtures. Different variables like column pressure, temperature, size, and

diameter are determined by properties of the feed and request products. Other specialized

columns works other functions and this includes, reactive distillation columns, that

combine reaction and separation of products into single unit (Carroll, E. et al. (2017)

Because of distillation process’ reliability, simplicity and lower capital cost, it has

already used a long time ago as the separation process of chemical and petroleum
 52

industries. It is engaging to separate benzene from toluene, methanol or ethanol from

water, acetone from acetic acid, and the like multicomponent solutions. Crude oil’s

fractionation and deuterium’s production also rely on distillation.

Nowadays, with 40,000 distillation towers in operation, distillation can produce

about 95 percent of all existing industrial separation process; in line with this, distillation

framework also has relatively high energy consumption. Significant effort has been

created to bring down the energy consumption and to develop the efficiency in

distillation systems. It consists incorporating new analytical sensors and reliable

hardware into the framework to finish advanced process control, through heat rejected

that comes from a condenser of one column to boil again other columns, and coupling

another advanced process like adsorption and crystallization together with distillation to

create energy-saving hybrid operation systems.

Problems in Distillation
Distillation is a process of softening water, and it consists heating the liquid that is

subjected to soften. Next is, the vapor rises to the condenser and allows all the unwanted

particles remain in the condenser tube. Sometimes, when hard water is being heated,

particles such as calcium and magnesium will remain as particles in the condenser tube.

But there are times when some particles intended for separation from water, they are not

separated instead, they are already concentrated in the water such as herbicides. In

matters with regards to water softening, distillation is not highly reliable because it is not

done on a large scale and some particles that are going to separate may lead only being

consecrated in the water.

 53

There are different disadvantages involved in the distillation process such as some

of the not needed elements may be found in the distilled water. And unfortunately, liquids

like herbicides that has a boiling point of 100 percent which is equal to that of water will

incline to condense with water, so the separation process of this two can be difficult.

As a method of water softening, distillation needs a strong eye, so that the

unwanted compounds will not be able to mix with water. When distillation is completed

on a larger scale, a very high quantity of energy is needed. Distilled water is not

containing oxygen and at the same time, it is very tasteless but has very high levels of

acidity.

As a conclusion, distillation should not be considered as a process of water

softening because there are possibilities of having unwanted elements in the distilled

water. For example, the liquids that have a boiling point the same with water will not be

able to separate but able to condense with the water.

Adsorption
The adsorption is the process wherein the molecules accumulate to form large

molecules (adsorbates) adheres to a particle surface of adsorbents with the operation of

surface forces (Helmenstine, 2017). Often, it has been confused with absorption which

refers to the process of uniform distribution of substance penetrates in the surface of a

liquid or solid.

General Principle of Adsorption

Since there is a net unbalanced force in the surface of the substance, it has a

tendency that has an attraction between the surface of adsorbents and molecules of

adsorbates. In solids, due to the presence of cleavage of the big crystals too small unit,
 54

there are vacancies in the molecular structure of adsorbents need to be filled with the

assistance of residual force.

Types of Adsorption
Physical Adsorption
In this kind of adsorption, it utilizes the weak forces of London or Van Der Waals

attraction. There is no activated energy needed to initiate the process. It has been

dependent on the temperature applied whereas low temperature engages the rate physical

adsorption and high-temperature decreases the rate of adsorption, as well as the pressure,

affects the adsorption in terms of pressure-volume-temperature especially in gases

whereas the increase of pressure decrease the volume so that gas will remove from the

surface. This is an exothermic process which means it releases heat during the process.

Adsorbates have not been specific to different adsorbents.

Chemical Adsorption

On the other hand, it involves the strong chemical bond between the adsorbates

and the surface of adsorbents. Since then, it only specific which provides a strong bond

between the adsorbents and adsorbates. The rate can be increased by temperature and

surface area of adsorbent.

Examples of Adsorbents

Activated Carbon
 55

Figure 17. Activated charcoal

Source: BigCommerce.com

Activated Carbon or Activated Charcoal is a carbon which processed as porous to

be used as an adsorbent. T can be made of coconut shells, sawdust, olive pits, etc., which

usually derived the form of charcoal. It can be powdered, granular or extruded in the

market. It is the most used adsorbent due to its market availability and affordability.

