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Agricultural Water Management for Integrated Watershed Planning

Improved Management of Agricultural Water in Eastern & Southern Africa

(IMAWESA)

IMAWESA TRAINING MANUAL No. 2

Compiled by:

Bancy Mati, Henry Mahoo and Geophrey Kajiru

May 2008

Contact us through:
The Programme Manager
Improved Management in Eastern & Southern Africa (IMAWESA)
ICRISAT Regional Office for East and Southern Africa
Room No. F114, ILB Building, ICRAF Complex, United Nations Avenue, Gigiri,
P. O. Box 39063-00623, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254 20 722 4554 or +254 20 722 4110; Fax: +254 20 722 4001
Email: b.mati@cgiar.org; Website: www.asareca.org/imawesa

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About this Publication
IMAWESA (Improved Management of Agricultural Water in Eastern and Southern Africa) is
designed to improve and strengthen the sharing of knowledge, information and best practices
emanating from research, field experiences and the farmers themselves, in implementing development
programmes in agricultural water management (AWM). This is considered to be critical, both for
enhanced programme design and implementation, and for providing the substantive basis upon
which to engage in policy dialogue and influence investment support for AWM. The main elements
of IMAWESA include; enhancing policy for agricultural water management, studies on key water
management issues, capacity building, exchange visits and workshops for programme managers and
their staff, as well as building a community of practice in AWM through knowledge sharing and
networking. The project works directly in sample countries but its products cover 23 countries in the
Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) region, which include Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Comoros,
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi,
Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, United
Republic of Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

This manual was prepared as part of the training material used during the training Workshop
and Write-shop held in Arusha, Tanzania, between 12-16th May 2008, for managers and
implementers of IFAD-funded programmes and projects in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA).
It has been compiled by the resource persons who provided the technical training during the
workshop. The information contained here is not exhaustive and thus, readers are encouraged to
seek further information from references cited as footnotes in this publication and elsewhere.

This particular publication targets middle level decision makers such as extension workers,
managers and implementers of programmes and projects, researchers, development partners,
public and private practitioners of AWM. It is meant to inform, educate and enhance knowledge
and practice as regards AWM in the region. This manual, alongside other reports by IMAWESA
are freely available on the internet as public goods and can be downloaded from
www.asareca.org/imawesa. For further information and comments on this report, readers are
welcome to contact b.mati@cgiar.org.

Acknowledgement
The publication of this booklet was supported by the International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD). IMAWESA is a regional project supported by IFAD and implemented by
ASARECA in collaboration with ICRISAT, UNOPS and national programmes on AWM. The
authors wish to thank all the institutions and individuals who supported the information and
publication of this manual. The views expressed here are not necessarily those of IFAD, as the
content is solely the responsibility of the authors.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INRODUCTION.............................................................................................................1
1.1 Water is a most important ingredient for agriculture .....................................................1
1.2 Knowledge exists on water for agriculture .......................................................................1
1.3 Challenges facing adoption of innovations ......................................................................1
1.4 Need to focus on holistic management of agricultural water ........................................... 2
2. AGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT FOR SMALLHOLDERS ......................3
2.1 Defining Agricultural Water Management .................................................................... 3
2.2 AWM is new to some smallholder farmers .................................................................... 3
2.3 AWM Interventions for smallholders ............................................................................ 3
2.3.1. Water and soil conservation on Steep Slopes ............................................................................................................ 4
2.3.2. Runoff harvesting and storage in soil profile (green water) ..................................................................................... 4
2.3.3 Water harvesting and storage in structures (blue water) ......................................................................................... 4
2.3.4 Stream diversion and utilization for irrigation ....................................................................................................... 4
2.3.5 Pumps and other water lifting devices...................................................................................................................... 5
2.3.6 Valley bottom utilization & management ............................................................................................................... 5
2.3.7 Spateflow diversion and utilization.......................................................................................................................... 5
2.3.8 Drainage of waterlogged soils.................................................................................................................................... 5
2.3.9 Conservation agriculture........................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.10 Recycling waste water & use of low quality water................................................................................................. 6
2.3.11 Water for livestock.................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.12 Soil fertility management........................................................................................................................................ 6

2.4 Other supportive initiatives .......................................................................................... 7

3. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ............................................8
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 8
3.1 What is IWRM? .......................................................................................................... 9
3.2 .1 Why IWRM?............................................................................................................................................................10

3.3 Integrated Water Resources Management Principles .................................................... 11

3.4 Implementing IWRM: The process ..............................................................................12
3. 5. Barriers to implementing IWRM in Agriculture .........................................................13
3.6 Concluding Remarks ....................................................................................................14
4. IN-FIELD WATER MANAGEMENT..........................................................................15
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................15
4.1.1 Conservartion agriculture ........................................................................................................................................15

4.2 Run off harvesting and storage in bunded basins ..........................................................16

4.3 Conclusions .................................................................................................................16

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1. INRODUCTION
By: Bancy M. Mati

