H.

FACHBACH Flow Investigation in a Francis Turbine

G r a d u a t e Research and Teaching
Assistant, Technical University in G r a z ,
Results of both theoretical and experimental investigations of the flow in a Francis
Institute of Turbomachinery II,
G r a z , Austria water turbine are presented. The flow visualization with the aid of rotating five-bore-
hole probes provides the relative velocities, the pressure and energy distribution, the slip
factor, the boundary layers, and the secondary flow. It is the intent of this paper to
compare the theoretical and experimental results and to inform about the usefulness of
the assumptions based upon the method of computation.

Introduction
L
I HE development of hydraulic machines during the
last decades was characterized by empiric methods. T h a t led
to high efficiencies indeed but not so much to the knowledge of
the flow field in the machinery. For the computation and the
design one- or two-dimensional methods combined with experi-
mental results were often used. I t was not until the last years
that three-dimensional analytical methods, developed in the
fields of compressors or gas turbines, were made use of in de-
signing the hydraulic parts and computing their flow data.
All methods of analysis are based on assumptions; their use-
fulness had to be tested with the aid of experimental investiga-
Confcributed by the Fluid Machinery Committee and presented
at the Winter Annual Meeting, New York, N. Y., November 29-
December 3, 1970, of T H E AMEBICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL E N -
GINEERS. Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, August 3,
1970. Paper No. 70-WA/FE-16.
tions. To get a good idea of the real flow in radial and diagonal
turbomachines, Prof. Niedermayer started research series with
the intention of measuring the actual flow data in stationary and
rotating parts of these types of turbomachines. This paper
shows the results of the investigation of a Francis water turbine
with high specific speed and compares them with the results of a
frequently used analytical method.
Analysis
The computation of the three-dimensional flow in turbo-
machines is often carried out by separate evaluation of the axi-
symmetric problem of the meridional flow and of the problem of
the stream through cascades on surfaces of revolution. I t is as-
sumed t h a t the meridional flow remains axisymmetric also by
different velocities on the suction and on the pressure sides of the
blades.
The streamlines of the actual flow deflect from surfaces of
revolution; the displacement depends on the pressure ratio, on
the number of blades, on the boundary layers and secondary flows,
and on the influence of the Coriolis force.

'Nomenclature'

C = absolute velocity, mps W = relative velocity without influ- rate between streamline and
Fb = blade force, mps 2 ence of relative curl, mps shroud to whole flow
H = total head, m AW = relative velocity, induced by the rotation speed, rad ps
HR = relative total enthalpy, m relative curl, mps
h = static enthalpy, m Z = number of blades Subscripts

h„ = loss factor, m (3 = relative flow angle, deg m = meridional streamline direction

N = work, H P S 7 = angle between meridional stream- n = direction normal to meridional
n — speed of rotation, rpm line and axis of rotation, deg streamline
V = static pressure, m water gauge 77 = efficiency p = pressure surface
"P = static pressure difference, m water r = relative curl, rad ps R = relative value
gauge p = density, kg s 2 per m 3 s = suction surface
Q = mass flow, m'ps 0" = blade thickness in circumferential u — circumferential direction
R = radius, m direction, m
Re = Reynolds number <p = coordinate angle around axis, deg Superscript
r
K = radius of curvature, m ip = streamfunction, ratio of flow — — mean valve

Copyright © 1971 by ASME

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 I
Guidevane
k
Shroud,41-0,0 J

iji-0,5
(Leading Edge

Traili ng Edge

Hut>>t •-1,0

Fig. 1 Meridional streamlines in passage

8 _- ^_ Ws /"\
V
V^~ N \ Section if-0,9

6-
/
y /
(near Hub)

/w. ws

^ W,
u
o
> 1 -
Section ni-0,1 Section iv - 0,5
(near Shroud) (Middle of Channel) -^w p

I I I I I I I I I
20 40 60 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
MERiDl'ONAL LENGTH OF BLADE- SECTiON , m m
Fig. 2 Theoretical velocity distributions along three blade sections

The axisymmetrio flow is given by the equation of motion in until these equations are satisfied. The computed meridional
a direction normal to the meridional streamlines [ l ] 1 streamfield is shown in Fig. 1.
To compute the blade-to-blade velocity distribution, the
cj c„» . „ 1 ^>P "approximate method" of Stanitz and Prian [2] was used.
sm y = Fb - -• — (1)
With the assumption of a linear variation of the relative veloci-
rK li p on ties from the suction side to the pressure side and the assumption
The computation of this flow field was carried out iteratively.
of no absolute circulation on surfaces of revolution, for thin blades
A first set of streamlines were assumed and their positions were
the velocity on the suction side is
controlled by the equation of motion (1), by the energy equation,
and by the continuity equation. The streamlines were changed /2RiT
Ws = W + C (2)

1 The velocity on the pressure side is

Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.