Since its particles are negatively charged, it attracts the positively charged ions of

toxins and dirt-infused in the substances with the help of weak forces such as London

dipole forces and Van Der Waal forces.

It has been manufactured by means of oxidation and carbonization of raw

materials in the absence of air. On the other hand, it also carbonized in the chemical

means by using of strong acids such as hydrochloric acid, ferric chloride acid etc. In the

process of carbonization, the pores are being reduced then the surface area increased to

bind more of adsorbates. The final step is activation by exposure to carbon dioxide with

high temperature to enlarge its surface area and restructured particle.

Different Parameters of Activated Carbon

Iodine Number
 56

It is the most important parameter in choosing the appropriate activated carbon. It

is defined as the number of milligrams that can be absorbed by one gram of carbon. It is

an indicator of the available pore volume in the activated carbon. It is the most frequent

indication of the degree of exhaustion in use but it can be only reliable when there was no

interaction between the adsorbates and shall be free of chemicals. This should be reported

as reported in mg/g.

Molasses Number

Molasses number is the measure of the efficiency macropore content of the

carbon to adsorb the molasses from a solution. It can determine the degree of the

capability to decolorize a standard molasses solution. It can represent the large pore

volume for larger adsorbents. More often used in indicating the rate of adsorption. Hence,

the larger the molasses number, will usually have larger feeder pores that can lead to

more efficient adsorption.

Hard number/Abrasion Number

This simply defines as the capability to retain its physical characteristics and

withstand the frictional force. It largely depends on the raw material where activated

carbon made.

Ash Content
 57

It is simply defined as the metals infused with the activated carbon. A large

quantity of ash content can reduce the capability to adsorb and reactivation process.

Particle Size Distribution

This is an important parameter since it can affect the kinetics of adsorption in

terms of sizes. The fine particles have larger ability to bind the surface area of the

adsorbates and can lead to the faster rate of adsorption.

Applications

It has been applied frequently for water treatment in drinking water for the

elimination of microorganisms and toxins present. It was reported in the history that in

England, activated carbon has used for clarification of juice prior for sugar processing in

1794 for creating the more acceptable white color of sugars and eventually entire Europe

used in 1805 (Jurrasic Carbon, 2014). It also used for air cleaning which incorporated

some masks that were used for different air sensitive manufacture. In medicine, it now

utilized for poison treatments. In the food industry, usually for canola oil decolorization

as well as manufacture in drink clarification.

Silica Gels
 58

Figure 18. Silica Gel

Source: indiamart.com

These gels composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2). These crystals are chemically

inert, nontoxic, polar, and dimensionally stable (below 400°C) amorphous form. These

are used as a filter aid in water and other drinks due to its high specific area to adsorb

water that had been used especially in polar substances. It also used as a desiccant for

moisture to inhibit the growth of microbes and molds in various substances.

Zeolites

Figure 19. Zeolites

Source: en.wikipedia.org

Zeolites are hydrate derivative of Alumina (AlO 4) and Silica (SiO4) that has a

three-dimensional crystal structure with water molecules in the gaps. These are very

stable compounds due to its high melting point with 1000 C. Another thing, it's

framework structure that can trap other molecules in it. It has been used as a catalyst in
 59

the chemistry industry. It is an effective tool for odor elimination and used as well as

radioactive wastes in the environment.

Water Retort

Water retort is an equipment or channel (or process of sterilization by the

application of heat) of food products packed in retort pouches such as suman, bibingka,

fruit puree, rice, milk, and chocolate flavored porridge.

Food Processing Division of the Industrial Technology Development Institute of

DOST has the skills for the water retort design and fabrication of different capacities.

Retorts use water or steam/air combination as processing channel to warm the container

or packages. Compressed air or additional steam is presented during the processing cycle

to give the overpressure (any pressure given to the retort in additional of that which can

be normally attained under steam at any particular retort temperature). Overpressure is

essential in avoiding package damage or loss of seal integrity (like bursting), during the

heating procedure.

