Upgrade and Evolution in Food Industry

UPGRADE AND EVOLUTION IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Why is food important?
Food is any substance that is consumed by living things in order to live and survive. As part of the
basic necessities of every living being and creature, food is considered the number one need. Food
comes variably, depending on the nature of the one consuming it. For most humans, there are a great
variety of food selections, with direct influence from one’s culture, religious practices and personal
preference. For animals and other living creatures, sources of food may vary. Some animals survive
with what nature can provide while others work their way out in searching for food to satisfying their
hunger. For plants, their common sources of food are the light from the sun and the water from the
soil, which undergoes various chemical and scientific processes that enable plants to grow and
survive.
The main reason why food is important is because it feeds on one’s survival. Food is one important
element for all living beings because it is substance that provides nourishment to the body and allows
specific function to work at an optimum level. For rich and poor alike, a certain amount of food is
necessary to promote growth, to supply force and heat, and to furnish material to repair the waste
which is constantly taking place in the body. For most people, the preparation of food is one crucial
task to do. They must be planned, prepared, and served with unvarying regularity in order to maintain
the health and efficiency of every individual.
It is a universal fact that food plays very vital role in maintaining proper health and also helps in
prevention and cure of diseases. Good nutritive food makes health while bad or unhealthy food give
rise to several diseases. With a well balanced diet, one’s health is ensured.
Food or ‘annam’ is the basic necessity of life and existence and ‘annam’ is “aham”. We all need food
to eat, to grow, to develop physically and mentally, to work at our optimal capacity, to build our
defenses against infections, and maintain good health. Indian traditional diets are of immense variety
and the diversified preparations not only offer the whole range of nutrients but also activate digestion
and several physiological functions. Until a few years ago, we used to prefer natural foods over
refined foods, and light foods (less oily) (satvic) over heavy foods. Our traditional meals were mostly
plant based (as animal foods were expensive) with spices, and were cooked and eaten fresh at home.
They were a combination of cereals, millets, pulses, and spices such as pepper, cumin, asafetida and
coriander with curd and coconut satisfying our energy and protein requirements. Those who could
afford had milk, yoghurt, eggs, and chicken with small amounts of animal meat adding to the protein
requirement. Vegetables and fruits contribute to the intake of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants
required for supportive functions. We use traditional oils from groundnut, sesame, mustard, and ghee
which are essential, in small quantities, to absorb fat soluble vitamins and contribute to several
hormonal functions. Edible oil is an important source of fat in the Indian diet. Besides being a source
of energy, it adds a special flavour and palatability to the food. The foods were balanced, diversified
and freshly prepared but not stored.
Food habits, in general are culture specific, but in the last few decades dynamic changes have
occurred due to the fast growing economy, a shift from traditional to modern technologies,
globalization, industrialization, constant travels across the world, evolving tastes and increased
demands for “fast” and processed foods throughout our country. We have a social divide and
therefore, the consequences also vary widely. On the one hand, we have poverty and hunger causing
undernutrition and related disorders while on the other hand, a substantial increase in the intake of fats
and refined foods such as white rice, maida based items, sugars, and salt leading to over nutrition
related disorders such as obesity.
The evolution of the current food habits and diets of Indians reflects the agriculture and industrial
revolutions in the country. The world’s worst recorded food disaster happened in 1943 in British-ruled
India which is known as the Bengal famine. This was a time when India faced an acute shortage of
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BE AERONAUTICAL ENGINEER
food production and also gave low priority to food supply. After World War II, poverty and hunger
were in abundance, and this resulted in various undernutrition related epidemic disorders such as
protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency disorders such as night blindness, pellagra,
anemia, goiter, and rickets. Almost 60 years after the famine, some Indians still face these problems
due to inadequate availability, inaccessibility and the lack of affordable “two square meals” a day in
the disadvantaged segments of the population. The food imports, therefore, concentrated on cereal
grains. Millets grown locally such as jowar, maize, bajra (pearl millet), finger millets (ragi) were
grown along with legumes. Millets are the storehouses of macro and micronutrients. They have higher
contents of calcium, iron, phosphorous, and magnesium than rice or wheat. They are also high in
fibre, low in fat, and are gluten free. They have the potential to reduce blood cholesterol and sugar and
are hence considered good for chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disorders, etc. Traditionally,
millets and wheat were unrefined, and rice was hand pounded and parboiled ensuring better retention
of vitamins, minerals, fibre, and a host of useful phytonutrients such as antioxidants. As locally grown
crops could not meet the growing population demand, there was a need for an agriculture revolution.
The ‘Green Revolution’, promoted record grain output and ensured self sufficiency in cereal grains
and reduced hunger. The green revolution mainly emphasized on cereal grains, especially wheat and
rice, to reduce hunger. Food imports, therefore, concentrated on cereal grains. This resulted in a shift
in the dietary patterns. Support prices given by the government in favour of rice and wheat
production, further reduced millet and pulse productivity. The staple food of Indians soon shifted
from millets to rice and wheat.
After the agriculture revolution, the wave of ‘rapid industrialization’ changed the scenario further.
Due to the requirement for higher grain output and better shelf life, cereals were milled, polished, and
processed. The intake of polished white rice and refined wheat flour eventually resulted in loss of
fibre and micronutrients from our diets.
The ‘White Revolution’ by the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in the 1970s made milk
and other dairy products easily available to the community. The usage of ghee, butter, paneer, and
cheese enhanced the diet especially of the urban Indians. Milk by itself is a wholesome food and helps
in building bones and is essential for growth and development. But again in the well-to-do
communities, excess intake of milk products like ghee, cream, cheese and paneer – rich sources of
saturated fatty acids – led to obesity and related heart diseases.
The change in the diet pattern related to fat intake in the population was not dependent on the white
revolution alone, but was actually the result of the combined effect of the white and yellow
revolutions. The ‘Yellow Revolution’ in oilseeds owes its success to a spectacular increase in output
during 1998-99. It was at the same time that an oilseeds production thrust project was initiated by the
government to accelerate the production of major oilseeds – groundnut, mustard, rapeseed, soybean,
and sunflower. The quality of fat in terms of essential fatty acids and an appropriate ratio of omega 3
and omega 6 fatty acids (1:5) is very much essential to maintain good health. A community based
study published recently in Chennai (2012) based on surveys carried out in the year 2006, showed that
almost 63% of the Chennai population has shifted to sunflower oil from the traditional groundnut and
sesame oil. Use of omega 6 PUFA-rich vegetable oils like sunflower/safflower oil can aggravate the
risk of obesity and its consequences, particularly in the Asian-Indian population who habitually
consumes a cereal staple diet consisting of refined grains with low intakes of omega 3 fats. The use of
oils such as groundnut/sesame/mustard and even soybean or blends of oil seem to be a better option as
it can ensure an optimal ratio of saturated, mono unsaturated, omega 3, and omega 6 fatty acids and
reduce the risk of metabolic problems, a pre event that leads to diabetes and cardiovascular disorders.
The ‘Industrial Revolution’ added to the changing food patterns in the country by introducing bakery
food items prepared from hydrogenated fats (vanaspathi) and trans fats – major culprits that cause
cardiac disorders and insulin resistance. Higher production of sugarcane and a rise in sugar industries
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led to the production of sugar confectionaries, candies, and sweetened aerated beverages resulting in
the consumption of “empty” calories. Many processed and convenience foods, pickles, and pappads,
now easily available, added to the salt intake thus increasing the occurrence of hypertension. While
processed and convenience foods have entered the market targeting the youth with energy dense and
salty foods, the intake of colourful green, yellow, and orange vegetables and fruits is becoming
pitiably low due to their high prices, seasonality, and farm wastage. National surveys indicate the
same, highlighting the need for a ‘Rainbow Revolution’ to enhance vegetable and fruit production.
Our intake of these power packed items should ideally be around 500g/day/person.
The erosion of the “healthy diet” as an outcome of modernization and industrialization has led to the
development of dietary supplements and functional foods. Functional foods are those that contain
components (which may or may not be nutrients) that affect a limited number of functions in the body
in a targeted way so as to have positive effects on health. They could also have a physiological effect
that extends beyond the traditional nutritional effect. However, dietary diversification is the best
approach as Nature knows what is best for mankind. Some of our traditional food items contain
functional ingredients, which play a major role in the prevention of diseases and promotion of health.
Pharmacological and technological advances cannot replace healthy diets and physical activity as the
means to safeguard against both under and overnutrition. It would be worthwhile for us to consider
going back to our traditional diets for controlling the modifiable risk factors (diet and physical
activity) and tackling the emerging epidemic of chronic diseases. Even in the Bhagvad Gita, Lord
Krishna has mentioned that foods which promote life, vitality, strength, happiness, and satisfaction,
those which are succulent, nourishing, and pleasing to the heart are satvic in nature, and form the
basis for a healthy life. Whole grains and grams, limited intake of refined foods, plenty of veggies and
fruits, traditional/blend of oils, and freshly prepared foods are the cornerstones of health and well
being.
Kamala Krishnaswamy, M.D. is former Director, National Institute of Nutrition & Emeritus Medical
Scientist (ICMR); Past President, Nutrition Society of India, Senior Honorary Advisor, Madras
Diabetes Research Foundation, Chennai. He can be reached at sri21kk@yahoo.com.
Ruchi Vaidya, Ph.D is a Research Associate at the Department of Foods Nutrition & Dietetics
Research, Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Chennai. She can be reached at
ruchivaidya@mdrf.in.
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The Effects of Fast Food on the Body
Digestive and cardiovascular systems
Sugar and fat
Sodium
Respiratory system
Central nervous system
Reproductive system
Integumentary system
Skeletal system
Effects on society
Popularity of fast food
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Swinging through the drive-thru or hopping into your favorite fast-food restaurant tends to happen
more often than some would like to admit.
According to the Food Institute’s analysis of data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, millennials
alone spend 45 percent of their budget’s food dollars on eating out.
NUTRITION
Is Raw Food Healthier Than Cooked Food?
Cooking food can improve its taste, but it also changes the nutritional content.
Interestingly, some vitamins are lost when food is cooked, while others become more available for
your body to use.
Some claim that eating primarily raw foods is the path to better health. However, certain cooked foods
have clear nutritional benefits.
This article discusses the benefits of both raw and cooked foods.
What Is a Raw-Food Diet?

