UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.

1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

Exercise 2: Mitosis and Meiosis

Koreen C. Bayani

Introduction

All living things are made of cells. Cells need to duplicate themselves to produce more
cells in order for organisms to grow. Cells are replicated by cell division, which happens as part
of the cell cycle. The cell cycle is generally consist of four main phases: G1, S, G2 and mitosis (or
meiosis).

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which the parent cell is divided into two genetically
identical daughter cells. All of the parent's genetic material is doubled, meaning that in humans,
for example, each child’s cell is given a complete set of 46 chromosomes that the parent had.
Mitosis stages are interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, often followed by
cytokinesis. Interphase defines all stages before mitosis, including the G1, S and G2 phases.
Mitosis occurs in the human body; it is the natural mechanism of cell replication used for growth
and repair (Miko, 2008).

Like mitosis, meiosis is a type of eukaryotic cell division. However, in different ways,
these two processes distribute genetic material among the resulting daughter cells. In comparison
to mitosis, meiosis refers only to sex cells. There are four separate daughter cells, each of which
has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. For example, in humans, sperm cells and
egg cells have only 23 chromosomes each. When two of these cells come together during
pregnancy, the resulting zygote will again have 46 total chromosomes-half from the mother and
half from the father. The phases of meiosis are interphase, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I,
telophase I, cytokinesis I, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II and finally
cytokinesis II. Apart from this reduction in chromosome number, meiosis produces new
combinations of genetic material in each of the four daughter cells (Capitanchik, 2018).

Mitosis and meiosis both involve cells which divide into new cells. This makes both of
them essential mechanism for living things which reproduce sexually. Meiosis creates the cells
required for sexual reproduction, and mitosis replicates somatic cells needed for growth and
development (Miko, 2008). Together, they provide a cellular foundation for healthy growth and
sexual reproduction.
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

The aim of the exercise is to recognize the stages of mitosis and meiosis, to understand the
differences and similarities between mitosis and meiosis, and to locate the stages of mitosis in the
root tips of the onion.

Materials and Method

In the exercise, the materials used were pictomicrographs of onion root tip and processes
of mitosis and meiosis. These are digital images taken through a microscope to show a magnified
image of an object. For the illustrations, bond papers, pencil and coloring materials were obtained.

The exercise was divided in two parts: mitosis and meiosis. In the first part, mitosis and
cytokinesis in plants, and mitotic index in the onion root tip were studied. In studying the mitosis
in plants, the pictomicrographs of various stages of cell division were examined. The cells in all
the five major stages of division were located. All stages of mitosis were drawn and labelled
properly. In the calculation of mitotic index, a pictomicrograph of an onion root tip was obtained.
Using the pictomicrograph, one hundred (100) cells were counted and the stage of mitosis each of
these cells were in was indicated. The data gathered was tabulated along with accumulated class
data. Similarly, the cytokinesis in plant was observed drawn using a pictomicrograph as reference.

In the second part, various stages of meiosis were studied. These stages were drawn and
labelled properly. Furthermore, the processes of mitosis and meiosis were compared using the
figure provided in the manual.

Results
In this section, the findings of the exercise are presented and discussed with reference to
the objectives of the exercise which were to identify the stages of mitosis and meiosis, recognize
the distinctions and similarities between mitosis and meiosis, and identify the stages of mitosis in
the root tips of the onion.

Mitosis is the division of the nucleus which form two genetically identical nuclei. There
are four phases of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Prior to mitosis is
interphase and post-mitosis is cytokinesis. Interphase is when the cell grows and duplicates all
organelles, and cytokenesis is when the cell membrane pinches together to split the actual cell in
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

half to form two cells (animal) or when a cell plate is formed to separate the cells (plant). Cells
divide to replace old, dead cells, to grow and to reproduce new organisms.

Interphase Prophase Metaphase

Anaphase Telophase

Figure 1. The images show the stages of mitosis in plant.