Equipment

Hot Water Spray Method

This equipment of spray retort is using hot water spray method. It gives an

excellent constant heating and cooling capabilities and also fulfills smooth and stable

temperature increases, heating and cooling indirectly heating and cooling the material

with plate method heat exchanger apparatus. In addition, it also avoids foreign materials

from steam and cooling water from arriving the receptacle, confirming that all important

products loaded onto sterilization tray that is useful for aerated containers’ processing.
 60

Figure 20. Hot water spray retort method sterilization equipment

Source: hisaka.co.jp

Hot Water Retaining Method

Hot water retaining method retort sterilizing equipment is not just employs a

proprietary liquid flow switch that lowers temperature differences, and also used as

highly multipurpose sterilization equipment with the optional addition of the spinning

process that enables the processing of large cans and pouches. Though adding hot water

in the warm bath in advance, warming temperature is possible, with high temperature

reached in a limited time period, and a hot liquid is recycled back into the warming bath

after the procedure of sterilization to provide low-steam operations.

Figure 21. Hot water retaining method retort sterilizing equipment

Source: hisaka.co.jp
 61

Figure 22. Retort sterilization test equipment

Source: hisaka.co.jp

Creating the food for tomorrow – the retort sterilization testing equipment (hot

water retaining and hot water spray methods)

Application

Water retort is one of the processing apparatus in food processing created to alter

important equipment. It is used to develop the performance and productivity of the micro,

small, also medium undertakings (MSMEs) of the countries locked into nourishment

changes.

Water Retort is a manually operated process. It is a batch-type, non-agitating

pressure cooking channel that is utilized to thermally process food placed in sealed

containers like metal, cans, glass bottles, restartable pouches or plastics. At the same

time, it is modular wherein, it allows simple transport to where it may bring its purpose.

And lastly, it is capable of withstanding extreme pressures.

Application of counter-pressure is preventing containers or packages from

bursting. It is created to ruin microbes in the food to extend its shelf life. Its use lead in
 62

savings due to less process time, less storage space needed, the small cost of utilities and

lesser cost of transportation.

Packaging

Packaging is a process of wrapping material, it can be made of glass, metal, paper

or paperboard and plastic in order to contain, preserve, identify, describe, display,

promote and protect food. Packaging is all about producing and designing a specific food

container for a specific food. Overall for the purpose of keeping it clean and marketable

to the consumer.

Flexible packaging

A non-rigid packaging made of flexible yielding materials that, when filled or

closed, can be readily changed in shape. It can be of paper, foil, plastic film or any

combination of these materials.

Types of flexible packaging and applications

The types of flexible packaging are polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene.

There are differing in the polymer characteristics in every packaging and its application.

Polyethylene

A light, sticky flammable organic substance made from

the polymerization of ethylene.is an organic polymer made of several monomer subunits,

and it is one popular compound. Polyethylene belongs to the family of polyolefin resins,

which means it is insoluble in water. It is the popularly used kind of plastic in the world,

being made into products ranging from clear food wrap and shopping bags to detergent

bottles and automobile fuel tanks. It can also be slit or spun into synthetic fibers or

modified to take on the elastic properties of a rubber.

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Figure 23. Flexible polyethylene bottle

Source: https://www.medsupplypartners.com/

Low-Density Polyethylene

This is made from gaseous ethylene that undergoes very high pressures and high

temperatures around 350oC or 665oF with the presence of oxide initiators.  Unlike high-

density polyethylene, it has a lower “density” that means it has a bit less mass compared

to its volume. Also, it is a very flexible material, doesn’t break easily, waterproof and can

stand up many hazardous materials. This king of plastic melts at approximately 110 °C

(230 °F). Major uses of this packaging film are squeeze bottles, toys, cable and wire

insulation, housewares and others.

Figure 24. Low-Density Polyethylene Bag

Source: http://ldpebag.com/
 64

High- Density Polyethylene

It is one of the most commonly used plastics and obtained at low temperatures

and pressures using activated chromium oxide or best known as Phillips catalyst. HDPE

plastic has several properties that make it ideal for a packaging and manufacturing

product. It is lightweight, strong impact resistant, long lasting and weather resistant and

contributes to a reduction in resource consumption and pollution by recycling. This kind

of packaging product has a melting point of more than 20 °C (36 °F) higher than LDPE,

it can withstand repeated exposure to 120 °C (250 °F) so that it can be sterilized.