1.1 Water is a most important ingredient for agriculture

Water is the most important ingredient in agricultural, and indeed any development initiative,
especially as 83% of agricultural lands in Africa face water and/or soil-related constraints to
productivity. With 70% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa, and 85% of the rural poor depending
on agriculture as their main source of livelihood, the scope to reach more and the most vulnerable
people in the rural areas is enormous with water as an entry point. Where farmers have overcome
water-related constraints, they tend to seek ways to overcome other impediments to their own
agricultural advancement, be it fighting pests and diseases, seeking extra inputs, looking for markets,
diversifying to reduce risks, and especially coming together in groups to tackle problems and advance
collectively. Such farmers are to be found in all countries of Africa, but sometimes not easily visible.
The best of them tend to be self-motivated, hard-working and ready to learn. They may have been
beneficiaries of funded projects, or may have started out on their own, but their survival spirit is strong
and they overcome many odds, natural or human-induced to rise above a certain poverty threshold
they once experienced, currently face or imminent risks. The knowledge to advice such farmers is not
easy to get in the rural areas of Africa. This manual, is meant for awareness creation and guidance to
middle level personnel involved in supporting farmers efforts to manage water for agriculture.

1.2 Knowledge exists on water for agriculture

In general, there is adequate knowledge and experiences in managing water for agriculture in the
region 1 , some of which goes back hundreds of years. These innovations and others not mentioned are
critical in achieving holistic water management for agriculture, across the wide spectrum of agro-
climatic zones in ESA. However, this wealth of knowledge has not been influencing programme
implementation and activities on the ground. The challenge is, therefore, to help upscale these
innovations and also to make available the necessary knowledge to those who need it most, the
smallholder farmers. In its extensive consultations, IMAWESA has obtained from stakeholders 2 that
agricultural water challenge requires five key actions, namely; exploit the potential of rain-fed
agriculture, provide secure land and water rights, adopt innovative financing for smallholders, develop
human capacity and harmonizing policies and institutions dealing with agricultural water management.
The practical implementation of these requires a wider stakeholder involvement than just programmes.

1.3 Challenges facing adoption of innovations

Farmers, extension workers, programmes and projects face many technological and management
related challenges. These range from technologies not matched with expectations of beneficiaries,
especially to meet the rising demand for water for agriculture. For example, water schemes initially
meant for drinking water supplies get overstretched when communities decide to irrigate with it.
Community mobilization is never easy, due to demographic diversity and changing views of farmers,
particularly the youth. In much of sub-Saharan Africa, most young people consider agriculture to be
the last resort when a job cannot be found, or employment for the uneducated. Changing these
perceptions is difficult and many projects have to work with aging farmers, whose scope for new

1
100 Ways to Manage Water for Smallholder Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa. Mati, B.M. (2007). SWMnet
proceedings 13. IMAWESA publication, Nairobi
2
Agricultural Water Management, A critical Factor in the Reduction of Poverty and Hunger: Principles and Recommendations for
Action to Guide Policy in eastern and southern Africa. Mati, B. M., Hatibu, N. Phiri, I.M.G. and Nyanoti J.N (2007).
IMAWESA publication, Nairobi.

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knowledge may be slower. In other cases, farmers expect to see benefits too soon, and they lose interest
if there is a time lag. Moreover, farmers exposed to availability of water for the first time tend to
experiment a lot. This is good, but sometimes, it can lead to frustrations, especially where certain basic
information, e.g. marketing, were not considered. In some projects, the exit strategy is poorly defined
rendering the sustainability of interventions difficult. Experiences of past interventions indicate that
management practices and operations introduced and sustained during the life of projects rarely
continue at the same level after projects end. In some cases, what remains in the minds of beneficiaries
is how well things worked before a project ended. This results from inadequate capacity building of
beneficiaries or institutions or introduced technology being far beyond the capacity of beneficiaries in
the absence of continuous external support.

1.4 Need to focus on holistic management of agricultural water

The neglect of water management utilizing rainfall, natural wetlands or informal systems has failed to
exploit the more positive aspects of quasi-irrigated agriculture, which holds even greater potential than
conventional full scale irrigation in the region. In addition, large publicly funded irrigation schemes
have performed poorly. Meanwhile, private and smallholder group irrigation schemes have been
thriving. This was partly due to lower and targeted initial investment costs, not tied to large loans, and
therefore, payable from the proceeds from the smallholder farm. Moreover, the most pressing
constraint to smallholder agriculture in the region is not necessarily access to land, but access to water
for crops and livestock 3 . Thus, the existence of successful smallholder irrigation schemes in the region is
an indicator that there is scope for profitable investment in water management for agriculture. Now in
the 21st century, much has changed and there is reason to be optimistic about the place of projects in
delivering benefits to smallholder farmers, with water management as an entry point. Some examples of
project-level interventions that have been appllied in eastern and southern Africa (ESA) are presented in
this manual.