Raw foods are foods that have not been cooked or processed.
While there are varying levels of raw-food diets, all of them involve eating mostly unheated,
uncooked and unprocessed foods. In general, a raw-food diet is made up of at least 70% raw foods.
The diet often includes fermented foods, sprouted grains, nuts and seeds, in addition to raw fruits and
vegetables.
Many raw foodists consume a vegetarian or vegan diet, eliminating animal products and eating mostly
raw plant foods. However, a small number also consume raw dairy products, fish and even raw meat.
Advocates claim that raw foods are more nutritious than cooked foods because enzymes, along with
some nutrients, are destroyed in the cooking process. Some believe that cooked food is actually toxic.
While there are some clear benefits to eating raw fruits and vegetables, there are also some potential
problems with a raw-food diet.
A strict raw-food diet is very difficult to follow, and the number of people that stick to a completely
raw diet in the long term is very small.
Furthermore, some foods contain dangerous bacteria and microorganisms that are only eliminated by
cooking. Eating a completely raw diet that includes fish and meat comes with a risk of developing a
food-borne illness.
SUMMARY:
Raw food diets involve eating mostly raw fruits and vegetables. Eating raw foods has some benefits,
but there are also potential problems.
Cooking May Destroy Enzymes in Food

When you consume a food, digestive enzymes in your body help break it down into molecules that
can be absorbed (1).
The food you eat also contains enzymes that aid digestion.
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Enzymes are heat sensitive and deactivate easily when exposed to high temperatures. In fact, nearly
all enzymes are deactivated at temperatures over 117°F (47°C) (2Trusted Source, 3Trusted Source).
This is one of the primary arguments in favor of raw-food diets. When a food’s enzymes are altered
during the cooking process, more enzymes are required from your body to digest it.
Proponents of raw-food diets claim that this puts stress on your body and can lead to enzyme
deficiency. However, there are no scientific studies to support this claim.
Some scientists argue that the main purpose of food enzymes is to nourish the growth of the plant —
not to help humans digest them.
Furthermore, the human body produces the enzymes necessary to digest food. And the body absorbs
and re-secretes some enzymes, making it unlikely that digesting food will lead to an enzyme
deficiency (4Trusted Source, 5Trusted Source).
Moreover, science has not yet demonstrated any adverse health effects of eating cooked foods with
denatured enzymes.
Cooking neither has been a discovery nor has it been an invention; it has been an evolution and food
has changed with times and societies. Food is one of the basic requirements of survival for humans
and in the past all the wars have been for mere survival only. In the prehistoric times cavemen killed
animals for food and this led them to develop crude tools made of stone so that they could hunt with
ease.
The accidental discovery of fire changed the way we eat food today. We can only guess how the first
cooked food evolved. Maybe one day some piece of meat accidentally landed in fire and it tasted
good; it could also be that a whole animal fell into a fire and got char grilled accidentally to create the
world’s first barbecue.
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The old pictures of cavemen also depict whole animals being spit roasted. Even till this day the
cuisine of nomads and tribes is essentially whole spit roasts.
After the colonies were built and the civilizations set in, societal structure started developing based on
the type of work being done by different people. Man started to demarcate food as well. Food began
to be classified as food for warriors, royal cuisine, and poor man’s food.
With the advent of religions, religious barriers prevented eating of pork for Muslims and beef for
Hindus. Kosher laws of Jews, royal cuisines of Thailand, Emperor’s cuisine of China, and many
others around the world have been segregated according to caste and social status of the people.
Food grows naturally in the forms of grains, nuts, and vegetables; but with the advent of technology
in the sphere of agriculture, various types of pesticides and insecticides and hybrid technology gave
birth to new kinds of vegetables and fruits which even have colour and shape.
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Japan has started producing tomatoes which are square-shaped like bread loaves, so only a single slice
of such a tomato will cover an entire piece of bread in a tomato sandwich.
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Now with awareness of the harmful effects of pesticides and insecticides, people are restoring back to
naturally produced vegetables and fruits and now we call them ‘organic food’. Organic food has
become a fashion statement and the same food which was once available naturally, is being purchased
at thrice the price and so only the rich and famous can really afford it.
In the prehistoric times and until very recently men went hunting, while the women would stay back
to cook meals and look after kids and it became a norm that woman of the household will cook, while
the man earns and brings in the commodities. However, in the modem era, women have been
competing with men in all the spheres of life.
Lack of time to cook at home has given a new dimension to food and a whole range of ready- to-eat
meals have hit the shelves of markets all over the world. After a hectic day of work, all one has to do
is empty the contents of a ready-to-eat meal packet into a boiling pot of water and after some minutes,
one can relish any dish from around the world.
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Thus, we see how food has evolved from centuries, and we do not really know where the future is
going to lead us to. But there is one thing for sure, for which chefs do not have to bother and that is,
whatever form food takes, it will still be chefs who will be creating the delicacies.
SUMMARY:
Cooking foods deactivates the enzymes found in them. However, there is no evidence that food
enzymes contribute to better health.
Some Water-Soluble Vitamins Are Lost in the Cooking Process

Raw foods may be richer in certain nutrients than cooked foods.
Some nutrients are easily deactivated or can leach out of food during the cooking process. Water-
soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C and the B vitamins, are particularly susceptible to being lost
during cooking (6Trusted Source, 7Trusted Source, 8Trusted Source, 9, 10Trusted Source).
In fact, boiling vegetables may reduce the content of water-soluble vitamins by as much as 50–60%
(7Trusted Source, 9, 11Trusted Source).
Some minerals and vitamin A are also lost during cooking, although to a lesser extent. Fat-soluble
vitamins D, E and K are mostly unaffected by cooking.
Boiling results in the greatest loss of nutrients, while other cooking methods more effectively preserve
the nutrient content of food.
Steaming, roasting and stir-frying are some of the best methods of cooking vegetables when it comes
to retaining nutrients (12Trusted Source, 13Trusted Source, 14Trusted Source, 15Trusted Source).
Lastly, the length of time that a food is exposed to heat affects its nutrient content. The longer a food
is cooked, the greater the loss of nutrients (9).
SUMMARY:
Some nutrients, particularly water-soluble vitamins, are lost during the cooking process. Raw fruits
and vegetables may contain more nutrients like vitamin C and B vitamins.
Cooked Food May Be Easier to Chew and Digest
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Chewing is an important first step in the digestive process. The act of chewing breaks down large
pieces of food into small particles that can be digested.
Improperly chewed food is much more difficult for the body to digest and can lead to gas and
bloating. Additionally, it requires significantly more energy and effort to properly chew raw foods
than cooked ones (16Trusted Source).
The process of cooking food breaks down some of its fibers and plant cell walls, making it easier for
the body to digest and absorb the nutrients (17Trusted Source).
Cooking also generally improves the taste and aroma of food, which makes it much more enjoyable to
eat.
Although the number of raw foodists who consume raw meat is small, meat is easier to chew and
digest when it’s cooked (18Trusted Source).
Properly cooking grains and legumes not only improves their digestibility, but it also reduces the
number of anti-nutrients they contain. Anti-nutrients are compounds that inhibit the body’s ability to
absorb nutrients in plant foods.
The digestibility of a food is important because your body can only receive a food’s health benefits if
it’s able to absorb the nutrients.
Some cooked foods may provide the body with more nutrients than their raw counterparts because
they are easier to chew and digest.
SUMMARY:
Cooked foods are easier to chew and digest than raw foods. Proper digestion is necessary to absorb a
food’s nutrients.
Cooking Increases the Antioxidant Capacity of Some Vegetables

Studies have shown that cooking vegetables increases the availability of antioxidants like beta-
carotene and lutein (19Trusted Source, 20Trusted Source).
Beta-carotene is a powerful antioxidant that the body converts into vitamin A.