Examples of packaging products are blow-molded bottles for milk and household

cleaners, plastic bags, bottles of personal care products such as shampoo and recycled

HDPE is used to manufacture lawn and garden products, buckets, crates, office products

and automobile parts.

Figure 25. High-density polyethylene ridge bottle

Source: https://www.linkedin.com/company/plastic-bottle-supplies-limited

Polypropylene

This made from the polymerization of propylene which is also a synthetic

material. One of the important family of polyolefin resins, polypropylene is molded into

many plastic products in which it requires toughness, flexibility, lightweight, and heat

 65

resistance. It is also spun into fibers for employment in industrial and household textiles.

The uniqueness of this packaging material is that It doesn’t react with water, detergents,

acids, or bases, so it won’t break down easily. In terms of resistant to cracking and stress,

even when flexed, so it’s used in lots of hinges. Also, it’s quite durable, so it withstands

daily wear and tear. Lastly is that it has a high melting point, so it’s used for many

microwave containers. When it comes to recycling, like many other thermoplastics it can

be reformed to make new products and this will undergo the melting process. In fact,

polypropylene bottles and containers are collected for recycling in most curbside

programs across the country. Recycling polypropylene helps keep this superhero out of

landfills to live another life as colanders, food storage containers, cutting boards, outdoor

rugs, car parts and more. The examples of recycling products out of polypropylene are

colanders, food storage containers, cutting

boards and more.

Figure 26. Ultra Clear Polypropylene

Source: http://millikenchemical.com/

Nylon

Another class of thermoplastic is nylon, this is produced by extrusion when

molten into fibers, sheets, and others of extreme toughness, strength, and elasticity.

 66

Nylon is commonly used as a substitute for

low strength metals. It is the plastic of choice for

components in the engine compartment of vehicles due to its exceptionally strong,

relatively resistant to abrasions and moisture absorptivity, long-lasting, resistant to

chemicals, elastic and easy to wash. Products that are made of this material are in

clothing, rubber material like car tires, for use as a rope or thread, film packaging, brush

bristles and much more.

Figure 27. Embossed Nylon Plastic Vacuum

Source: http://millikenchemical.com/

Vacuum pouches

This type of packaging is a combination of polyethylene and nylon which makes

it excellent for moisture barrier. This is commonly used for packing or keeping food such

as meat or fish, snack crackers, chips,

powder form food products and some

medical products. Most people use them

together with vacuum sealers to

ensure that it is sealed properly but

they can as well be used as normal bags since they are wholly waterproof. 
 67

Figure 28. Triple laminated aluminum bag

Source: https://www.aliexpress.com/

Thermoforming Films

It is used to protect products with greater impact strength making them ideal for

varied food and non-food products like soft/hard such as vegetables and dried fruits,

dairy products and healthcare products. These films always have a strong mechanical

property which makes them puncture resistant and leakage proof. They are also able to

restrain strength at freezing temperatures and possess an excellent optical property for

base forming films. They are available at various oxygen transmission rates which help

in extending the shelf life of materials. Thermoforming films undergo thermoforming,

the process of transforming films or sheets to the desired design of molds either by

pressure molding or vacuum forming technology. Examples of food products that used

this kind of packaging are cheese & dairy product, meat, poultry, fish and marine

products, vegetables & fruits dried fruits and nuts, bakery products, ready meals and for

non-food are sweet welding rods, healthcare products, medical devices like syringes,

surgical items and many more. Overall this type of packaging is good for refrigerating

food items.
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Figure 29. Reit lidding film

Source: http://ampackaging.com.au/

Retortable packaging

These are packaging that undergoes retorting process, a process in which it is very

similar to canning, except that it is a self-stable flexible package. A retort packaging is

mostly composed of polyester polyethylene, aluminum, Bi oriented polyamide, and food

grade cast polypropylene. In retort packaging, food is filled with a pouch or metal can,

sealed, and then heated to extremely high temperatures, rendering the product

commercially sterile. One example is the retort pouch, a food packaging made from

a laminate of flexible plastic and metal foils. It allows the sterile packaging of a wide

variety of food and drink handled by aseptic processing, and is used as an alternative to

traditional industrial canning methods. This type of food packaging is mostly used in

ready to eat type of food which can be eaten cold, warmed by submerging in hot water, or

through the use of a flameless ration heater, and this is very useful whenever there is

camping program and for space food.

