HYDRAULICS

Fundamentals of
Fluid Flows

engr.ggdoydora
• HYDRAULICS

* System Approach

* Control Volume Approach

 HYDRAULICS

• PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF
MASS

• ENERGY PRINCIPLE

• PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTUM
 HYDRAULICS

VELOCITY PROFILE

PIPE FLOW UNIFORM FLOW

 HYDRAULICS

DISCHARGE or FLOW RATE

* Volume flow rate

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
* Mass flow rate
𝑀 = 𝜌𝑄
* Weight flow rate
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑄
 HYDRAULICS

CONTINUITY EQUATION
* Incompressible fluids

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

* Compressible fluids

𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝜌𝑛 𝐴𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
or
𝛾1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝛾2 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝛾𝑛 𝐴𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 HYDRAULICS

ENERGY AND HEAD

* Energy possessed by a flowing fluid
consist of the KINETIC and
POTENTIAL energy

* HEAD is the amount of energy per

pound or Newton of fluid
 HYDRAULICS

KINETIC ENERGY
The ability of the fluid mass to do work
by virtue of its velocity.

Kinetic head
𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑣 2
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =
𝑊 2𝑔
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POTENTIAL ENERGY
* PRESSURE ENERGY
Fluid practically flow with pressure
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =
𝑊 𝛾

* ELEVATION ENERGY
Energy possessed of a fluid by virtue of its position
or elevation with respect to a datum plane
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = =𝑧
𝑊
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TOTAL FLOW ENERGY, E

Sum of the kinetic and potential energies.

2
𝑣 𝑝
𝐸= + +𝑧
2𝑔 𝛾
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POWER AND EFFICIENCY

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝛾𝐸

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
 HYDRAULICS

Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem

Daniel Bernoulli
• Swiss mathematician
and physicist
• States that the total
energy in a steadily
flowing fluid system is
constant along the
flow path. An increase
in the fluid’s speed
must be matched by a
decrease in pressure
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Bernoulli’s Energy Equation

𝐸1 + 𝐸𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 − 𝐸𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐸2

 HYDRAULICS

Bernoulli’s Energy Equation

W/out Head Lost W/ Head Lost

• 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 • 𝐸1 − 𝐻𝐿1−2 = 𝐸2

𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝1
• + + 𝑧1 = • 2𝑔
+ 𝛾
+ 𝑧1 −
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣2 2 𝑝2
𝑣2 2 𝑝2 𝐻𝐿1−2 = + + 𝑧2
+ + 𝑧2 2𝑔 𝛾
2𝑔 𝛾
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Bernoulli’s Energy Equation

W/out Head Lost W/ Head Lost
 HYDRAULICS
EGL and HGL
Characteristic of EGL
* EGL always slopes
downward in the direction
of the flow, and it will only
rise with the presence of
a pump
* The drop between any two
points is the head lost
between these points
* For a uniform pipe cross-
section, EGL is parallel to
HGL
* EGL is always above HGL
by an amount equal to the
velocity head
* Neglecting head loss, EGL
is horizontal
Characteristic of HGL
* HGL slopes downward in
the direction of the flow,
but it may rise or fall due
to changes in velocity or
pressure
* For a uniform pipe cross-
section, HGL is parallel to
EGL
* For horizontal pipes with
uniform diameter, the
drop in pressure heads
between two points is also
equal to the head lost
between these points
 HYDRAULICS

SAMPLE PROBLEM
• A horizontal pipe carries cooling water for a
thermal power plant from a reservoir as shown.
The head loss in the pipe is given as shown
0.02 𝐿/𝐷 𝑣 2
where 𝐿 is the length of the pipe from
2𝑔
the reservoir to the point of question, 𝑣 is the
mean velocity of the pipe and d as the pipe
diameter. If the pipe diameter is 20 cm and the
rate of flow is 0.06 m3/s, what is the pressure in
the pipe at 𝐿 = 2000 m?
ANS:418.22 kPA
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SAMPLE PROBLEM
• Water flows through a pipe at 5 L/sec, if gage
pressures of 12.5 kPa, 11.5 kPa and 10.3 kPa
are measured from P1, P2 and P3 respectively,
compute the following:
a. Head loss between 1 and 2
b. Head loss between 1 and 3
c. Head loss between 2 and 3
ANS: a. HL=0.10 m;
b. HL=8.00 m;
c. HL=7.90 m
 HYDRAULICS