A diet rich in beta-carotene has been associated with a reduced risk of heart disease (21Trusted
Source).
The antioxidant lycopene is also more easily absorbed by your body when you get it from cooked
foods instead of raw foods (22Trusted Source).
Lycopene has been associated with a decreased risk of prostate cancer in men and lower risk of heart
disease (23Trusted Source, 24Trusted Source).
One study found that cooking tomatoes reduced their vitamin C content by 29%, while their lycopene
content more than doubled within 30 minutes of cooking. Also, the total antioxidant capacity of the
tomatoes increased by over 60% (22Trusted Source).
Another study found that cooking increases the antioxidant capacity and content of plant compounds
found in carrots, broccoli and zucchini (25Trusted Source).
Antioxidants are important because they protect the body from harmful molecules called free radicals.
A diet rich in antioxidants is associated with a lower risk of chronic disease (26Trusted Source).
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SUMMARY:
Cooking your vegetables may make certain antioxidants more available to your body than they are in
raw foods.
Cooking Kills off Harmful Bacteria and Microorganisms

It’s better to eat certain foods cooked, as raw versions may contain harmful bacteria. Cooking food
effectively kills bacteria that may cause food-borne illness (27Trusted Source).
However, fruits and vegetables are generally safe to consume raw, as long as they have not been
contaminated.
Spinach, lettuce, tomatoes and raw sprouts are some of the fruits and vegetables most frequently
contaminated by bacteria (28).
Raw meat, fish, eggs and dairy often contain bacteria that can make you sick (27Trusted Source,
29Trusted Source).
E. coli, Salmonella, Listeria and Campylobacter are some of the most common bacteria that may be
found in raw foods (30Trusted Source).
Most bacteria cannot survive at temperatures over 140°F (60°C). This means that cooking effectively
kills bacteria and reduces the risk of food-borne illness (31Trusted Source).
Commercially produced milk is pasteurized, which means it has been exposed to heat to kill any
harmful bacteria it may contain (32).
It is not recommended to consume raw or undercooked meat, eggs or dairy. If you do choose to eat
these foods raw, make sure your food is fresh and purchase it from a trusted source (31Trusted
Source).
SUMMARY:
Cooking food effectively kills bacteria that may cause food-borne illnesses. This applies especially to
meat, eggs and dairy.
It May Depend on the Food

Neither a completely raw nor completely cooked diet can be justified by science.
That’s because both raw and cooked fruits and vegetables have various health benefits, including a
lower risk of chronic disease (33).
The truth is that whether food should be consumed raw or cooked may depend on the food.
Here are a few examples of foods that are either healthier raw or healthier cooked:
Foods That Are Healthier Raw

Broccoli: Raw broccoli contains three times the amount of sulforaphane, a cancer-fighting plant
compound, than cooked broccoli does (34Trusted Source, 35Trusted Source).
Cabbage: Cooking cabbage destroys the enzyme myrosinase, which plays a role in cancer prevention.
If you choose to cook cabbage, do so for short periods (36Trusted Source).
Onions: Raw onion is an anti-platelet agent, which contributes to heart disease prevention. Cooking
onions reduces this beneficial effect (37Trusted Source, 38).
Garlic: Sulfur compounds found in raw garlic have anti-cancer properties. Cooking garlic destroys
these sulfur compounds (39Trusted Source).
Foods That Are Healthier Cooked
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Asparagus: Cooking asparagus breaks down its fibrous cell walls, making folate and vitamins A, C
and E more available to be absorbed.
Mushrooms: Cooking mushrooms helps degrade agaritine, a potential carcinogen found in
mushrooms. Cooking also helps release ergothioneine, a powerful mushroom antioxidant (40Trusted
Source, 41Trusted Source).
Spinach: Nutrients like iron, magnesium, calcium and zinc are more available for absorption when
spinach is cooked.
Tomatoes: Cooking greatly increases the antioxidant lycopene in tomatoes (22Trusted Source).
Carrots: Cooked carrots contain more beta-carotene than raw carrots (19Trusted Source).
Potatoes: The starch in potatoes is nearly indigestible until a potato is cooked.
Legumes: Raw or undercooked legumes contain dangerous toxins called lectins. Lectins are
eliminated with proper soaking and cooking.
Meat, fish and poultry: Raw meat, fish and poultry may contain bacteria that can cause food-borne
illnesses. Cooking these foods kills harmful bacteria.
SUMMARY:
Some foods are better to eat raw, and some are healthier when cooked. Eat a combination of cooked
and raw foods for maximum health benefits.
The Bottom Line

Some foods are more nutritious when eaten raw, while others are more nutritious after being cooked.
However, it’s unnecessary to follow a completely raw diet for good health.
For the most health benefits, eat a variety of nutritious raw and cooked foods.
In comparison to 40 years ago, the average American family now spends half their food budget on
restaurant food. In 1977, just under 38 percent of family food budgets were spent eating outside the
home.
While an occasional night of fast food won’t hurt, a habit of eating out could be doing a number on
your health. Read on to learn the effects of fast food on your body.
Effect on the digestive and cardiovascular systems

Most fast food, including drinks and sides, are loaded with carbohydrates with little to no fiber.
When your digestive system breaks down these foods, the carbs are released as glucose (sugar) into
your bloodstream. As a result, your blood sugar increases.
Your pancreas responds to the surge in glucose by releasing insulin. Insulin transports sugar
throughout your body to cells that need it for energy. As your body uses or stores the sugar, your
blood sugar returns to normal.
This blood sugar process is highly regulated by your body, and as long as you’re healthy, your organs
can properly handle these sugar spikes.
But frequently eating high amounts of carbs can lead to repeated spikes in your blood sugar.
Over time, these insulin spikes may cause your body’s normal insulin response to falter. This
increases your risk for insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and weight gain.
Sugar and fat
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Many fast-food meals have added sugar. Not only does that mean extra calories, but also little
nutrition. The American Heart Association (AHA) suggests only eating 100 to 150 calories of added
sugar per day. That’s about six to nine teaspoons.
Many fast-food drinks alone hold well over 12 ounces. A 12-ounce can of soda contains 8 teaspoons
of sugar. That equals 140 calories, 39 grams of sugar, and nothing else.
Trans fat is manufactured fat created during food processing. It’s commonly found in:
fried pies
pastries
pizza dough
crackers
cookies
No amount of trans fat is good or healthy. Eating foods that contain it can increase your LDL (bad
cholesterol), lower your HDL (good cholesterol), and increase your risk for type 2 diabetes and heart
disease.
Restaurants may also compound the calorie-counting issue. In one study, people eating at restaurants
they associated as “healthy” still underestimated the number of calories in their meal by 20 percent.
Sodium
The combination of fat, sugar, and lots of sodium (salt) can make fast food tastier to some people. But
diets high in sodium can lead to water retention, which is why you may feel puffy, bloated, or swollen
after eating fast food.
A diet high in sodium is also dangerous for people with blood pressure conditions. Sodium can
elevate blood pressure and put stress on your heart and cardiovascular system.
According to one study, about 90 percent of adults underestimate how much sodium is in their fast-
food meals.
The study surveyed 993 adults and found that their guesses were six times lower than the actual
number (1,292 milligrams). This means sodium estimates were off by more than 1,000 mg.
Keep in mind that the AHA recommends adults eat no more than 2,300 milligrams of sodium per day.
One fast-food meal could have half your day’s worth.
Excess calories from fast-food meals can cause weight gain. This may lead toward obesity.
Obesity increases your risk for respiratory problems, including asthma and shortness of breath.
The extra pounds can put pressure on your heart and lungs and symptoms may show up even with
little exertion. You may notice difficulty breathing when you’re walking, climbing stairs, or
exercising.
For children, the risk of respiratory problems is especially clear. One study found that children who
eat fast food at least three times a week are more likely to develop asthma.
Effect on the central nervous system