526 / D E C E M B E R 1971 Transactions of the

ASME
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 Fig. 3 Geometry of the model turbine

Fig. 4 (a) Probe; (b) installation of the probe

W„ = 2W - W, (3) The Actual Flow

This method cannot provide the slip factor—its value must be Test Rig and Instrumentation. To get information about the real
assumed for all stream surfaces. The results of the computation flow, a Francis turbine test rig was built. The computation of
for three sections of the impeller are drawn in Fig. 2. the hydraulic, parts was done with the aid of the described ana-

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 the head by a manometer, the speed of rotation with an electronic
counter, and the torque by a water-cooled disk brake.
The optimum efficiency of this model turbine comes lo i)\y
percent. For the determination of the flow data in the channel
to Manometer of the impeller, specifications of operation were chosen as follows-

II = 3.04 m 17 = 91.2 percent

Q = 0.1655 nv>/s N = '6:11 H P S
n = oOOrpm He = 2.15 X 10 6

To measure the pressures, the velocity, and its direction, a. (ive-

Rubber Sealing Ring
from
Impeller
Fig. 5 Pressure transfer device
lytical methods. The most significant criterion for the design of
the impeller was a linear decline of the angular momentum along-
all meridional streamlines to get a uniform energy transfer from
the flow to the blades.
The 13 blades of the runner were separately manufactured of
bronze and were fixed by a metal filler in milled slits of the hub.
The shroud and a part of the diffusor were built with "Plexiglas"
to enable the observation of the flow into the impeller channels
during operation. The impeller has a diameter of 280 mm; its
meridional plane is drawn in Fig. 3.
To control the performance of the turbine, suitable instruments
were installed: The mass flow was measured by a venturi tube,
bore-hole probe was used, Fig. 4(a). This probe was calibraled
in a test nozzle to a maximum angle between flow direction and
axis of the probe of 12 deg. The precision of the probe in case of
calibration was 0.1 deg. The probe was installed in a channel
with the aid of computed forms, Fig. 4(5). The hub had to bo
perforated and the probe was fixed in it with the metal filler.
The six pressures of the probe were transmitted in thin tubes (0
the pressure transfer device. Each pressure arriving in a radial
bore hole of the wave was transmitted in a small chamber built
of two stationary rubber sealing rings, Fig. 5.
On both sides of each chamber there are other chambers filled
with water to press the lips of the seals against the wave and to
dissipate the friction heat.
The probe could not be installed closer to the blade than 1.5
mm. To get the pressures on the blade surfaces themselves,
small holes were bored in the blades and connected by thin tubes
with the pressure transfer device.
To measure the flow conditions upstream and downstream of
the impeller, the probe was also installed in the space of the. guide-
vanes, in the space between guidevanes and impeller, and in the
diffusor, see Fig. 3.
Relative Velocity Field. The knowledge of the relative velocities
is very important for the detei'mination of flow separation and
cavitation. Fig. 6 shows the measured and computed velocities
on a surface of revolution near the shroud of the impeller. The
angular momentum of the real flow arriving at the impeller on
this section decreases because of the friction on the wall, and the

D.
E
>- Section i|i • 0,1

Fig. 6 Comparison of fheor&ficai and experimental velocity distributions on blade section *p — 0.1

528 / D E C E M B E R 1971 Transactions of the AS ME ,

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 Fig. 7 Comparison of theoretical and experimental velocity distributions on blade section i/' — 0.5