3
IFAD, 2002. Assessment of Rural Poverty in Eastern and Southern Africa. International Fund for Agricultural Development.
Rome

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2. AGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT FOR SMALLHOLDERS
By: Bancy M. Mati

2.1 Defining Agricultural Water Management

Until recently, water management for agriculture was synonymous with irrigation, and therefore other
forms of water management beneficial to agriculture were downplayed. The current trend among
professionals and practitioners is to adopt a more holistic approach to water for agriculture. Thus,
agricultural water management (AWM) is here defined as “all deliberate human actions designed to
optimize the availability and utilization of water for agricultural purposes. The source of water could include
direct rain as well as water supplied from surface and underground sources. AWM is therefore the
management of all the water put into agriculture (crops, trees and livestock) in the continuum from rainfed
systems to irrigated agriculture and all relevant aspects of management of water and land”. Therefore, AWM
includes, soil and water conservation, rainwater harvesting, irrigation (full and supplemental irrigation),
agronomic management, rangeland rehabilitation, wetland management and utilization, drainage of
waterlogged soils, water used by livestock, aquaculture, soil fertility management, conservation
agriculture, agroforestry, climatic variability mitigation, use of low quality or recycled water, water used
in value addition, and interventions such as integrated watershed management.

2.2 AWM is new to some smallholder farmers

Agricultural water management is not new to Africa and has been practiced in various forms over
centuries. However, many agrarian communitiesof eastern and southern Africa (ESA) come from a
culture of shifting cultivation, agro-pastoralism and pastoralism in which agriculture was relatively
mobile, shifting to new ground when resources such as water and soil fertility were depleted. Many of
these communities do not have in their traditions ingrained AWM technologies and practices to cope
with changing demands for more sedentary agriculture. For them, irrigation, water harvesting,
conservation of water are new ideas that must be introduced and undergo some level of training,
experimentation and adoption. This perhaps explains the slow rate of adoption and relatively poor
success rates in out-scaling AWM interventions in ESA.

2.3 AWM Interventions for smallholders

Even though over the last 40 years or so many programmes and projects targeting AWM in the region
have been implemented, adoption and progress has been slow. In the past, sectorized approaches
between what constitutes rainfed as opposed to irrigated agriculture led to competition rather than
complementarities for resources and services. Projects were sectorized as either soil & water
conservation or irrigation, and implementation usually maintained this divide. There is, therefore, need
to adopt and holistic approaches to AWM implementation. There is a wide selection of AWM
technologies and practices to choose from, which are practicable in smallholder agriculture in ESA, and
which have been tested and applied in the region. As AWM under smallholder agriculture tends to be
niche-relevant, there is need to identify what suits a certain section of the farm specifically and any
single farm may have multiple practices. At the project level, identifying what AWM interventions will
suit the entire project area could be difficult, given the heterogeneity of watersheds, project areas and
the people themselves. To simplify this, some 12 broadly grouped technologies and practices are
presented as follows:

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2.3.1. Water and soil conservation on Steep Slopes
The ESA region has large areas of agricultural land, where productivity is constrained due to slope
steepness, causing soil erosion, loss of nutrients and water. Conservation of this water through various
types of terraces and agronomic management can improve water retention by 50-100%. The main
intervention is to reduce slope steepness, and in absolute terms, to achieve level bench terraces for
cultivation. The actual technologies may include stone bunds, ditches, earth bunds, fanya juu terraces,
vegetative strips, trash lines, vegetative barriers, bench terraces, hedges and all manner of terracing land.
These reduce surface runoff flows, soil erosion and water losses, and thus achieve soil and water
conservation by increasing infiltration and soil water storage. The overall watershed benefits from this
storage, helping streams to run cleaner, and longer into the dry season. Conservation on steep slopes
harmonizes watershed hydrology and has socio-economic benefits since fertilizers applied to crops are
retained to improve productibvity.

2.3.2. Runoff harvesting and storage in soil profile (green water)

This involves runoff harvesting from land, roads, paved areas and channeling it to specially treated
cropped area for storage within the soil profile where the soil can hold water for crops. The cropped
area may be prepared as planting pits, negarim, zai, ditches, bunded basins, demi-lunes, or simply
ploughed land. Storing rainwater in the soil profile for evapotranspiration is sometimes referred to as
“green water” and forms a very important component for plant growth. The design of run-on facility
(e.g. semi-circular bund, negarim, zai pit) depends on many factors including catchment area, volume
of runoff expected, type of crop, soil depth, and availability of labour. The source of water could be
small areas or “micro-catchments” or larger areas such as external catchments. The latter involves runoff
diversion from larger external catchments such as roads, gullies, open fields into micro-basins for crops,
ditches or fields (with storage in soil profile) including paddy production where the profile can hold
water relatively well.

2.3.3 Water harvesting and storage in structures (blue water)

Rainwater harvesting and storage in structure (called blue water) can be achieved through; (i) rooftop
rainwater harvesting and storages in either surface or underground tanks, (ii) runoff harvesting from
open surfaces and paths, roads, rocks, and storage in structures such as pond, pans, dams and
underground tanks, (iii) flood flow harvesting from dry valleys, gullies, ephemeral streams and its
storage in ponds, weirs, small dams, and (iv) flood flow harvesting from ephemeral water courses and
its storage within sand formations as sub-surface or sand dams. Blue water storages provide drinking
water for humans and livestock and is used for supplemental irrigation, to drought-proof crop
production in dry areas. When properly designed, constructed and maintained, blue water storages
have wide-scale applicability and can bring about sustainable impacts on food security and poverty
reduction.