Fast food may satisfy hunger in the short term, but long-term results are less positive.
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People who eat fast food and processed pastries are 51 percent more likely to develop depression than
people who don’t eat those foods or eat very few of them.
Effect on the reproductive system

The ingredients in junk food and fast food may have an impact on your fertility.
One study found that processed food contains phthalates. Phthalates are chemicals that can interrupt
how hormones act in your body. Exposure to high levels of these chemicals could lead to reproductive
issues, including birth defects.
Effect on the integumentary system (skin, hair, nails)

The foods you eat may impact your skin’s appearance, but it might not be the foods you suspect.
In the past, chocolate and greasy foods like pizza have taken the blame for acne breakouts, but
according to the Mayo Clinic, it’s carbohydrates. Carb-rich foods lead to blood sugar spikes, and
these sudden jumps in blood sugar levels may trigger acne. Discover foods that help fight acne.
Children and adolescents who eat fast food at least three times a week are also more likely to develop
eczema, according to one study. Eczema is a skin condition that causes irritated patches of inflamed,
itchy skin.
Effect on the skeletal system (bones)

Carbs and sugar in fast food and processed food can increase acids in your mouth. These acids can
break down tooth enamel. As tooth enamel disappears, bacteria can take hold, and cavities may
develop.
Obesity can also lead to complications with bone density and muscle mass. People who are obese
have a greater risk for falling and breaking bones. It’s important to keep exercising to build muscles,
which support your bones, and maintain a healthy diet to minimize bone loss.
Effects of fast food on society

Today, more than 2 in 3 adults in the United States are considered overweight or obese. More than
one-third of children ages 6 to 19 are also considered overweight or obese.
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Packaged food aisles at an American grocery store.
Parmigiano reggiano cheese in a modern factory.

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Hens in a battery cage in Brazil, an example of intensive animal farming.

The food industry is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food
consumed by the world's population.[citation needed] The term food industries covers a series of
industrial activities directed at the processing, conversion, preparation, preservation and packaging of
foodstuffs. The food industry today has become highly diversified, with manufacturing ranging from
small, traditional, family-run activities that are highly labor intensive, to large, capital-intensive and
highly mechanized industrial processes. Many food industries depend almost entirely on local
agriculture or fishing.[1]
It is challenging to find an inclusive way to cover all aspects of food production and sale. The UK
Food Standards Agency describes it as "the whole food industry – from farming and food production,
packaging and distribution, to retail and catering."[2] The Economic Research Service of the USDA
uses the term food system to describe the same thing, stating: "The U.S. food system is a complex
network of farmers and the industries that link to them. Those links include makers of farm equipment
and chemicals as well as firms that provide services to agribusinesses, such as providers of
transportation and financial services. The system also includes the food marketing industries that link
farms to consumers, and which include food and fiber processors, wholesalers, retailers, and
foodservice establishments."[3] The food industry includes:
Agriculture: raising crops, livestock, and seafood

Manufacturing: agrichemicals, agricultural construction, farm machinery and supplies, seed, etc.
Food processing: preparation of fresh products for market, and manufacture of prepared food products
Marketing: promotion of generic products (e.g., milk board), new products, advertising, marketing
campaigns, packaging, public relations, etc.
Wholesale and food distribution: logistics, transportation, warehousing
Foodservice (which includes catering)
Grocery, farmers' markets, public markets and other retailing
Regulation: local, regional, national, and international rules and regulations for food production and
sale, including food quality, food security, food safety, marketing/advertising, and industry lobbying
activities
Education: academic, consultancy, vocational
Research and development: food technology
Financial services: credit, insurance
Only subsistence farmers, those who survive on what they grow, and hunter-gatherers can be
considered outside the scope of the modern food industry.
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Contents
1 Food production
2 Food processing
3 Industry influence
4 Regulation
5 Wholesale and distribution
6 Retail
7 Food industry technologies
8 Marketing
9 Labor and education
10 By country
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Food production
Main articles: Agriculture and Agronomy
A soybean field in Junin, Argentina

Most food produced for the food industry comes from commodity crops using conventional
agricultural practices. Agriculture is the process of producing food, feeding products, fiber and other
desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals
(livestock). On average, 83% of the food consumed by humans is produced using terrestrial
agriculture.[4] Other food sources include aquaculture and fishing.[4]
The practice of agriculture is also known as "farming". Scientists, inventors, and others devoted to
improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture. 1 in 3 people
worldwide are employed in agriculture,[5] yet it only contributes 3% to global GDP.[6] In 2017, on
average, agriculture contributes 4% of national GDPs.[4] Global agricultural production is responsible
for between 14 and 28% of global greenhouse gas emissions, making it one of the largest contributors
to global warming, in large part due to conventional agricultural practices, including nitrogen
fertilizers and poor land management.[4]
Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fibre, and land
reclamation. Agronomy encompasses work in the areas of plant genetics, plant physiology,
meteorology, and soil science. Agronomy is the application of a combination of sciences.
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Agronomists today are involved with many issues including producing food, creating healthier food,
managing environmental impact of agriculture, and extracting energy from plants.[7]
Food processing
Main article: Food processing
Packaged meat in a supermarket

Food processing includes the methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for
human consumption. Food processing takes clean, harvested or slaughtered and butchered
components and uses them to produce marketable food products. There are several different ways in
which food can be produced.
One-off production: This method is used when customers make an order for something to be made to
their own specifications, for example a wedding cake. The making of one-off products could take
days depending on how intricate the design is.
Batch production: This method is used when the size of the market for a product is not clear, and
where there is a range within a product line. A certain number of the same goods will be produced to
make up a batch or run, for example a bakery may bake a limited number of cupcakes. This method
involves estimating consumer demand.
Mass production: This method is used when there is a mass market for a large number of identical
products, for example chocolate bars, ready meals and canned food. The product passes from one
stage of production to another along a production line.
Just-in-time (JIT) (production): This method of production is mainly used in restaurants. All
components of the product are available in-house and the customer chooses what they want in the
product. It is then prepared in a kitchen, or in front of the buyer as in sandwich delicatessens,
pizzerias, and sushi bars.
Industry influence
The food industry has a large influence on consumerism. Organizations, such as The American
Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP), have been criticized for accepting monetary donations from
companies within the food industry, such as Coca-Cola.[8] These donations have been criticized for
creating a conflict of interest and favoring an interest such as financial gains.[8]
Regulation
See also: Category:Food law
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Since World War II, agriculture in the United States and the entire national food system in its entirety
has been characterized by models that focus on monetary profitability at the expense of social and
environmental integrity.[9] Regulations exist to protect consumers and somewhat balance this
economic orientation with public interests for food quality, food security, food safety, animal well-
being, environmental protection and health.[10]
Wholesale and distribution
A foodservice truck at a loading dock. Trucks commonly distribute food products to commercial
businesses and organizations.
(A vast global cargo network connects the numerous parts of the industry. These include suppliers,
manufacturers, warehousers, retailers and the end consumers.) Wholesale markets for fresh food
products have tended to decline in importance in urbanizing countries, including Latin America and
some Asian countries as a result of the growth of supermarkets, which procure directly from farmers
or through preferred suppliers, rather than going through markets.
The constant and uninterrupted flow of product from distribution centers to store locations is a critical
link in food industry operations. Distribution centers run more efficiently, throughput can be
increased, costs can be lowered, and manpower better utilized if the proper steps are taken when
setting up a material handling system in a warehouse.[11]
Retail
With worldwide urbanization,[12] food buying is increasingly removed from food production. During
the 20th century, the supermarket became the defining retail element of the food industry. There, tens
of thousands of products are gathered in one location, in continuous, year-round supply.
Food preparation is another area where the change in recent decades has been dramatic. Today, two
food industry sectors are in apparent competition for the retail food dollar. The grocery industry sells
fresh and largely raw products for consumers to use as ingredients in home cooking. The food service
industry by contrast offers prepared food, either as finished products, or as partially prepared
components for final "assembly". Restaurants, cafes, bakeries and mobile food trucks provide
opportunities for consumers to purchase food.
Food industry technologies
The Passaic Agricultural Chemical Works, an agrochemical company, in Newark, New Jersey, 1876
Modern food production is defined by sophisticated technologies. These include many areas.
Agricultural machinery, originally led by the tractor, has practically eliminated human labor in many
areas of production. Biotechnology is driving much change, in areas as diverse as agrochemicals,
plant breeding and food processing. Many other types of technology are also involved, to the point
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where it is hard to find an area that does not have a direct impact on the food industry. As in other
fields, computer technology is also a central force, with computer networks and specialized software
providing the support infrastructure to allow global movement of the myriad components involved.
Marketing
Main articles: Food marketing and Agricultural marketing
As consumers grow increasingly removed from food production, the role of product creation,
advertising, and publicity become the primary vehicles for information about food. With processed
food as the dominant category, marketers have almost infinite possibilities in product creation. Of the
food advertised to children on television 73% is fast or convenience foods.[13]
Labor and education
Some equipment at Tartu Mill, the largest grain milling company in the Baltic states. Modern food
processing factories are often highly automated and need few workers.
Until the last 100 years, agriculture was labor-intensive. Farming was a common occupation and
millions of people were involved in food production. Farmers, largely trained from generation to
generation, carried on the family business. That situation has changed dramatically today. In America
in 1870, 70-80 percent of the US population was employed in agriculture.[14] As of 2008, less than 2
percent of the population is directly employed in agriculture,[15][16] and about 80% of the population
lives in cities. The food industry as a complex whole requires an incredibly wide range of skills.
Several hundred occupation types exist within the food industry.
Food technology is a branch of food science that deals with the production processes that make foods.
Early scientific research into food technology concentrated on food preservation. Nicolas Appert’s
development in 1810 of the canning process was a decisive event. The process wasn’t called canning
then and Appert did not really know the principle on which his process worked, but canning has had a
major impact on food preservation techniques.
Louis Pasteur's research on the spoilage of wine and his description of how to avoid spoilage in 1864
was an early attempt to apply scientific knowledge to food handling. Besides research into wine
spoilage, Pasteur researched the production of alcohol, vinegar, wines and beer, and the souring of
milk. He developed pasteurization—the process of heating milk and milk products to destroy food
spoilage and disease-producing organisms. In his research into food technology, Pasteur became the
pioneer into bacteriology and of modern preventive medicine.
Contents
1 Developments
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2 Consumer acceptance
3 Publications
4 See also
5 Notes and references
6 External links
Developments
Freeze-dried coffee, a form of instant coffee