direction of the upstream does not correspond with the design of

the impeller. Because of this, in the first part of the cascade the
energy transfer and the difference of the velocities between suc-
tion side and pressure side are small. Downstream the conform-
ity of the measured and computed velocities is very good until
the development of the boundary layers produces divergences on
the outlet. The velocity field in the middle of the channel is
shown in Fig. 7.
Boundary Layer. The areas of boundary layer observed in the
channel of the impeller are drawn in Fig. 8. The largest field
lies on the suction side near the shroud. This phenomenon was
also observed by Hamrick [3] and Ellis [4] in radial compres-
sors. The reason for the existence of boundary layers on this loca-
tion results from the great delay of the relative stream; in the case
of the Francis turbine, the narrow corner between shroud and
suction side favors its development. Because of the short length
of the channel compared with its hydraulic diameter, of the
small number of blades, and the only slightly curved channel,
the fields of boundary layers in this type of a diagonal turbine
are small in comparison with those of radial turbines and pumps.
The distribution of the static pressure in the cascade near the
shroud, shown in Fig. 9, is typical for the existence of the boundary
layer. By delaying the flow near the suction side, the pressure in-
creases only slightly and remains constant rrp to the trailing edge.
The same phenomenon could be observed also on the pressure
side in the small part near the outlet of the channel. A good
criterion for presence of boundary layers provides also the draw-
ing of the angular momentum. Fig. 10 shows a big increase of
RC„ on the suction side adjacent to the shroud. The relative
velocity at this spot is very small and the circumferential com-
ponent of the absolute velocity equals the circumferential veloc-
ity of the blade. The distribution of the angulai- momentum
on other sections appears uniformly.
Load of the Blade. The design of the blades for uniform energy
transfer also conditions an equal load of the blades. T h e mea-
sured difference of the pressures on the blade between pressure
Fig. 8 Boundary layers in the channel and suction side is drawn in Fig. 11. For a large part of the
blade surface the load is quite equal. Only in the area near the

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 _ Section i(i-0,1 1)1-0,5 ly- 0,9

UJ

a.
1 -

40 80 40 80 40 80
BLADE LENGTH, m m
Fig. 9 Static pressure along three blade sections

a.
\
z
3

z
o
z
<
—I
u>
2
<

10 20 -10 20. 10 20
CIRCUMFERENTIAL ANSLE i ^ degrees
Fig. 10 Distribution of angular momentum on the outlet along three sections

leading edge and the shroud is there a maximum of load pro-
duced by the not exact upstream.
Torsion of the Stream Surfaces. Generally the shift of the actual
streamlines against the axisymmeti'io surfaces is caused by the
influence of the boundary layers and by the influence of the
Coriolis force. The main influence on the torsion of the stream
surfaces in this type of Francis turbine is exerted by the "Relative
Curl." This expression, used in the literature of hydraulic ma-
chinery [5], characterizes the vector YR = — 2u), t h a t is, the vector
of rotation of the relative stream by not rotating absolute stream.
The relative curl YR can be divided into a component T^.m in di-
rection tangential to the meridional stream surfaces and a
component YR,„ normal to this plane, Fig. 12. The component
Yit,„ contributes towards the circulation around the blades; the
component Yn,m produces additional velocities on the suction side
in the direction to the hub, on the pressure side to the shi , " l "'l
hence, it follows a torsion of the meridional stream surf.,n'lV-
In Fig. 13 the measured vectors of the relative velocities adjiK-t'"'
to the blades are drawn; they show the described influence ol ''"'
component YR,,,, of the relative curl. The quantity of thi- lll_
fluence depends on the number of blades and on the inclin'i11""
of the meridional streamlines to the axis of rotation. In niliiil
turbomachines there exists only the component YR.U', m "A
machineries, only the influence of YR,m [6].
Relative Total Enthalpy and Losses in the Impeller. B y measurer"'" 1 ,
of the pressures and the velocities, the relative total enthalpy "•'•'
HB ==&+•• 2 .•''
2
is known too. HR is the "Bernoulli constant" of the rel«i lVl '

530 / D E C E M B E R 197) Transactions of the ASME

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 Surface of Revolution

'p,m AWp.n

Fig. 1 I Circular projection of pressure differences between pressure and Fig. 12 Additional velocities induced by relative curl
suction side

streamlines. In the real flow HR decreases because of the fric-
tion losses. The distributions of HR on three surfaces of revolu-
tion at the inlet and the ovitlet of the channel are drawn in Fig.
14. They show an increase of HR on the pressure side. This
phenomenon can be explained as follows: The relative total en-
thalpy of the flow near the hub is higher than near the shroud.
The flow adjacent to the pressure side runs in the direction to the
shroud (Fig. 13) and shows greater enthalpy than the mean en-
thalpy corresponding to this surface of revolution.
Only for axisymmetric flows can a loss factor be defined as
follows
= H/l,inlt HR,
outlet
Hit means the median in circumferential direction of the relative
total enthalpy. Fig. 15 shows losses found in this way on all
surfaces of revolution. From the mean value of hv = 0.068 m,
the hydraulic efficiency of the impeller comes to 97.8 percent.
Slip Factor. The method used for the computation of the blade
Velocities cannot provide the slip factor. Its value may be com-
puted as by Busemann [7] or Stanitz [8]. For the design of the
impeller, the slip factor was assumed. Fig. 16 shows the mean
value in circumferential direction of the flow angle on the outlet;
the difference between flow angle and blade angle corresponds to
the slip factor.
Loss Analysis in the Turbine. With the aid of the measurements
of the flow data in the entrance of the spiral case, in the space of
the guidevanes, in the impeller, and in the diffusor, the losses in
the whole machinery could be found:
losses in spiral case and guidevanes hv — 0.18 m
(7) losses in vaneless space upstream impeller hv — 0.005 m
losses in impeller hv = 0.068 m
losses in diffusor h„ = 0.007 m
losses of ventilation, mechanical losses h„ = 0.010 m