Mitosis is the division of somatic cells into two daughter cells. Durations of the cell cycle
and mitosis vary in different cell types. One of the most studied mitosis organism is the onion root
tip. The root tip of the onion is a rapidly growing component, so many cells would be in various
stages of mitosis. The mitotic index is used to classify growth sites within the tissue and to assess
which cell types are dividing. The number of cells undergoing mitosis is divided by the total
number of cells.
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

Table 1. Mitotic Index in the Onion Root Tip

Observer Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total

Badilla 62 25 5 3 5 100
Bayani 64 10 8 3 15 100
Cubay 52 19 8 9 12 100
Fraga 60 14 2 8 16 100
Lopez 60 15 10 6 9 100
Manatad 68 20 4 6 2 100
Neis 65 22 1 4 8 100
Olino 65 13 5 9 8 100
Pantaelon 73 20 2 2 3 100
Total 569 158 45 50 78 900

As shown, 569 of the 900 cells observed are in the interphase. This suggests that this is the
longest step of the cell cycle. During the interphase, several internal and external conditions must
be fulfilled in order for the cell to pass from the interphase to the mitotic phase. In prophase, 158
cells are observed, suggesting that this is the second longest period. This process is longer than the
others since the fragments of the nuclear envelope and the microtubules have to attach to
chromosomes (Cooper, 2000). The different cells have differing numbers for the other three stages.

The calculated mitotic index of the sample, or the ratio of the number of cells in the division
process to the total number of cells observed, is 36.78. This is less than 100 percent, which means
that fewer cells are dividing.

Cytokinesis is the final step of eukaryotic cell division, which separates the cytoplasm,
organelles, and cell membrane. Typically, it happens at the end of mitosis, after telophase. The
movements of cytokinesis seen in the cell are caused by the same spindle network that was
responsible for chromosomal separation.
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

Cytokinesis

Figure 2. The image shows the cytokinesis in plant.

The image above shows the cytokinesis in plants. Plant cells have walls, so cytokinesis
cannot proceed with a cleavage furrow (Guertin et. al., 2002). During telophase, a cell plate
forms across the cell in the location of the old metaphase plate. The membrane-enclosed vesicles
derived from the Golgi apparatus migrate to the center of the cell and fuse to form a cell
plate.The growing cell plate fuses with the existing plasma membrane, forming two daughter
cells, each of which has its own plasma membrane. A new cell wall is created between the two
membranes of the cell plate.

Meiosis is more complex than mitosis and includes two nuclear divisions called Meiosis I
and Meiosis II. These divisions result in the development of four haploid gametes and allow
genetic variation due to the crossing over of genetic material.

Interphase I (G1) Interphase I (G2) Prophase I

UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II

Telophase II

Figure 3. The images show the various stages of meiosis.

As shown, the stages of meiosis include interphase, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I,

telophase I, cytokinesis I, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II. During meiosis
I, the number of chromosomes is divided by half and the resulting cells are haploid. In meiosis II,
the two chromatids of each chromosome are separated and the resulting cells are haploid. At the
end of meiosis, there are four haploid cells. Meiosis increases genetic diversity in species by
independent assortment, cross-over, and spontaneous fertilization.
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

Mitosis and meiosis are both cell divisions that occur in plants and animals. These cell
division processes share many aspects, including the production of new cells and replication of
genetic material. But they also have differences in the way they make new cells with different
goals and slightly different outcomes.

Table 2. Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Similarities
1. One of the essential functions of mitosis and meiosis is the duplication and separation
of the cell’s DNA content.
2. Both mitosis and meiosis produce fresh new cells based on their parent cells' genes.
3. Both mitosis and meiosis occur in multiple stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase.
4. The same general processes occur in each of these stages for mitosis and meiosis: DNA
replication and condensation, nuclear membrane degradation, spindle formation,
chromosomal segregation and nuclear reformation.
5. The same mechanisms of chromosomal segregation are at work in both mitosis and
meiosis - centrosomes, microtubules and motor proteins.
Differences
1. The result of a mitotic division is two diploid cells, while meiosis results in four haploid
gametes.
2. Mitosis requires one cell division, while meiosis requires two divisions.
3. Mitosis involves the division of body cells, while meiosis involves the division of sex
cells.
4. Daughter cells that are the product of mitosis are genetically identical. Daughter cells
produced after meiosis are genetically diverse.
5. Tetrad formation occurs in meiosis but not mitosis.
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