SAMPLE PROBLEM
• At the maximum rate of power generation,
this hydroelectric power plant takes a
discharge of 141 m3/s. If the head loss through
the intakes, penstock, and outlet work is 1.52
m. What is the rate of the power generation?

ANS:841.66 MW
 HYDRAULICS For you to answer!!!!
PROBLEM
• A pump draws 20 liters per second of water from
reservoir C and lifts it to reservoir D as shown in the
figuure. The head lost from C to 1 is three times the
velocity head in the 150-mm suction line and the
head lost from 2 to D is fifteen times the velocity
head in the 100-mm discharge line.
a. What is the power delivered by the pump to the system
in horsepower?
b. What is the pressure head at point 1 in meters of water?
c. What is the pressure head at point 2 in meters of water?
 HYDRAULICS For you to answer!!!!
PROBLEM
• A hydroelectric power generating system is shown in
the figure. Water flows from the upper reservoir to a
lower one passing through a turbine at the rate of
150 L/sec. The total length of pipe connecting the
two reservoirs is 100 m. Pipe diameter is 250 mm.
The water surface elevations of reservoir 1 and 2 are
197 m and 50 m, respectively.
a. Determine the velocity of flow in the pipe in m/s.
b. Determine the head loss in the pipe in meters.
c. Determine the power generated by the turbine in kW.
Neglect minor losses.
HYDRAULICS

Fluid Flow
Measurement
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DEVICE COEFFICIENT

• coefficient of discharge, 𝑐 or 𝑐𝑑

• coefficient of velocity, 𝑐𝑣

• coefficient of contraction, 𝑐𝑐
 HYDRAULICS

coefficient of discharge

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
𝑐 or 𝑐𝑑 = =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄𝑡
 HYDRAULICS

coefficient of velocity

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣
𝑐𝑣 = =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑡
 HYDRAULICS

coefficient of contraction

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎

𝑐𝑐 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴
 HYDRAULICS

Relationship bet. coefficients

Actual discharge, 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑄𝑡 (eqtn.1)
𝑄 = 𝑎𝑣
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴 × 𝐶𝑣 𝑣𝑡
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 𝐴𝑣𝑡
But 𝑄𝑡 = 𝑎𝑣𝑡 ;
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 𝑄𝑡 (eqtn.2)

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣
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Application of
Bernoulli’s
Equation
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1. Orifice meter

2. Venturi meter

3. Pitot Tube
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ORIFICE METER
• A device used for
measuring the rate of
flow of a fluid through a
pipe.
• Cheaper compared to
venturi meter
• Consist of a flat circular
plate which has a circular
sharped edge hole called
“orifice”
• Generally 0.5D but may
vary from 0.4D -0.8D
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“vena contracta”
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VENTURI METER
• A device used for
measuring the rate of
flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe

• It consist of a
converging part, throat,
a divergent part.
 HYDRAULICS

PITOT TUBE
• A device used for
measuring the velocity
of flow at any point in
a pipe or a channel

• Consist of a glass tube

bent at right angles
UNSTEADY FLOW
Tanks with constant cross-sectional area;
submerged orifice connecting two tanks;