2.3.4 Stream diversion and utilization for irrigation

This is perhaps the most easily understood method of AWM, yet only 5% of the potential in the ESA
region has been tapped. Generally, the irrigation potential in ESA is pegged to the availability of
perennial rivers. Moreover, in most countries, the potential irrigable areas are known, including the
amounts of water that can be safely abstracted. What has been lacking has been political and financial
capital to get it done. The ESA is criss-crossed by many rivers and streams which empty their waters to
the lakes and oceans completely un-utilized. Many of these streams are in dry areas that could benefit
from irrigation. Thus, the diversion of stream flows and utilization in gravity-fed smallholder irrigated

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fields (furrow, basin, sprinkler, drip) offers a well tested solution to water management for agriculture,
in nearly all the countries of ESA.

2.3.5 Pumps and other water lifting devices

Use of low-head and small-powered petrol and electric pumps, including treadle pumps to lift water
from rivers, small ponds and shallow water tables for irrigation (full or supplemental) has many
examples all over ESA, especially in Malawi, South Africa, Swaziland, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and
Zimbabwe. In recent years, there have been many projects supported by governments and NGOs
which have distributed treadle pumps and drip kits to small holder farmers. Some of these farmers are
irrigating kitchen gardens or plots ranging 20 m2 and up to several hectares. There is a wide scope for
enhancing water management in rainfall-deficit areas, constrained against gravity-based systems,
through introduction of affordable water lifting devices. However, there is need to be aware of socio-
economic and traditional norms of the people for the technology to be accepted and adopted by
communities.

2.3.6 Valley bottom utilization & management

Another category of water management involves utilization of valley bottoms and areas where the
natural water table is high. It can also be regarded as flood recession agriculture or wetland cultivation,
involving cultivation of flood plains as flood waters recedes. It involves appropriate management of
lowlands such as olonaka and olombanda in Angola, bas fonds in Madagascar and dambos in Malawi,
Zambia and Zimbabwe, with or without irrigation, and by a combination of drainage and water
storages to permit crop production including fisheries. For example, in Malawi, fish ponds are
constructed and the same water used for supplemental irrigation of paddy and other field crops.
Cultivation of inland valley lowlands which are seasonably saturated with water and retain a high water
table even during the dry season is common in Tanzania, Uganda, Madagascar, Rwanda, Malawi,
Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Zambia and indeed most countries.

2.3.7 Spateflow diversion and utilization

In arid areas with wide, shallow valleys where flush floods occur, spate irrigation is perhaps the most
opportune intervention. Spate irrigation or floodwater diversion includes techniques which force the
water to leave its natural course, for the water to be used for agriculture, especially in arid areas. The
runoff water is diverted through canals or wadis (wide valleys in arid areas that carry flush floods) for
supplemental irrigation of low-lying lands, sometimes far way from the source of runoff. Spate
irrigation is especially common in the Horn of Africa countries, where it is a traditional practice. Many
other countries with similar agro-ecologies could learn from the examples found in arid parts of Eritrea,
Ethiopia, northern Kenya, Somalia and Sudan. Although spateflow irrigation has high maintenance
requirements, its applicability is valid for large areas of the Sahel and the Horn of Africa, where other
conventional irrigation methods may not be feasible.

2.3.8 Drainage of waterlogged soils

Generally, the word “drainage” is usually used to refer to the removal of excess water from waterlogged
soils and also from irrigated fields. Traditionally, many communities in ESA have used waterlogged
soils to grow sugarcane, vegetables and fodder for livestock. In addition, waterlogging, especially
temporary water logging is responsible for loss of crop production in some areas. Many development
projects in recent years have shied away from large-scale drainage operations due to the environmental
furore this might raise. However, it is important to note that as land space decreases, more waterlogged
soils will have to be drained for agriculture. Some of the techniques of achieving drainage include use of

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surface drains and flood control to overcome waterlogging, horizontal subsurface drains, vertical drains
and pipe/tile drains. Temporary drainage techniques such as mole drains and deep tillage are also
advisable, as well as the management of shallow water tables. Care should be taken to avoid salinity
build up in all drainage projects.

2.3.9 Conservation agriculture

Conservation agriculture (CA) or conservation tillage, are land cultivation techniques which try to reduce
labour, promote soil fertility and enhance soil moisture conservation. It is considered as one of the most
efficient systems for harnessing green water. Conservation agriculture has come to be recognized as the
missing link between sustainable soil management and reduced cost of labour, especially during land
preparation, and it holds the potential for increased crop production, and reduced erosion. Conservation
agriculture can be achieved through; (i) minimum or zero soil turning, (ii) permanent soil cover, (iii)
stubble mulch tillage, and (iv) crop selection and rotations. It may also include pot-holing, infiltration
pits, strip tillage, tied ridging. CA has been gaining acceptance in ESA in countries such as Tanzania,
Madagascar, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

2.3.10 Recycling waste water & use of low quality water

There are many areas in ESA which could benefit from use of recycled water, or low quality water for
irrigation. Many of these are in urban and peri-urban areas, some of them already utilizing raw untreated
waste water. Other sources include kitchen waste water, grey water and low quality water. Before such
waters are used, they should be treated to remove pathogens, heavy metals and other impurities. There
are also policy, health, environmental and legal issue that may require resolution to permit the use of
waste water for agriculture.