Discussion

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which the parent cell is divided into two genetically
identical daughter cells. In the human body, mitosis replaces worn-out cells with new cells. Mitosis
can be divided into five basic stages: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Cytokinesis follows these essential steps. The cells increase in size throughout the interphase. The
chromosomes are uncondensed and give the nucleus a relatively homogeneous appearance. During
prophase, chromatids are condensed to form chromosomes that can be more readily seen and the
nuclear membrane disappears. During the metaphase, centrosomes generate mitotic spindle fibers
that line the chromosomes in the center of the cell. In anaphase, the spindle fibers divide the
chromosomes on opposite sides of the cell. During the telophase, the spindle fibers disappear and
the nuclear membrane forms around each new set of chromosomes that decondense and are no
longer easily seen. Cytokinesis completes mitosis by splitting the cytoplasm by half to create two
new identical cells. Cytokinesis does not always occur in mitosis, certain cells divide and are
multinucleate. For example, humans have some multinucleated bone cells (osteoclasts) that are
shaped in this way. Mitosis without cytokinesis is also seen in the early development of some
insects, such as the fruit fly (Drosophila). It may also be a sign of a disrupted cell cycle, which is
a pathological mechanism often seen in tumors (King & Normand, 2011).

Mitosis is essential for development and growth, cell replacement and asexual reproduction
(Vidyasagar, 2018). The number of cells increases through mitosis, allowing organisms to develop
from a single cell to a complex multicellular organism. Furthermore, cells are continuously lost
and replaced by new ones in the body, for example in the skin and in the intestines. The most
widely used sample in the laboratory is the root tip of the onion. The root tip of the onion is rapidly
growing, so many cells will be in different stages of mitosis. The mitotic index helps measure the
division of cells. It is defined as the ratio of the number of cells in the division process to the total
number of cells observed. As seen in the results, 569 of the 900 cells observed are in the interphase.
This suggests that this is the longest step of the cell cycle. At the interphase, the cell undergoes
natural growth processes when preparing for cell division. As a result, several internal and external
conditions must be fulfilled in order for the cell to pass from the interphase to the mitotic phase.
In prophase, 158 cells are observed, suggesting that this is the second longest period. This process
is longer than the others since the fragments of the nuclear envelope and the microtubules have to
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

attach to the chromosomes (Cooper, 2000). The different cells have differing numbers for the other
three stages.

The calculated mitotic index of the sample is 36.78. This is lesser than 100% which
indicates that less cells are dividing. In cancer cells, the mitotic index is higher than the normal
growth of tissues or the cellular repair of the injury site. Malignancy is characterized by rapid
cell division or a high 'mitotic index' (Ankenbrandt & Paleologos, 2016). The mitotic index is
therefore an important prognostic factor that predicts both overall survival and response to
chemotherapy in most forms of cancer (van Diest et.al., 2004).

Like mitosis, meiosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division. Meiosis reduces the
chromosomal number by half to form four haploid gametes, or reproductive cells, that are
genetically different. During the first half of meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate. In
prophase I, synapsis occurs which stabilizes the homologous chromosomes so they separate
correctly. It also facilitates the exchange of genetic material between the chromosomes
(Helmenstine, 2020). Crossing-over occurs during synapsis. This results in the exchange of genetic
material between homologous chromosomes. Crossing over produces new gene combinations in
gametes that are not present in either parent, which contribute to genetic variation (Bailey, 2019).
In metaphase I, the tetrads move to the metaphase plate in the center of the cell as in the mitotic
metaphase. Anaphase I takes the tetrads back to their original two-stranded shape and shifts them
to opposite poles. The cell prepares for a second division during telophase I. In prophase II, the
centrioles shift towards opposite ends of the chromosome group. In metaphase II, chromosomes
are located at the center of each daughter cell. Anaphase II requires the centromere and chromatid
separation. Telophase II occurs when the divided chromosomes separate into different cells,
known as haploid cells.