AS1

VLOST
VLOST=VGAIN

AS2

VGAIN

TANK 1 TANK 2
Answer…
• Determine the diameter of an orifice
that permits a tank of horizontal cross-
section 1.5m2 to have its liquid surface
draw down at the rate of 160 mm/s for
a 3.35-m head on the orifice. Use C=
0.63
PROBLEM
• Two vertical cylindrical tanks 1
and 2 having diameters of 2m and
3m, respectively, are connected with
a 200-mm diameter tube at its lower
portion having C=0.60. When the tube
is closed, the water surface in tank
1 is 5 meters above tank 2. How long
will it take after opening the tube,
for the water surface in tank 2 to
rise by 1 meter?
answer
• A vertical rectangular water tank is
divided into two chambers whose
horizontal sections are 3m2 and 5m2
respectively. The dividing wall is provided
with a 100mmx100mm square hole
located 0.5 m from the bottom and
whose coefficient of discharge is 0.60.
Initially there is 5 m deep of water in the
smaller chamber and 1 m deep of water
in the larger chamber. What is the
difference in water level in two chambers
after 2 minutes?
PROBLEM
A swimming pool 15 m long, 10 m wide,
and 3 m deep at one end and 1.6 m on
the other end is fitted with a drain
pipe 200-mm diameter at the lowest
part of the pool. Compute the time
required to drain the full content of
the pool assuming C = 0.80.
 CE BOARD EXAM-MAY 2012

• Two vertical tanks are connected near the bottom

by a short tube having a cross sectional area of
0.0725m2. The cross sectional area of the tanks are 8
m2 and 2 m2 respectively. The tank contains water
with water surface in the larger tank 4m above the
tube and in the smaller tank 1m above the tube.
Assume a constant discharge coefficient of 0.75.

A. Compute the discharge in the orifice immediately

after opening the orifice.
B. Find the time for the two tanks to be in the same
level
C. Find the time for the water surface to be 1 m apart.
HYDRAULICS

NOTCHES and
WEIRS
 HYDRAULICS

NOTCH

• A device used for measuring the rate of flow

of a liquid through a small channel or a tank
• An opening on the side of a tank or a small
channel in such a way that the liquid surface
in the tank or channel is below the top edge
of the opening.
 HYDRAULICS

WEIR
• A concrete or a masonry structure , placed
in an open channel over which the flow
occurs
• Generally in the form of a vertical wall with
a sharp edged on top, running all the way
across the open channel.
• Any hydraulic control structure that allows
water to flow over its top
 HYDRAULICS

DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Nappe or Vein
– The overflowing sheet of water through a notch or over a weir
• Crest or sill
– The bottom edge of a notch or a top of a weir over the water flows
• Drop-down curve
– The downward curvature of the liquid surface before the weir
• Head, H
– The distance between the liquid surface and the crest of the weir,
measured before the drop-down curve.
• Contracted Weir
– Weirs having sides sharp-edged, having one or two end
contractions
• Suppressed weir
– Weirs having its length L being equal to the width of the channel
having no end contractions
 HYDRAULICS

CLASSIFICATION OF NOTCH
According to the shape of According to the effect of
the opening; the sides on the nappe;

• Rectangular notch • Notch with end contraction

• Triangular notch • Notch without end
• Trapezoidal notch contraction or Suppressed
• Stepped notch notch
 HYDRAULICS

CLASSIFICATION OF WEIRS
• According to the shape if the opening;
– Rectangular weir
– Triangular weir
– Trapezoidal weir (Cippoletti weir)
• According to the shape of crest;
– Sharp-crested weir
– Broad crested weir
– Narrow crested weir
– Ogee- shaped weir
• According to the effects of sides on the emerging
nappe;
– Weir with end contraction ( one or two )
– Weir without end contraction
HYDRAULICS
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HYDRAULICS
DISCHARGE OVER A RECTANGULAR NOTCH OR WEIR
 HYDRAULICS

DISCHARGE OVER A RECTANGULAR NOTCH OR WEIR

𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝑸 = 𝑪 𝟐𝒈𝑳 𝑯 + 𝒉𝒗 𝟐 − 𝒉𝒗 𝟐
𝟑
 HYDRAULICS

STANDARD WEIR FACTOR FORMULAS

• FRANCIS FORMULA ( for 1.07m - 5.18m rectangular weirs
under heads from 180mm - 490mm. )