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Figure 30. Retortable pouch bag

Source: http://www.smitherspira.com/resources/2015

Rigid packaging

These are hard plastic packaging which includes the cups, bottles, pots, cans, and

closures. Wealthier population

consumer more packaged products

and the on-the-go lifestyle is requiring

more convenient and functional

packaging. Rigid plastic

packaging combine s durability with

light-weighting and cost-effectiveness, while can also adapt to various functional

requirements such as being elderly friendly. This packaging is widely used different food

products like yogurt, margarine, take-out meals and much more. It can also be useful for

non-food products such as for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and industrial industries use.
 70

Figure 31. Rigid bottles

Source: http://legmannews.com/

Types of rigid packaging and applications

Polyvinyl Chloride

This kind of plastic is created

through suspension polymerization to

produce a hard, rigid structure. This is a very

good type of packaging for it is designed to withstand harsh impacts and extreme

temperatures. In addition to its stable physical properties, PVC has good chemical

resistance, weather ability, flow characteristics and stable electrical properties. Rigid

packaging applications include blister packs and clamshells. PVC plastic, or polyvinyl

chloride, is a rigid plastic designed to withstand harsh impacts and extreme temperatures.

The material is most commonly used when creating cables, roofing materials,

commercial signage, flooring, faux leather clothing, pipes, hoses and more.

Figure 32. Polyvinyl chloride plastic cup

Source: https://dir.indiamart.com/

Polystyrene
 71

A versatile type plastic that can be

rigid or foamed. This commonly

combined with rubber to make high

impact polystyrene which is used for

packaging and durable applications requiring toughness, but not clarity. In terms of

appearance, it is clear, hard and brittle.

This type of food packaging is used in food service food packagings such as cups,

plates, bowls, cutlery, hinged takeout containers which are in clamshell form, meat and

poultry trays, bottles and food containers for yogurt and others.

Figure 33. Polystyrene food container

Source: http://www.foam-container-machine.com/

Polyethylene terephthalate

A form of polyester which is clear, tough, and has good gas and moisture barrier

properties. This is molded into plastic bottles and containers for packaging foods and

beverages, personal care products, and many other consumer products. It is mainly made
 72

of a polymer of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. When it comes to its specifications

highly valued packaging material because it is strong yet lightweight, non-reactive,

economical, and shatterproof. This is used in products like sodas, water, juices, salad

dressings, cooking oil, peanut butter, shampoo, liquid hand soap, mouthwash,

pharmaceuticals, even tennis balls. Also, it is eco-friendly recycled PET flakes and

pellets are in great demand for spinning fiber for carpet yarns, producing fiberfill and

geotextiles.

Figure 34. Polyethylene terephthalate colored

bottles

Source: http://bostik-industrial.com/

Rigid retortable packaging

This food packaging undergoes

a process retort that uses heat and

pressure to cook food into strong, sealed

package because the packaging is less

bulky than traditional cans and jaws, foods

cook more quickly and provide a better

tasting product. An example is the retortable trays which either rigid or semi-rigid in the
 73

structural body. It is composed of foil or plastic combinations that are retortable and have

barrier properties. This is very useful sterilization and reheating and used as a serving

dish.

Figure 35. Retortable rigid bottle

Source: https://www.amcor.com/

Review of Related Studies

Yacon soybean milk drink

According to Hitoroshi Watanabe (2000)

To provide a new yacon soybean milk drink which can complement the defects of

soybean milk and yacon juice, respectively, has a new good taste different from the tastes

of the soybean milk and yacon juice, and is good for health, while the

soybean milk drunk for the health has the characteristic grassy smell of the soybeans,

scarcely has sweetness, and is not a nice drink liked by everybody and further while

the yacon juice prepared from yacon noticed as a healthy natural food has the

characteristic mud smell of the yacon and is not an especially impressive nice drink.