Developments in food technology have contributed greatly to the food supply and have changed our
world. Some of these developments are:
Instantized Milk Powder - D.D. Peebles (U.S. patent 2,835,586) developed the first instant milk
powder, which has become the basis for a variety of new products that are rehydratable. This process
increases the surface area of the powdered product by partially rehydrating spray-dried milk powder.
Freeze-drying - The first application of freeze drying was most likely in the pharmaceutical industry;
however, a successful large-scale industrial application of the process was the development of
continuous freeze drying of coffee.
High-Temperature Short Time Processing - These processes, for the most part, are characterized by
rapid heating and cooling, holding for a short time at a relatively high temperature and filling
aseptically into sterile containers.
Decaffeination of Coffee and Tea - Decaffeinated coffee and tea was first developed on a commercial
basis in Europe around 1900. The process is described in U.S. patent 897,763. Green coffee beans are
treated with water, heat and solvents to remove the caffeine from the beans.
Process optimization - Food Technology now allows production of foods to be more efficient, Oil
saving technologies are now available on different forms. Production methods and methodology have
also become increasingly sophisticated.
Consumer acceptance
Historically, consumers paid little attention to food technologies. Nowadays, the food production
chain is long and complicated and food technologies are diverse. Consequently consumers are
uncertain about the determinants of food quality and find it difficult to understand them. Now,
acceptance of food products very often depends on perceived benefits and risks associated with food.
Popular views of food processing technologies matter. Especially innovative food processing
technologies often are perceived as risky by consumers[1]
Acceptance of the different food technologies varies. While pasteurization is well recognized and
accepted, high pressure treatment and even microwaves often are perceived as risky. Studies by the
Hightech Europe project found that traditional technologies were well accepted in contrast to
innovative technologies.[2]
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Consumers form their attitude towards innovative food technologies through three main mechanisms:
First, through knowledge or beliefs about risks and benefits correlated with the technology; second,
through attitudes based on their own experience; and third, through application of higher order values
and beliefs.[3] A number of scholars consider the risk-benefit trade-off as one of the main
determinants of consumer acceptance,[4] although some researchers place more emphasis on the role
of benefit perception (rather than risk) in consumer acceptance.[5]
Rogers (2010) defines five major criteria that explain differences in the acceptance of new technology
by consumers: complexity, compatibility, relative advantage, trialability and observability.[6]
Acceptance of innovative technologies can be improved by providing non-emotional and concise

information about these new technological processes methods. The HighTech project also suggests
that written information has a higher impact on consumers than audio-visual information.[7]
Freeze drying, also known as lyophilisation or cryodesiccation, is a low temperature dehydration
process[1] that involves freezing the product, lowering pressure, then removing the ice by
sublimation.[2] This is in contrast to dehydration by most conventional methods that evaporate water
using heat.[3]
Because of the low temperature used in processing[1], the quality of the rehydrated product is
excellent, and the original shape of the product is maintained.[4] Primary applications of freeze drying
include biological (e.g., bacteria and yeasts), biomedical (e.g., surgical transplants), food processing
(e.g., coffee) and preservation.[1]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Early uses in food
2 Stages of freeze drying
2.1 Pretreatment
2.2 Freezing and annealing
2.2.1 Structurally sensitive goods
2.3 Primary drying
2.4 Secondary drying
3 Applications of freeze drying
3.1 Pharmaceuticals and biotechnology
3.2 Freeze drying of food
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3.2.1 NASA and military rations

3.2.2 Coffee
3.2.3 Fruits
3.2.4 Insects
3.3 Technological industry
3.4 Taxidermy
3.5 Other uses
4 Advantages
4.1 Shelf-life extension
4.2 Re-hydration
4.3 Effect on nutrients and sensory quality
5 Disadvantages
5.1 Microbial growth
5.2 Cost
5.3 Silicone oil leakage
6 Equipment and types of freeze dryers
6.1 Function of essential components
6.1.1 Chamber
6.1.2 Process condenser
6.1.3 Shelf fluid
6.1.4 Refrigeration system
6.1.5 Vacuum system
6.1.6 Control system
6.2 Contact freeze dryers
6.3 Radiant freeze dryers
6.4 Microwave-assisted freeze dryers
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History
Freeze drying began as early as 1890 by Richard Altmann who devised a method to freeze dry tissues
(either plant or animal), but went virtually unnoticed until the 1930s.[5] In 1909, Shackell
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independently created the vacuum chamber by using an electrical pump.[6] No further freeze drying
information was documented until Tival in 1927 and Elser in 1934 had patented freeze drying systems
with improvements to freezing and condenser steps.[6]
A significant turning point for freeze drying occurred during World War II. Blood plasma and
penicillin were needed to treat the wounded in the field, and because of the lack of refrigerated
transport, many serum supplies spoiled before reaching their recipients.[6] The freeze-drying process
was developed as a commercial technique that enabled blood plasma and penicillin to be rendered
chemically stable and viable without refrigeration.[6] In the 1950s–1960s, freeze drying began to be
viewed as a multi-purpose tool for both pharmaceuticals and food processing.[6]
Early uses in food

Freeze-dried foods became a major component of astronaut and military rations. What began for
astronaut crews as tubed meals and freeze-dried snacks that were difficult to rehydrate,[7] were
transformed into hot meals in space by improving the process of rehydrating freeze-dried meals with
water.[7] As technology and food processing improved, NASA looked for ways to provide a complete
nutrient profile while reducing crumbs, disease-producing bacteria, and toxins.[8] The complete
nutrient profile was improved with the addition of an algae-based vegetable-like oil to add
polyunsaturated fatty acids.[8] Polyunsaturated fatty acids are beneficial in mental and vision
development, and as it remains stable during space travel, can provide astronauts with its added
benefits.[8] The crumb problem was solved with the addition of a gelatin coating on the foods to lock
in and prevent crumbs.[7] Disease-producing bacteria and toxins were reduced by quality control and
the development of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) plan, which is widely used
today to evaluate food material before, during and after processing.[8] With the combination of these
three innovations, NASA could provide safe and wholesome foods to their crews from freeze-dried
meals.[8]
Military rations have also come a long way, from being served spoiled pork and corn meal to
beefsteak with mushroom gravy.[9] How rations are chosen and developed are based on acceptance,
nutrition, wholesomeness, producibility, cost, and sanitation.[10] Additional requirements for rations
include a minimum shelf life of three years, be deliverable by air, consumable in worldwide
environments, and provide a complete nutritional profile.[10] The new tray rations (T Rations) which
has been improved upon by increasing acceptable items and provide high quality meals while in the
field. Freeze-dried coffee was also incorporated by replacing spray-dried coffee in the meal, ready-to-
eat category.[10]
Stages of freeze drying
In a typical phase diagram, the boundary between gas and liquid runs from the triple point to the
critical point. Freeze-drying (blue arrow) brings the system around the triple point, avoiding the direct
liquid–gas transition seen in ordinary drying (green arrow).
There are four stages in the complete freeze drying process: pretreatment, freezing, primary drying,
and secondary drying.
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Pretreatment
Pretreatment includes any method of treating the product prior to freezing. This may include
concentrating the product, formulation revision (i.e., addition of components to increase stability,
preserve appearance, and/or improve processing), decreasing a high-vapor-pressure solvent, or
increasing the surface area. Food pieces are often IQF treated to make them free flowing prior to
freeze drying. In many instances the decision to pretreat a product is based on theoretical knowledge
of freeze-drying and its requirements, or is demanded by cycle time or product quality considerations.
[11]
Freezing and annealing