Pressure Side Suciion Side

Fig. 13 Circular projection of velocity vectors adjacent pressure and suction side

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 Section tyi-0,1 iji-0,5 if -0,9

1,5

a.
X
>-
O-
<
X
1-
2
a Inlet
o Outlet
<
o
H
<u
•g
-d in
< IT)
c
o D

in

a. _L
10 20 -10 20 10 20
CIRCUMFERENTIAL ANGLE ip, degrees
Fig. 14 Distribution of relative total enthalpies at inlet and outlet of the channel along three
sections

a Mean Flow Angle

Hub

o Blade Angle
0,16
|

40- —
E
-C* 0,12 - C
.OSS

CD
Z
0,08 — \ h v - 0,068
<

/
/
20 —

N. LOSS
-

Shroud
0,04
J3
X
. I I I I I I
"'"QD 0,2 0,4 0,6 on 1,0
0 50 100
STREAM-FUNCTION l|>
LENGTH OF TRAILiNG EDGE:, m m
Fig. 16 Distributions of mean flow angles and blade angles at the im-
Fig. 15 Losses on stream surfaces of revolution peller outlet

not twisted guidevanes, essentially influences the position of the

It shows t h a t in the operation point of best efficiency the losses
in the impeller are very small compared with the losses in the
spiral case and in the space of the guidevanes. Corresponding
results were obtained by Schatzmayr [9] for a low-specific-speed
Francis turbine.
Conclusion
1 The design of Francis water turbines with high specific
speed implies, above all, exact knowledge about the upstream
to the impeller. T h e gradient of the angular momentum be-
tween hub and shroud, produced by inclined stream through the
meridional surfaces.
2 The uniform decline of the angular momentum from Hie
leading edge to the trailing edge on all stream surfaces in the
impeller proved to be a good design criterion.
3 The model impeller designed by this criterion produces
97.8 percent efficiency. Moreover the uniform velocity distribu-
tion on the outlet of the impeller prevents high mixing losses in
the diffusov.
4 The losses in the impeller of the turbine amount to 25 per-
cent; those in the spiral case and in the space of the guidevanes
amount to 66 percent of the total losses. Because of these
results, an exact investigation of the flow data and of the losses
in these parts of the machinery should be carried out, too.