2.3.11 Water for livestock

Water for livestock sometimes gets ignored in development projects targeting crop-based AWM. It is
quite common to see livestock walk very long distances to water, within an area that is benefiting from
soil and water conservation initiatives. By providing livestock with water close to home, time and
resources wasted in searching for water can be saved, and livestock productivity enhanced. Water
shortage for livestock is particularly acute in the Horn of Africa countries covering Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Sudan and Somalia. Thus, all AWM initiatives should inherently accommodate water for
multiple uses.

2.3.12 Soil fertility management

Water for agriculture is well managed, if the capacity of the soil to produce a good crop is not limited
by fertility or any other constraint. Thus, a soil is considered fertile, if it can supply adequate nutrients,
resulting in sustained high crop yields, have good rooting depth, good aeration, and good water
holding capacity, the right pH balance, and no adverse soil-borne pests or diseases. Thus, sustainable
soil management entails; replenishment of chemical soil nutrients removed or lost, improvement and
maintenance of soil physical conditions, prevention of accumulation of toxic elements and
augmentation of soil pH, limiting the build up of weeds, pests and diseases, and conservation of soil
and water resources. Therefore, soil fertility interventions, fertilizers, manures, mulches and low
external input sustainable agriculture (LEISA) systems should accompany any of the “water
management” interventions mentioned above and are also inherently managing water for agriculture,
and this applies to all the countries in ESA.

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2.4 Other supportive initiatives
The interventions presented in this training manual constitute broadly categorized water management
interventions that can form the basis for extensive project-scale interventions in any country. Within
each category, there are several technologies to allow local adaptability and cost-effectiveness. Another
aspect of these interventions is their applicability for smallholder agriculture and micro-irrigation
projects. The success of these interventions will depend to a large extent on the operational framework
against which they are implemented, especially the inclusion of the farmers in planning,
implementation and management of the systems. Other supportive aspects include implementation of
AWM interventions as part of a more inclusive integrated watershed management, and thus the
institutionalization of management structures such as water users associations (WUAs). Whenever
possible, AWM interventions should target to provide water for multiple purposes and enhance cost
effectiveness. Capacity building for all cadres of stakeholders and local ownership are necessary for
success.

The major threats to enhancing the AWM in ESA include negative perceptions about the returns to
investment from AWM including from irrigation. It has been proved that smallholder water
management, especially where the farmer has some level of individual autonomy in decision making, is
highly profitable as well as sustainable. Another constraint is the high initial investment required, as
sometimes, supporting infrastructure such as roads, stores, processing facilities, may have to be
constructed first. Moreover, the poorest and most vulnerable communities tend to be located in the
driest and remotest (far from roads, towns) part of the country where transaction costs of any activity
tend to be high. This, therefore poses a challenge as to where to allocate resources, especially given the
slim chances of payback from such vulnerable groups as the poorest. The trial and error tendencies of
farmers exposed to irrigation and/or water harvesting for the first time can lead to many mistakes which
could discourage both the farmers and investors. However, even with these limitations, the benefits of
managing water for agriculture optimally far outweigh the threats, especially as there is increased food
security, wealth creation, poverty reduction and improved livelihoods for beneficiaries.

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3. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
By Henry Mahoo

3.1 Introduction
Integrated water resources management is the practice of making decisions and taking actions while
considering multiple viewpoints of how water should be managed. These decisions and actions relate to
situations such as river basin planning, organization of task forces, planning of new capital facilities,
controlling reservoir releases, regulating floodplains, and developing new laws and regulations. The
need for multiple viewpoints is caused by competition for water and by complex institutional
constraints. The decision-making process is often lengthy and involves many participants.

An integrated water resources perspective ensures that social, economic, environmental and technical
dimensions are taken into account in the management and development of water resources in the
whole catchment (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2).

Figure 3.1: The Pangani River Catchment

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Figure 3.2: Makanya river sub-catchment-Pangani basin

3.1 What is IWRM?

Integrated Water Resource Management is a process that promotes the coordinated development of
water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resulting economic and social welfare in an
equitable manner, without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Integrated Water
Resource Management is about recognizing the fundamental dependence of human livelihoods on the
natural environment for resources, protection and the treatment of wastes. The catchment or river
basin is treated as a unit for examining water consumption and pollution and attempting to balance the
needs of man and nature. The integrated approach considers the effects of changing land use as well as
water consumption and pollution of surface waters. Groundwater resources are also taken into account
since underground aquifers store 97% of the Earth's unfrozen freshwater.