The importance of meiosis in sexually reproducing species lies in its evolutionary function.
Meiosis helps in the development of haploid gametes, thereby producing gametes that have half
the number of chromosomes compared to the organism, so that the gametes (male and female)
combine create an organism that has the same number of chromosomes as the parents. The other
definition of meiosis lies in variations. The crossing over to the prophase I leads to variations.
These variations are the cause of the evolution of the organism, and they also allow the organism
to establish characters that enable it to maintain unfavorable conditions. However, vasectomy and
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

tubal ligations are ways in which individuals can avoid the flow of sex cells into semen and
fallopian tubes. These would affect meiosis in a way that it would not occur. Meiosis exists and is
responsible for the formation of gametes (Nelson, 2019).

Mitosis and meiosis have different purposes, but share common features in how they work.
The basic distinction between mitosis and meiosis is that mitosis creates two daughter cells with
the same number of chromosomes as the parent cells. Meiosis results in four daughter cells
possessing half of the chromosomes of their parent, which underwent recombination. Apart from
these two distinct reasons, both mitosis and meiosis occur at several stages at which the same
general events occur: DNA replication and condensation, nuclear membrane degradation, spindle
formation, chromosomal separation and nuclear reformation (Bailey, 2019). The same
mechanisms of chromosomal segregation are at work in both mitosis and meiosis - centrosomes,
microtubules and motor proteins.

Mitosis and meiosis are essential for variation and continuity. Continuity is provided by
mitosis, also its attributions in cell growth and regeneration, and variety is obtained by meiosis
with its different division stages. Both of these variations are important, as everything changes and
demands adaptations which are the amounts of fitness in the organism. In order to keep pace with
this continuous demand for adaptation, with the aid of meiosis, species need to be diversified. If
one of them did not occur, the species will not stay alive, since there is no sexual and somatic
reproduction.
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

References
Ankenbrandt, W. & Paleologos, N. (2016). Imaging of Oligodendrogliomas. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800945-1.00040-9
Bailey, R. (2019). Differences between mitosis and meiosis. Retrieved from
https://education.seattlepi.com/similarities-mitosis-meiosis-3866.html
Capitanchik, C. (2018). Mitosis vs. meiosis: key differences, chart and venn diagram. Retrieved
from https://www.technologynetworks.com/cell-science/articles/mitosis-vs-meiosis-
312017
Cooper, G. (2000). The eukaryotic cell cycle. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9876/
Guertin, D., Trautmann, S., & McCollum, D. (2002). Cytokinesis in Eukaryotes. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC120788/
Helmenstine, A. (2020). What is synapsis? Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/synapsis-
definition-and-function-4795794
King, R. & Normand, G. (2011). Understanding cytokinesis failure. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3063936/
Miko, I. (2008) Mitosis, meiosis, and inheritance. Retrieved from
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitosis-meiosis-and-inheritance-476/
Nelson, D. (2019). Meiosis Anaphase 1. Retrieved from -anaphase-1/
van Diest, P., van der Wall, E., & Baak, J. (2004). Prognostic value of proliferation in invasive
breast cancer: a review. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1770351/#idm139794597479376title
Vidyasagar, A. (2018). What is mitosis? Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/52512-
mitosis.html
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

Appendix

Anaphase Telophase

Figure 4. Pictomicrographs showing the five major stages of mitosis. Photos retrieved from
https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/micro/gallery/mitosis/mitosis.html

Cytokinesis

Figure 5. Pictomicrograph showing cytokinesis in mitotic division. Photo retrieved from

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/micro/gallery/mitosis/mitosis.html
UPV Tacloban College-DNSM Bio 140.1: Elementary Genetics Laboratory

Figure 6. Pictomicrograph showing onion root tip. Photo retrieved from

https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/onion-root-tip.html

Interphase I Prophase I Metaphase I

Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II

Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

Figure 7. Pictomicrographs showing the stages of meiosis. Photos retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280160684_meiotic_chromosomes