During the freezing stage, the material is cooled below its triple point, the lowest temperature at
which the solid, liquid and gas phases of the material can coexist. This ensures that sublimation rather
than melting will occur in the following steps. To facilitate faster and more efficient freeze drying,
larger ice crystals are preferable. The large ice crystals form a network within the product which
promotes faster removal of water vapor during sublimation.[2] To produce larger crystals, the product
should be frozen slowly or can be cycled up and down in temperature in a process called annealing.
The freezing phase is the most critical in the whole freeze-drying process, as the freezing method can
impact the speed of reconstitution, duration of freeze-drying cycle, product stability, and appropriate
crystallization.[12]
Amorphous materials do not have a eutectic point, but they do have a critical point, below which the
product must be maintained to prevent melt-back or collapse during primary and secondary drying.
Structurally sensitive goods

In the case of goods where preservation of structure is required, like food or objects with formerly-
living cells, large ice crystals will break the cell walls which can result in increasingly poor texture
and loss of nutritive content. In this case, the freezing is done rapidly, in order to lower the material to
below its eutectic point quickly, thus avoiding the formation of large ice crystals.[2] Usually, the
freezing temperatures are between −50 °C (−58 °F) and −80 °C (−112 °F).
Primary drying
During the primary drying phase, the pressure is lowered (to the range of a few millibars), and enough
heat is supplied to the material for the ice to sublime. The amount of heat necessary can be calculated
using the sublimating molecules' latent heat of sublimation. In this initial drying phase, about 95% of
the water in the material is sublimated. This phase may be slow (can be several days in the industry),
because, if too much heat is added, the material's structure could be altered.
In this phase, pressure is controlled through the application of partial vacuum. The vacuum speeds up
the sublimation, making it useful as a deliberate drying process. Furthermore, a cold condenser
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chamber and/or condenser plates provide a surface(s) for the water vapour to re-liquify and solidify
on.
It is important to note that, in this range of pressure, the heat is brought mainly by conduction or
radiation; the convection effect is negligible, due to the low air density.
Secondary drying
A benchtop manifold freeze-drier

The secondary drying phase aims to remove unfrozen water molecules, since the ice was removed in
the primary drying phase. This part of the freeze-drying process is governed by the material's
adsorption isotherms. In this phase, the temperature is raised higher than in the primary drying phase,
and can even be above 0 °C (32 °F), to break any physico-chemical interactions that have formed
between the water molecules and the frozen material. Usually the pressure is also lowered in this stage
to encourage desorption (typically in the range of microbars, or fractions of a pascal). However, there
are products that benefit from increased pressure as well.
After the freeze-drying process is complete, the vacuum is usually broken with an inert gas, such as
nitrogen, before the material is sealed.
At the end of the operation, the final residual water content in the product is extremely low, around
1% to 4%.
Applications of freeze drying
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Freeze-drying causes less damage to the substance than other dehydration methods using higher
temperatures. Nutrient factors that are sensitive to heat are lost less in the process as compared to the
processes incorporating heat treatment for drying purposes.[2] Freeze-drying does not usually cause
shrinkage or toughening of the material being dried. In addition, flavours, smells, and nutritional
content generally remain unchanged, making the process popular for preserving food. However, water
is not the only chemical capable of sublimation, and the loss of other volatile compounds such as
acetic acid (vinegar) and alcohols can yield undesirable results.
Freeze-dried products can be rehydrated (reconstituted) much more quickly and easily because the
process leaves microscopic pores. The pores are created by the ice crystals that sublimate, leaving
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gaps or pores in their place. This is especially important when it comes to pharmaceutical uses.
Freeze-drying can also be used to increase the shelf life of some pharmaceuticals for many years.
Pharmaceuticals and biotechnology
Lyophilized 5% w/v sucrose cake in a pharmaceutical glass vial

Pharmaceutical companies often use freeze-drying to increase the shelf life of the products, such as
live virus vaccines,[13] biologics[14] and other injectables. By removing the water from the material
and sealing the material in a glass vial, the material can be easily stored, shipped, and later
reconstituted to its original form for injection. Another example from the pharmaceutical industry is
the use of freeze drying to produce tablets or wafers, the advantage of which is less excipient as well
as a rapidly absorbed and easily administered dosage form.
Freeze-dried pharmaceutical products are produced as lyophilized powders for reconstitution in vials
and more recently in prefilled syringes for self-administration by a patient.
Examples of lyophilized biological products include many vaccines such as live measles virus
vaccine, typhoid vaccine, and meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine groups A and C combined.
Other freeze-dried biological products include antihemophilic factor VIII, interferon alfa, anti-blood
clot medicine streptokinase, and wasp venom allergenic extract.[15]
Many bio-pharmaceutical products based on therapeutic proteins such as monoclonal antibodies

require lyophilization for stability. Examples of lyophilized biopharmaceuticals include blockbuster
drugs such as etanercept (Enbrel by Amgen), infliximab (Remicade by Janssen Biotech), rituximab,
and trastuzumab (Herceptin by Genentech).
Freeze-drying is also used in manufacturing of raw materials for pharmaceutical products. Active
Pharmaceutical Product Ingredients (APIs) are lyophilized to achieve chemical stability under room
temperature storage. Bulk lyophilization of APIs is typically conducted using trays instead of glass
vials.
Cell extracts that support cell-free biotechnology applications such as point-of-care diagnostics and
biomanufacturing are also freeze-dried to improve stability under room temperature storage.[16][17]
Dry powders of probiotics are often produced by bulk freeze-drying of live microorganisms such as
lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria.[18]
Freeze drying of food
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Freeze dried bacon bars
Freeze-dried coffee, a form of instant coffee
Freeze-dried Bulgarian apricot, melon, meatball soup, tarator
Freeze dried ice cream and chocolate, and spaghetti with bacon
The primary purpose of freeze drying within the food industry is to extend the shelf-life of the food
while maintaining the quality.[1] Freeze-drying is known to result in the highest quality of foods
amongst all drying techniques because structural integrity is maintained along with preservation of
flavors.[1] Because freeze drying is expensive, it is used mainly with high-value products.[4]
Examples of high-value freeze-dried products are seasonal fruits and vegetables because of their
limited availability, coffee; and foods used for military rations, astronauts/cosmonauts, and/or hikers.
[4]
NASA and military rations

Because of its light weight per volume of reconstituted food, freeze-dried products are popular and
convenient for hikers, as military rations, or astronaut meals.[1] A greater amount of dried food can be
carried compared to the same weight of wet food. In replacement of wet food, freeze dried food can
easily be rehydrated with water if desired and shelf-life of the dried product is longer than fresh/wet
product making it ideal for long trips taken by hikers, military personnel, or astronauts. The
development of freeze drying increased meal and snack variety to include items like shrimp cocktail,
chicken and vegetables, butterscotch pudding, and apple sauce.[7]
Coffee
Coffee contains flavor and aroma qualities that are created due to the Maillard reaction during
roasting[19] and can be preserved with freeze-drying.[2] Compared to other drying methods like room
temperature drying, hot-air drying, and solar drying, Robusta coffee beans that were freeze-dried
contained higher amounts of essential amino acids like leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine.[19] Also,
few non-essential amino acids that significantly contributed to taste were preserved.[19]
Freeze-dried strawberries
Fruits
With conventional dehydration, berries can degrade in quality as their structure is very delicate and
contains high levels of moisture. Strawberries were found to have the highest quality when freeze
dried; retaining color, flavour, and ability to be re-hydrated.[20]
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Insects
Freeze-drying is used extensively to preserve insects for the purposes of consumption. Whole freeze-
dried insects are sold as exotic pet food, bird feed, fish bait, and increasingly for human consumption.
[21][22] Powdered freeze-dried insects are used as a protein base in animal feeds, and in some
markets, as a nutritional supplement for human use.[22][21] Farmed insects are generally used for all
of the aforementioned purposes versus harvesting wild insects, except in the case of grasshoppers
which are often harvested out of field crops.[21]
Technological industry
In chemical synthesis, products are often freeze-dried to make them more stable, or easier to dissolve
in water for subsequent use.
In bioseparations, freeze-drying can be used also as a late-stage purification procedure, because it can
effectively remove solvents. Furthermore, it is capable of concentrating substances with low
molecular weights that are too small to be removed by a filtration membrane. Freeze-drying is a
relatively expensive process. The equipment is about three times as expensive as the equipment used
for other separation processes, and the high energy demands lead to high energy costs. Furthermore,
freeze-drying also has a long process time, because the addition of too much heat to the material can
cause melting or structural deformations. Therefore, freeze-drying is often reserved for materials that
are heat-sensitive, such as proteins, enzymes, microorganisms, and blood plasma. The low operating
temperature of the process leads to minimal damage of these heat-sensitive products.
In nanotechnology, freeze-drying is used for nanotube purification[23] to avoid aggregation due to