The basis of IWRM is that different uses of water are interdependent. Integrated management means
that all the different uses of water resources are considered together.. Examples of water use from the
Rufiji river basin (Figures 3.3 and 3.4) may be listed as: (i) Domestic(ii) Livestock(iii) Irrigation
(iv) Hydropower (v) Fishing (vi) Navigation (Transport) (vii) Industrial(viii) Mining and (ix)
Environmental

Integrated water resources management is a systematic process for the sustainable development,
allocation and monitoring of water resource use in the context of social, economic and environmental
objectives. It is different from the sectoral approach applied in many countries.

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Figure 3.3: Rufigi Basin

Figure 3.4: Schematic diagram of Rufiji Basin

3.2 .1 Why IWRM?

The world’s freshwater resources are under increasing pressure. Further more, there is a water
governance crisis-due to fragmented and uncoordinated development and management of the resource.
In addition, there is increased competition for the finite resource which is aggravated by inefficient
governance. In many countries, securing water for people has become more difficult and one fifth of
the world’s population is without access to safe drinking water and half of the population is without
access to adequate sanitation.

In poor developing countries, the situation is very critical and made worse by gender disparity which
arises from the fact that water management is male dominated. Though women numbers are starting to

10
grow, their representation in water sector institutions is still very low. This is important because the
way that water resources are managed affects women and men differently. As custodians of family
health and hygiene and providers of domestic water and food, women are the primary stakeholders in
household water and sanitation. Yet, decisions on water supply and sanitation technologies, locations of
water points and operation and maintenance systems are mostly made by men. Decisions on water
supply and sanitation technologies, locations of water points and operation and maintenance systems
are mostly made by men. A crucial element of the IWRM philosophy is that water users, rich and poor,
male and female, are able to influence decisions that affect their daily lives and should therefore be part
and parcel of the IWRM process.

3.3 Integrated Water Resources Management Principles

Integrated Water Resource Management is guided by the following four principles: (i) Fresh water is a
finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment (ii) Water
development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners
and policymakers at all levels.(iii) Involvement of and increased participation of Women (iv) Water has
an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good. These are
briefly discussed below.

Principle 1: Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and
the environment
Since water sustains life, effective management of water resources demands a holistic approach, linking
social and economic development with protection of natural ecosystems. Effective management links
land and water uses across the whole of a catchment area or groundwater aquifer. The notion that
freshwater is a finite resource arises as the hydrological cycle on average yields a fixed quantity of water
per time period. This overall quantity cannot yet be altered significantly by human actions, though it
can be, and frequently is, depleted by man-made pollution. The freshwater resource is a natural asset
that needs to be maintained to ensure that the desired services it provides are sustained. This principle
recognises that water is required for many different purposes, functions and services; management
therefore, has to be holistic (integrated) and involve consideration of the demands placed on the
resource and the threats to it. It also recognises the catchment area or river basin as the logical unit for
water resources management.

Principle 2: Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach,

involving users, planners and policymakers at all levels
Water is a subject in which everyone is a stakeholder. Real participation only takes place when
stakeholders are part of the decision-making process. A participatory approach is the best means for
achieving long-lasting consensus and common agreement. Participation is about taking responsibility,
recognizing the effect of sectoral actions on other water users and aquatic ecosystems and accepting the
need for change to improve the efficiency of water use and allow the sustainable development of the
resource.

Participation does not always achieve consensus, arbitration processes or other conflict resolution
mechanisms also need to be put in place. Governments have to help create the opportunity and
capacity to participate, particularly among women and other marginalized social groups. It has to be
recognized that simply creating participatory opportunities will do nothing for currently disadvantaged
groups unless their capacity to participate is enhanced.

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Principle 3: Involvement of and increased participation of Women
It is widely acknowledged that women play a key role in the collection and safeguarding of water for
domestic and – in many cases – agricultural use, but that they have a much less influential role than
men in management, problem analysis and the decision-making processes related to water resources.
The fact that social and cultural circumstances vary between societies suggests that the need exists to
explore different mechanisms for increasing women’s access to decision-making and widening the
spectrum of activities through which women can participate in IWRM.

IWRM requires gender awareness. In developing the full and effective participation of women at all
levels of decision-making, consideration has to be given to the way different societies assign particular
social, economic and cultural roles to men and women.

Principle 4: Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an
economic good.
In this principle, it is vital to recognize first the basic right of all human beings to have access to clean
water and sanitation at an affordable price. Many past failures in water resources management are
attributable to the fact that the full value of water has not been recognized and has led to wasteful and
environmentally damaging uses of the resource. Treating water as an economic good is an important
means for decision making on the allocation of water. This is particularly important when extending
supply is no longer a feasible option. Water has a value as an economic good as well as a social good.
Many past failures in water resources management are attributable to the fact that the full value of
water has not been recognised.