SOLUTION: The advantages of the good healthy vegetables comprising the beans and

the taro are used, respectively, to complement their weak points each other, and the
 74

grassy smell and the mud smell can perfectly be masked by the addition of honey.

Namely, the shortage in the sweetness of the soybean milk is complemented with the

fructooligosaccharide of the yacon tuberous roots. A specific amount of the

soybean milk is added to the yacon juice having a simple taste comprising only the sweet

taste of the yacon juice, thereby enabling to convert the yacon juice into the drink having

a deep and good taste liked by everybody.

Studies on jicama juice processing

According to Wang Sixin (2015)

Abstract

Juice was extracted from jicama (Pachyrrizus erosus Urban) and clarified using a 10 000

daltons molecular weight cut-off membrane to improve its stability. Ultrafiltered juice

was tested for general composition and Hunter color. Ultrafiltration (UF) retentate and

UF permeate showed some changes, compared to fresh juice, in total and soluble solids,

total sugars, and nitrogen, whereas ash and pH remained constant. Hunter color of juice

samples exhibited some variation by UF. Results suggest that UF has potential to produce

jicama juice with desirable and stable aroma and flavor.

Conceptual Model of the Study

This conceptual model shows how the researchers developed the product

Singkamas (Pachyrhizus erosus) and Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius) Sports Drink.

 75

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

1. Formulation Singkamas (Pachyrhizus

erosus) and
2. Extraction Yacon (Smallanthus
3. Filtration sonchifolius)
Sports Drink
4. Distillation
5. Mixing/Blending
Knowledge
Requirement 6. Packaging
 Selecting 7. Evaluation
 Solid-Liquid
Extraction 8. Analysis
 Food Processing

Hardware Requirement
 Juicer/ Extractor
 Distillatory
equipment EVALUATION
 Water retort
 PET bottle
 Distillator

Software Equipment Figure 36. Conceptual Model of the Study

 Books The conceptual model of the study consists of input,

 Journals
 Computer process, output, and evaluation. These are in line with the

objectives set prior to conducting research. In the input, it

needs the knowledge, hardware, and software as materials need to produce a product to

be accomplished the research. The process section is the methods needed to finish the

project. The output is the outcome or the product of the research. Finally, the evaluation

procedure determines the characteristics and quality of the output.

 76

Operational Definition of Terms

The operational definition of terms is the list of terminologies used for the

research which has a unique and become an own definition according to the usage in

conducting this research

Optimization of Extracts From Singkamas (Pachyrhizus Erosus) and Yacon

(Smallanthus Sonchifolius) To a Sports Drink is a study wherein it will find the

optimum quality which the composition will achieve optimum characteristics of sports

drink made from the extract of yacon and singkamas

Antimicrobial is chemical compound that destroys or inhibit the growth of

microscopic and submicroscopic organisms

Exhaustion is emoving of dissolved air in a juice by steaming or boiling within a

containing jar

Extrusion is a process in which different ingredients are forced under pressure to

form a shape and then cut in.

Extraction is a separation of juices or water from a crop

Fructo-oligosaccharide oligofructan/oligofructose can be produced by

degradation of insulin or polyfructose

Fructose also is known as fruit sugar

Glucose is the principal sugar the body makes

Insulin is simple sugars linked together typically found in tubers, roots or

rhizomes.
 77

Hot-water Treatment is submerging of crops in hot water for few minutes

Oligofructan is a dietary sugar, which the human body does metabolize, hence its

potential use for diabetics and in body weight control.

Prebiotic food is not-digestible food that stimulates the growth or activity of

friendly bacteria to the diet in the digestive system which is beneficial to health by

restoring microbial balance in the intestine.

Probiotic are live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts

confer a health benefit on the host.

Refractometer is instrument used for sucrose concentration in the mixture

Retortable Packaging is packaging that undergoes aseptic processing to ensure

that it is sterile and this is alternative for canning method

Singkamas is underground tuber that belongs to the legume or bean family

Sports Drinks are beverages which intended to replace electrolytes at the same

time provides energy in the body

Sucrose is chemical name of table sugar

Tuber is enlarged underground stem that serves as a food storage organ

Yacon is a crisp, sweet-tasting and tuberous root