capillary forces during regular thermal vaporization drying.
Taxidermy
Freeze-drying is among the methods used to preserve animals in the field of taxidermy. When animals
are preserved in this manner they are called "freeze-dried taxidermy" or "freeze-dried mounts".
Freeze-drying is commonly used to preserve crustaceans, fish, amphibians, reptiles, insects, and
smaller mammals.[24] Freeze-drying is also used as a means to memorialize pets after death. Rather
than opting for a traditional skin mount when choosing to preserve their pet via taxidermy, many
owners opt for freeze-drying because it is less invasive upon the pet's body.[25]
Other uses
Organizations such as the Document Conservation Laboratory at the United States National Archives
and Records Administration (NARA) have done studies on freeze-drying as a recovery method of
water-damaged books and documents.[citation needed] While recovery is possible, restoration quality
depends on the material of the documents. If a document is made of a variety of materials, which have
different absorption properties, expansion will occur at a non-uniform rate, which could lead to
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deformations. Water can also cause mold to grow or make inks bleed. In these cases, freeze-drying
may not be an effective restoration method.
In bacteriology freeze-drying is used to conserve special strains.
Advanced ceramics processes sometimes use freeze-drying to create a formable powder from a
sprayed slurry mist. Freeze-drying creates softer particles with a more homogeneous chemical
composition than traditional hot spray drying, but it is also more expensive.
A new form of burial which previously freeze-dries the body with liquid nitrogen has been developed
by the Swedish company Promessa Organic AB, which puts it forward as an environmentally friendly
alternative to traditional casket and cremation burials.
Advantages
Freeze-drying is viewed as the optimal method of choice for dehydration because of the preservation
of quality, meaning characteristics of the food product such as aroma, rehydration, and bioactivity, are
noticeably higher compared to foods dried using other techniques.[1]
Shelf-life extension
Shelf-life extension is a result from low processing temperatures in conjunction with rapid transition
of water through sublimation.[1] With these processing conditions, deterioration reactions, including
nonenzymatic browning, enzymatic browning, and protein denaturation, are minimized.[1] When the
product is successfully dried, packaged properly, and placed in ideal storage conditions the foods have
a shelf life of greater than 12 months.[2]
Re-hydration
If a dried product cannot be easily or fully re-hydrated, it is considered to be of lower quality. Because
the final freeze dried product is porous, complete re-hydration can occur in the food.[1] This signifies
greater quality of the product and makes it ideal for ready-to-eat instant meals.[4]
Effect on nutrients and sensory quality

Due to the low processing temperatures and the minimization of deterioration reactions, nutrients are
retained and color is maintained.[2] Freeze-dried fruit maintains its original shape and has a
characteristic soft crispy texture.
Disadvantages
Microbial growth
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Since the main method of microbial decontamination for freeze drying is the low temperature
dehydration process, spoilage organisms and pathogens resistant to these conditions can remain in the
product. Although microbial growth is inhibited by the low moisture conditions, it can still survive in
the food product.[26] An example of this is a hepatitis A outbreak that occurred in the United States in
2016, associated with frozen strawberries.[27] If the product is not properly packaged and/or stored,
the product can absorb moisture, allowing the once inhibited pathogens to begin reproducing as well.
[2]
Cost
Freeze-drying costs about five times as much as conventional drying,[4] so it is most suitable for
products which increase in value with processing.[2] Costs are also variable depending on the
product, the packaging material, processing capacity, etc.[4] The most energy-intensive step is
sublimation.[4]
Silicone oil leakage

Silicone oil is the common fluid that is used to heat or cool shelves in the freeze-dryer. The
continuous heat/cool cycle can lead to a leakage of silicone oil at weak areas that connect the shelf
and hose. This can contaminate the product leading to major losses of food product. Hence, to avoid
this issue, mass spectrometers are used to identify vapors released by silicone oil to immediately take
corrective action and prevent contamination of the product.[28]
Equipment and types of freeze dryers
Unloading trays of freeze-dried material from a small cabinet-type freeze-dryer

There are many types of freeze-dryers available, however, they usually contain a few essential
components. These are a vacuum chamber,[2] shelves, process condenser, shelf-fluid system,
refrigeration system, vacuum system, and control system.
Function of essential components

Chamber
The chamber is highly polished and contains insulation, internally. It is manufactured with stainless
steel and contains multiple shelves for holding the product.[citation needed] A hydraulic or electric
motor is in place to ensure the door is vacuum-tight when closed.
Process condenser
The process condenser consists of refrigerated coils or plates that can be external or internal to the
chamber.[29] During the drying process, the condenser traps water. For increased efficiency, the
condenser temperature should be 20 °C (68 °F) less than the product during primary drying[29] and
27
SANCHAYATA NAYAL
have a defrosting mechanism to ensure that the maximum amount of water vapor in the air is
condensed.
Shelf fluid
The amount of heat energy needed at times of the primary and secondary drying phase is regulated by
an external heat exchanger.[29] Usually, silicone oil is circulated around the system with a pump.
Refrigeration system
This system works to cool shelves and the process condenser by using compressors or liquid nitrogen,
which will supply energy necessary for the product to freeze.[29]
Vacuum system
During the drying process, a vacuum of 50-100 microbar is applied, by the vacuum system, to remove
the solvent.[29] A two-stage rotary vacuum pump is used, however, if the chamber is large then
multiple pumps are needed. This system compresses non-condensable gases through the condenser.
Control system
Finally, the control system sets up controlled values for shelf temperature, pressure and time that are
dependent on the product and/or the process.[30][31] The freeze-dryer can run for a few hours or days
depending on the product.[29]
Contact freeze dryers

Contact freeze dryers use contact (conduction) of the food with the heating element to supply the
sublimation energy. This type of freeze dryer is a basic model that is simple to set up for sample
analysis. One of the major ways contact freeze dryers heat is with shelf-like platforms contacting the
samples. The shelves play a major role as they behave like heat exchangers at different times of the
freeze-drying process. They are connected to a silicone oil system that will remove heat energy during
freezing and provide energy during drying times.[29]
Additionally, the shelf-fluid system works to provide specific temperatures to the shelves during
drying by pumping a fluid (usually silicone oil) at low pressure. The downside to this type of freeze
dryer is that the heat is only transferred from the heating element to the side of the sample
immediately touching the heater. This problem can be minimized by maximizing the surface area of
the sample touching the heating element by using a ribbed tray, slightly compressing the sample
between two solid heated plates above and below, or compressing with a heated mesh from above and
below.[2]
Radiant freeze dryers
28
SANCHAYATA NAYAL
Radiant freeze dryers use infrared radiation to heat the sample in the tray. This type of heating allows
for simple flat trays to be used as an infrared source can be located above the flat trays to radiate
downwards onto the product. Infrared radiation heating allows for a very uniform heating of the
surface of the product, but has very little capacity for penetration so it is used mostly with very
shallow trays and homogeneous sample matrices.[2]
Microwave-assisted freeze dryers