In order to extract maximum benefits from available water resources, there is a need to change
perceptions about the value of water there is a need to change perceptions about the value ofwater.Value and
charges are two different things and we have to distinguish clearly between valuing and charging for
water. The value of water in alternative uses is important for the rational allocation of water as a scarce
resource, whether by regulatory or economic means. Charging (or not charging) for water is applying
an economic instrument to support disadvantaged groups, affect behaviour towards conservation and
efficient water usage, provide incentives for demand management, ensure cost recovery and signal
consumers’ willingness to pay for additional investments in water services.Treating water as an
economic good is an important means for decision making on the allocation of water between different
water use sectors and between different uses within a sector. This is particularly important when
extending supply is no longer a feasible option. In IWRM, economic valuation of alternative water uses
gives decision makers important guides to investment priorities. It should not though be the only
consideration. Social goals are important too. In a water-scarce environment, would it be right, for
example, that the next water resource developed should be assigned to a steel-manufacturing plant
because the manufacturer can afford to pay more for the water than the thousands of poor people who
have no access to safe water? Social, economic and environmental goals all play a part in IWRM
decision-making.

3.4 Implementing IWRM: The process

Implementation of IWRM is best done in a step-by-step process, with some changes taking place
immediately and others requiring several years of planning and capacity building. This process may
involve the following (i) Changes/challenges to conventional practices (ii) Negotiating differences and
(iii) Reforms. A brief description is given below

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3.4.1 Changes/challenges to conventional practices
IWRM is a challenge to conventional practices, attitudes and professional certainties. It confronts
entrenched sectoral interests and requires that the water resource is managed holistically for the benefits
of all. No one pretends that meeting the IWRM challenge will be easy but it is vital that a start is made
now to avert the burgeoning crisis.” Implementing IWRM demand that people try to change their
working practices to look at the bigger picture that surrounds their actions and to realise that these do
not occur independently of the actions of others. It also seeks to introduce an element of decentralised
democracy into how water is managed, with its emphasis on stakeholder participation and decision-
making at the lowest appropriate level.

3.4.2 Negotiating differences

All of this implies change, which brings threats as well as opportunities. There are threats to people’s
power and position; and threats to their sense of themselves as professionals. IWRM requires that
platforms be developed to allow very different stakeholders, often with apparently irreconcilable
differences to somehow nonetheless work together.

3.4.3 IWRM require Reforms

Because of the existing institutional and legislative frameworks, implementing IWRM is likely to
require reform at all stages in the water planning and management cycle.

3. 5. Barriers to implementing IWRM in Agriculture

There are several barriers to successful implementation of IWRM within the Agricultural sector. These
include the following:
• Incompleteness in water management policy and legal and regulatory frameworks - This is
particularly the case in developing countries where though water policies exist, the regulatory
mechanisms for implementing and enforcing them are limited or non-existent. In Tanzania
there is a Water Policy(2002) but the Water Bill is still being formulated. Water legislation
converts policy into law.
• Demographic pressures-Population growth, primarily in developing countries, linked to
poverty, is in many places driving inappropriate and non-sustainable agricultural practices and
associated water utilisation. However, often communities even when they understand the long-
term consequences of their actions feel that they have no alternative.
• Lack of understanding of IWRM principles and practices-In many instances, only a few
people in the hierarchy of water management know and understand IWRM and often there is
insufficient technical support to operationalize IWRM within the agricultural sector
• Inadequate information and data on how water is used in agriculture-Despite the
recognised need for demand management, in many places the data required for analysing water
use patterns in detail (e.g. temporal and spatial variation in quantities of water diverted and
return flows) is lacking. Of all the sectors agriculture is most often the one for which there is
least quantitative information on exactly how much water is being used.
• Little Understanding of the inter-relationships-Successful IWRM requires the integration of
environmental, social and economic factors; but in any specific situation the relationships
between biophysical and socio-economic systems are even less well understood than the
biophysical alone. Consequently, the social implications of management decisions are often
impossible to predict.
• Market-failure - Despite the wide-spread recognition that water should be treated as an
economic good, in many places water is provided to the agricultural sector at very subsidised

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 rates. In part this is because of the perceived need by many governments for nations to be self-
sufficient in food production. The result is that there is little economic incentive for farmers to
change long established agricultural practices
• Entrenched agricultural practices -Very often farmers, like other groups, are unwilling to
change practices, if they believe that others will simply continue doing what they have always
done.

3.6 Concluding Remarks

As is the case in most countries, the agriculture sector in your country may be the most important user
of water resources. When you think of agricultural water use in your country you may want to consider
the contribution of the sector to the livelihood and food security of the population. But you should also
ask yourself the following questions:
• Are these water resources used effectively and efficiently or are there alternative means of
production?
• What are the impacts of water use for agricultural production on water availability and quality?
• How can IWRM improve the performance of the agricultural sector?
• What institutional arrangements have to be made within agriculture for the implementation of
IWRM?

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4. IN-FIELD WATER MANAGEMENT
By: Geophrey J. Kajiru

4.1 Introduction
The in-field water management is important in order to ensure proper utilization of collected water.
The first step, irrespective of any agricultural and water management intervention discussed in chapter
2, is to capture and store water in the soil profile. The next step of equal important is to prevent and
reduce water losses from the root zone. The third step is to implement appropriate agronomical
practices to ensure that crop makes the most effective use of available water. Two agricultural water
management technologies or practices are discussed as examples with respect to in-field water
management as follows.