532 / D E C E M B E R 1971 Transactions of the ASME

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 5 The described analysis based on the assumptions of axi-
gymmetric stream surfaces provides a velocity field in the impel-
ler conforming well with the actual flow; the areas of boundary
layers are predicted.
6 The development of boundary layers in the investigated
impeller is relatively small because of the short length of the
channel and of the small number of blades. A distinct boundary
layer exists only on the suction side near the shroud.
7 The difference between the mean flow angle of the relative
stream and the angle of blade on the outlet of the impeller vary
between 4 and 11 degrees on the stream surfaces between shroud
and hub.
8 With this type of Francis turbine it is above all the Coriolis
force which conditions the torsion of the stream surfaces, its in-
fluence depending on the number of blades and the inclination of
the streamlines against the axis of rotation. This displacement
of the flow from the axisymmetric stream surfaces by boundary
layers appears only near the trailing edge on the section adjacent
to the shroud.
References
1 Traupel, W., "Die Theorie der Stroinung durch Radialmascli-
inen," G. Braun, Karlsruhe, 1962, p. 78.
2 Stanitz, J. D., and Prian, V. D., "A Rapid Approximate Method
for Determining Velocity Distribution on Impeller Blades of Centrif-
ugal Compressors," NACA TN 2421, 1951.
3 Hamrick, J. T., "Some Aerodynamic Investigations in Centrif-
ugal Impellers," ASME Paper No. 55-SA-S3, 1955.
4 Ellis, G. O., "A Study of Induced Vorticity in Centrifugal
Compressors," Journal of Engineering for Power, TEANS. ASME,
Series A, Vol. 86, No. 1, Jan. 1964, pp. 63-76.
5 Raabe, J., Hydraulische Maschinen unci Anlagcn, l.Teil, VDI-
Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1968.
6 Raabe, J., "Der Relativwirbel als Verlustfaktor und Storungs-
ursache fur die Rotationssymmetrie der Stromflachen bei axialen
Turbomaschinen," Maschinenmarkl, Vol. 64, No. 3, 1958, p. 7.
7 Busemann, A., "Das Forderhohenverhaltnis radialer Kreisel-
pumpen mit logarithmisoh-spiraligen Schaufeln," ZAMM, Bd.8/5,
1928, p. 372.
8 Stanitz, J. D., "Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow in Turbo-
machines witli Conic Flow Surfaces," NACA-Rep. 935, 1949.
9 Schatzmayr, G., "Tiber die Stromungin einer Francis-Turbine,"
fch. dissertation, Technical University in Graz, 1970.
DISCUSSION
2
J. T. Hamrick
The author of this paper is to be congratulated on performing
an experimental investigation of such complexity. He has demon-
strated the usefulness of the techniques in the evaluation of a
given turbine design. In nry opinion, he has probably attributed
too high an efficiency to the impeller. The velocity distributions
as shown in Fig. 2 indicate an abrupt unloading of the blades.
With this abrupt unloading, it is impossible to avoid severe mix-
ing losses downstream of the impeller. On the other hand, if
the blades had been designed to unload so that there was no
velocity difference between the suction and pressure faces at the
exit, there probabfy would have been greater deceleration along
the suction surface of the blade and, therefore, a thicker boundary
layer accumulation. This assumes no change in the blade solidity.
The primary losses would then be more obviously traceable to
the impeller. There is a clear indication that there is a need
for optimization of impeller design. This would involve a study
of blade shape and solidity or possibly evaluation of an impeller
having additional short vanes at the impeller outlet or staggered
consecutive blade rows. Staggered blade rows can result in a
thinner boundary layer build up.
'^resident, Aerospace Research Corporation, Roanoke, Va.
^Journal of Basic Engineering
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J. H. G. Howard3
The author is to be congratulated on the carrying out of a
timely and interesting series of measurements of the flow pattern
within the passages of a Francis turbine. Any attempt to ser-
iously evaluate passage flow analysis methods will require such
internal measurements rather than those obtained externally to
the impeller. Could the author please explain at how many
positions the velocity measurements were made, on each blade-
to-blade traverse, which led to the distributions in Figs. 6 and 7?
In those figures, the velocity distributions at the passage entry,
both experimental and theoretical, show a strong velocity dif-
ference across the blade. Were the velocities measured just in-
side the passage, rather than immediately at the entrance as
shown? If further data are available in an internal report or
thesis, such a reference would be a useful addition to the paper.
The high loading and strong losses in the region near the
shroud are most significant, particularly since they may be as-
sociated with cavitation in some turbines. The approximate
analysis method employed in the paper also appears to deviate
from experiment more in this region which suggests that a more
complex flow model should be sought.
Since the normal use of slip factor predictions relates to flow
in radial-outflow pumps rather than radial-inflow turbines,
could the author comment on how he arrived at a slip factor for
his Francis turbine and how closely it compared with his mea-
sured deviation angles?
J. Raabe4
The paper of Mr. Fachbach is a very useful contribution to the
research work done on Francis turbines of high specific speed.
I t presents for the first time a measurement of the relative and
absolute flow field especially beyond the boundary layer carried
out with water as fluid. Furthermore it contains simultaneously
the concept of the authors blade design.
Similar measurements on a similar runner of 0.455 m 4> with
water as fluid limited to the runner blade surface region had been
carried out by E. Baer (references [10 and l l ] ) 5 at the Institute
of Hydraulic Machines and Plants of Technical University,
Munich in 1969. Static pressure was measured by feeble air
injection from wholes in the runner blade. Total pressure of
relative flow has been measured also by air injection with small
Pitot tubes of low direction sensitivity, located adjacent to the
boundary layer and fixed to the runner blades. Accuracy of the
stand had been 0.5 percent concerning efficiency. Therefore
operational points could be repeated for total pressure measure-
ment with the same wholes in the blade as for static pressure.
Simultaneously used Pitot tubes had been arranged in such a
manner that their wakes didn't disturb mutually. By this the
magnitude of relative velocity could be measured. Air injection
has been in use for three reasons:
1 Elimination of pressure rise due to centrifugal forces of the
fluid in the rotating tube from the measuring whole on the blade
to the axis of turbine and therefrom to the resting manometer.
2 Abbreviation of measuring procedure.
3 Pick up of the static pressure from the blade surface for
detection of cavitational regions and getting the pressure differ-
ence as blade load distribution for stress calculations.
3
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
4
Professor and Director of Institute for Hydraulic Machines and
Plants, Technical University, Munich, Germany
5
Numbers in brackets designate Additional References at end of
discussion.
DECEMBER 1971 / 533