Microwave-assisted freeze dryers utilize microwaves to allow for deeper penetration into the sample
to expedite the sublimation and heating processes in freeze-drying. This method can be very
complicated to set up and run as the microwaves can create an electrical field capable of causing gases
in the sample chamber to become plasma. This plasma could potentially burn the sample, so
maintaining a microwave strength appropriate for the vacuum levels is imperative. The rate of
sublimation in a product can affect the microwave impedance, in which power of the microwave must
be changed accordingly.[2]
See also
Look up freeze-drying, lyophilization, or cryodesiccation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Chuño, ancient Incan freeze dried potatoes
Freeze-dried food and NASA
List of dried foods
Supercritical drying
Frozen mummies
References
Ratti, Cristina (2008-11-21). Advances in Food Dehydration. CRC Press. pp. 209–235. ISBN
9781420052534.
Fellows, P. (Peter) (2017). "Freeze drying and freeze concentration". Food processing technology :
principles and practice (4th ed.). Kent: Woodhead Publishing/Elsevier Science. pp. 929–940. ISBN
978-0081005231. OCLC 960758611.
Prosapio, Valentina; Norton, Ian; De Marco, Iolanda (2017-12-01). "Optimization of freeze-drying
using a Life Cycle Assessment approach: Strawberries' case study" (PDF). Journal of Cleaner
Production. 168: 1171–1179. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.125. ISSN 0959-6526.
Ratti, C (2001). "Hot air and freeze-drying of high-value foods: a review". Journal of Food
Engineering. 49 (4): 311–319. doi:10.1016/s0260-8774(00)00228-4.
Meryman, H. T. (October 1976). "Historical recollections of freeze-drying". Developments in
Biological Standardization. 36: 29–32. ISSN 0301-5149. PMID 801137.
Corver, Jos. "The Evolution of Freeze Drying" (PDF). Innovations in Pharmaceutical Technology.
"NASA - Food for Space Flight". www.nasa.gov. SpaceFlight:JSC. Retrieved 2018-05-18.
"NASA Food Technology: Incredible Edibles from Space" (PDF).
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"Defense.gov News Article: New Rations in Pipeline for Service Members". archive.defense.gov.
Retrieved 2018-05-18.
Research, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Military Nutrition; Marriott, Bernadette M.
(1995). Evolution of Rations: The Pursuit of Universal Acceptance. National Academies Press (US).
J. Jeff Schwegman (2009) "Basic Cycle Development Techniques for Lyophilized Products".
Freeze drying/lyophilization of pharmaceutical and biological products. Rey, Louis., May, Joan C.
(Joan Christine) (3rd ed.). New York: Informa Healthcare. 2010. ISBN 9781439825761. OCLC
664125915.
Hansen, L.L.J.; et al. (2015). "Freeze-drying of live virus vaccines: A review". Vaccine. 33 (42):
5507–5519. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.08.085. hdl:1854/LU-7069013. PMID 26364685.
Rey, Louis; May, Joan (2016). Freeze-Drying/Lyophilization of Pharmaceutical and Biological
Products (Third ed.). Informa healthcare.
"FDA Guideline for the Determination of Residual Moisture in Dried Biological Products" (PDF).
US Food and Drug Administration.
Wilding, Kristen (25 November 2019). "Thermostable lyoprotectant-enhanced cell-free protein
synthesis for on-demand endotoxin-free therapeutic production". New Biotechnology. 53: 73–80.
doi:10.1016/j.nbt.2019.07.004. PMID 31349031.
Gregorio, Nicole (21 February 2020). "Unlocking applications of cell-free biotechnology through
enhanced shelf-life and productivity of E. coli extracts". ACS Synthetic Biology. 9 (4): 766–778.
doi:10.1021/acssynbio.9b00433. PMID 32083847.
"Stability evaluation of freeze-dried Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. tolerance and Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus in oral capsules". Res Pharm Sci. 2012.
Dong, Wenjiang; Hu, Rongsuo; Chu, Zhong; Zhao, Jianping; Tan, Lehe (25 April 2017). "Effect of
different drying techniques on bioactive components, fatty acid composition, and volatile profile of
robusta coffee beans". Food Chemistry. 234 (234): 121–130. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.156.
PMID 28551215.
Shishehgarha, F; Makhlouf, J; Ratti, C (January 2002). "Freeze-Drying Characteristics of
Strawberries". Drying Technology. 20 (1): 131–145. doi:10.1081/drt-120001370. S2CID 95140004.
Aaron T. Dossey; Juan A. Morales-Ramos; M. Guadalupe Rojas (23 June 2016). Insects as
Sustainable Food Ingredients: Production, Processing and Food Applications. Elsevier Science. ISBN
978-0-12-802892-6.
Bolden, Bonnie (7 December 2018). "Farm hopes to expand into edible insect market".
APNews.com. The Associate Press. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
Maugey, M; Neri, W; Zakri, C; Derré, A; Pénicaud, A; Noé, L; Chorro, M; Launois, P; Monthioux,
M; Poulin, P (2007). "Substantial improvement of nanotube processability by freeze-drying". J
Nanosci Nanotechnol. 7 (8): 2633–2639. doi:10.1166/jnn.2007.855. PMID 17685277.
Khidas, Kamal (5 June 2015). "Plastination and Taxidermy: Which is Best for a Museum?".
Canadian Museum of Nature blog. Canadian Museum of Nature. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
Owens, Ryan (8 March 2012). "Grieving Pet Owners Can Opt for Stuffing, Freezing-Drying
Deceased Pets". ABCnewsGo.com. ABC News Network. Retrieved 24 February 2020.
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Bourdoux, Siméon; Li, Dan; Rajkovic, Andreja; Devlieghere, Frank; Uyttendaele, Mieke (2016-09-
07). "Performance of Drying Technologies to Ensure Microbial Safety of Dried Fruits and
Vegetables". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 15 (6): 1056–1066.
doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12224. ISSN 1541-4337.
"2016 - Multistate outbreak of hepatitis A linked to frozen strawberries (Final Update) | Hepatitis A
Outbreaks | Outbreaks | Division of Viral Hepatitis | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
Meissner, U.; Stahl, Harald; Steinkellner, D. (2011-09-01). "Detection of Silicone Oil Leakages in
Freeze Dryers". PDA Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology. 65 (5): 481–485.
doi:10.5731/pdajpst.2011.00748. ISSN 1079-7440. PMID 22293837. S2CID 207533686.
Nireesha, GR; Divya, L; Sowmya, C; Venkatesan, N; Niranjan Babu, M; Lavakumar, V (30 October
2013). "Lyophilization/Freeze Drying - An Review". International Journal of Novel Trends in
Pharmaceutical Sciences. 3.
Lopez-Quiroga, Estefania; Antelo, Luis T.; Alonso, Antonio A. (August 2012). "Time-scale
modeling and optimal control of freeze–drying". Journal of Food Engineering. 111 (4): 655–666.
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External links
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Upgrade and Evolution in Food Industry

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UPGRADE AND EVOLUTION IN FOOD INDUSTRY

Why is food important?

What Is a Raw-Food Diet?

Cooking May Destroy Enzymes in Food

Some Water-Soluble Vitamins Are Lost in the Cooking Process

Cooked Food May Be Easier to Chew and Digest

Cooking Increases the Antioxidant Capacity of Some Vegetables

Beta-carotene is a powerful antioxidant that the body converts into vitamin A.

Cooking Kills off Harmful Bacteria and Microorganisms

It May Depend on the Food

Foods That Are Healthier Raw

The Bottom Line

Effect on the digestive and cardiovascular systems

Sugar and fat

Effect on the central nervous system

Effect on the reproductive system

Effect on the integumentary system (skin, hair, nails)

Effect on the skeletal system (bones)

Effects of fast food on society

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Packaged food aisles at an American grocery store.

Parmigiano reggiano cheese in a modern factory.

Hens in a battery cage in Brazil, an example of intensive animal farming.

Agriculture: raising crops, livestock, and seafood

A soybean field in Junin, Argentina

Packaged meat in a supermarket

Wholesale and distribution

Food industry technologies

Labor and education

Freeze-dried coffee, a form of instant coffee

Acceptance of innovative technologies can be improved by providing non-emotional and concise

3.2.1 NASA and military rations

Early uses in food

Stages of freeze drying

Freezing and annealing

Structurally sensitive goods

A benchtop manifold freeze-drier

Applications of freeze drying

Pharmaceuticals and biotechnology

Lyophilized 5% w/v sucrose cake in a pharmaceutical glass vial

Many bio-pharmaceutical products based on therapeutic proteins such as monoclonal antibodies

Freeze drying of food

Freeze dried bacon bars

Freeze-dried coffee, a form of instant coffee

Freeze-dried Bulgarian apricot, melon, meatball soup, tarator

NASA and military rations

In nanotechnology, freeze-drying is used for nanotube purification[23] to avoid aggregation due to

In bacteriology freeze-drying is used to conserve special strains.

Effect on nutrients and sensory quality

Silicone oil leakage

Equipment and types of freeze dryers

Unloading trays of freeze-dried material from a small cabinet-type freeze-dryer

Function of essential components

Contact freeze dryers

Radiant freeze dryers

Microwave-assisted freeze dryers

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