4.1.1 Conservartion agriculture

In-field water management for conservation agriculture is mainly achieved through the principle of
capturing rain where it falls and store it in the soil profile. The main principles of conservation
agriculture involve minimum distarbunce of the soils (minimum tillage), permanent soil cover and crop
rotation. Unfortunately, many projects and programmes have more often put emphasis on soil
conservetion at the expensis of water management. In conservation agriculture, capturing rain where it
falls and store it in the soil profile is achieved through different practices aiming at improving
infiltration, reducing water losses from the root zone and improving crop water use and productivity.

The most common practices which are done to improve infiltration in conservation agriculture include
permanent crop cover, ripping, contour ploughing and ridging. The permanent crop cover increases in-
field soil moisture by allowing more water to sink into the ground and reducing evaporation. There are
two types of crop cover namely, living plant materials and dead plant materials.

The main sources of in-field water losses in conservation agriculture from the root zone is through
evapotation and evapotranspitation from weeds. Based on the evaporation process, surface cover using
mulches and crop canopy reduces the losses in conservation agriculture Weed transpiration takes up
considerable amounts of water in competetion with the desired crop. The best way to realize this loss is
to look at the biomas of the weeds produced in the cropped field. This will be equevalent with the loss
of growth of the desired crop. In conservation agriculture the substatial amount of weeds are controlled
by permanent crop cover.

In conservation agriculture, several agronomic practices are used to ensure that the intended crop use
soil water effectively and productively. These include, but are not limited to:
• Selection of both crop and varieties which have growth patterns that match the soil water
availability patterns in a given area.
• Adjustment of sowing times in order to ensure the critical water requirement period by plants
coincide with adequater available soil water
• Judicious use of fertilizers that are commensurate with the status of the soil, nutrient needs of
the crops, plant population and available soil moisture.

It can be concluded that proper in-field water management under conservation agriculture, is of
paramount importance for soil water to be used productively and effectively.

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4.2 Run off harvesting and storage in bunded basins
Run off harvesting and storage in the soil profile (green water) in bunded basins is commonly practiced
for paddy rice production. In this system, the runoff is collected from diversion of water from
ephemeral streams, external catchment, roads, paved areas and stored in excavated bunded basins
locally known as “majaluba” in Tanzania. Contrary to conservation agriculture, the in-field water
management is achieved through storing water in an excarvated bunded basins which are rectangular in
shape. The bunded basins are arranged in a cascading manner along the sloping land. The basins are
built with simple provision for entry and outlet of run off. The bunded basin wall heights vary from 25
to 100 cm for the purpose of conserving ponded water during paddy rice growing period. The size of
the bunded basin especially the width is determined by the slope of the cropped area.

In Tanzania, for instance, two main sources of run off have been identified, namely, macro (external)
catchment and flash floods from seasonal streams.The catchment characteristics coupled with the
intense storms received in the semi arid areas lead to high run off yields in some years resulting into
floods and sedimentation of fields on the gentle slopes and plains. The flash floods from seasonal rivers
are another source of run off. The run off management in the semi arid areas are related to the
techniques used in the control of run off water, of which two are commonly practiced with respect to
bunded basins. These stream are flow diversion (SFD) and sheet rill flow (SRF). The SFD technique
involves diverting water from its natural ephemeral stream and conveying the water to arable cropping
areas where it is distributed as spate irrigation. In this technique, cultivated fields close to an ephemeral
stream are first divided into excavated bunded basins (fields) and by means of small weir, water is
diverted from the stream into the top most basins. When water fills the upper basin the surplus spills to
the next basin through purpose-built openings till all basins are fully wetted.

The SFD involves harnessing the natural occurring surface run off from either extenal catchment,
paved areas or roads. The flat to gently sloping characteristics of the catchment do not allow
concentration of run off to form gullies. Therefore, the run off moves in the form of sheet flow and is
harnessed by constructing bunds across the directional of the flow and water is directed into the
cropped fields using short channels/canals. In some cases, road culverts are used to collect water which
is channelled to the nearby fields. The main sources of in-field water losses in bunded basins are
leakages from the bund walls, evaporation and transpiration by weeds. Reduction of water losses from
the bunded basins is achieved through proper maintenance of the bund walls to ensure that bund walls
have limited leakages of water. Weed control in the cropped areas and in the conveyance canals (for
earth furrows) reduces water losses from weed.

4.3 Conclusions
The in-field water management is of important for three reasons, firstly to improve infiltration and or
proper storage of collected water in the soil profile, secondly, to reduce water losses from the cropping
areas and thirdly, to improve crop water use and productivity. Improving infiltration is achieved by in
situ water harvesting methods such as permanent crop cover, ripping, contour ploughing and ridging.
In conservation agriculture, reduction of water losses from the cropped areas is achieved by mulches
and minimum tillage while in the bunded basins is achieved through proper maintenance of the bund
walls and weeding. Agronomical practices to ensure effectively and productively utilization of collectd
water are highlighted.

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