𝐻 2
S.I. UNITS ,𝐶𝑤 = 1.84 1 + 0.26
𝑑
𝐻
For < 0.4
𝑃
• 𝐶𝑤 = 1.84 S.I. UNITS
• 𝐶𝑤 = 3.33 ENGLISH
 HYDRAULICS

STANDARD WEIR FACTOR FORMULAS

• REHBOCK AND CHOW FORMULA
𝐻
ENGLISH UNITS, 𝐶𝑤 = 3.27 + 0.40 𝑃
𝐻
S.I. UNITS, 𝐶𝑤 = 1.8 + 0.22 𝑃
• BAZIN FORMULA ( weirs of 0.5 m - 2.0 m length under
heads from 50mm - 600mm)
2
0.02161 𝐻
𝐶𝑤 = 0.5518 3.248 + 1 + 0.55
𝐻 𝑑
 HYDRAULICS

CONTRACTED RECTANGULAR WEIRS

ONE-END CONTRACTION TWO-END CONTRACTION

𝐿′ = 𝐿 − 0.1𝑁𝐻
 HYDRAULICS

PROBLEM- 01
• During a test on a 2.4m suppressed weir
900mm high, the head was maintained
constant at 300mm. In 38 seconds, 28 800
liters of water were collected. What is the
weir factor, 𝐶𝑤 ? Consider velocity of
approach.

Ans: 1.891
 HYDRAULICS

PROBLEM- 02
• A rectangular, sharp-crested weir with end
contractions is 1.4m long. How high should
it be placed in a channel to maintain an
upstream depth of 2.35m for a flow of 400
Liters/sec?

Ans: 2.05m
 HYDRAULICS

PROBLEM- 03
• Find the width in meters of the channel at
the back of a suppressed weir given the
following data:
Head, H = 28.5 cm
Depth of water , d= 2.485 m
Q = 0.84 m3/sec
Consider velocity of approach and use Francis
formula.

Ans: 3m
 HYDRAULICS

TRIANGULAR WEIR ( V-NOTCH)

Gen. equation for For standard 90°

For triangular V-notch
triangular V-notch weir: weir: (SI unit)
weir:
𝟒 𝟑
𝑸= 𝑪 𝟐𝒈𝑳𝑯𝟐 𝜃 𝟓 𝟓
𝟏𝟓 𝑸 = 𝑪𝒘 tan 𝑯𝟐 𝑸= 𝟏. 𝟒𝑯𝟐
𝟖 𝜃 𝟓 2
𝑸= 𝑪 𝟐𝒈 tan 𝑯𝟐
𝟏𝟓 2
Trapezoidal sharp-crested weir Submerged sharp weir
𝟑 𝟓
• 𝑸 = 𝑪𝒘𝟏 𝑳𝑯 + 𝑪𝒘𝟐 𝒁𝑯
𝟐 𝟐 𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟓
𝑸𝒔 𝑯𝟐 𝒏
• = 𝟏−
𝑸 𝑯𝟏
Cipolletti weir
𝟑
• 𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟗𝑳𝑯 𝟐

Suttro weir or Proportional Flow weir

𝟏
• 𝑸= 𝑪𝝅𝑲 𝟐𝒈 𝑯
𝟐

Where 𝐾 = 2𝑥 𝑦
Unsteady Flow Weir
(Variable Head)

2𝐴𝑆 1 1
• 𝑡= −
𝐶𝑊 𝐿 𝐻2 𝐻1
 HYDRAULICS

PROBLEM- 04
• Determine the head on a 45° V-notch
weir for a discharge of 200 L/s. Use
C=0.57.

Ans: 664mm
 HYDRAULICS

PROBLEM- 05
• What length of a Cipolletti weir should
be constructed in order that the head
of flow will be 0.96m when the flow
rate is 3.76 m3/s.

Ans: 2.15m
 HYDRAULICS

PROBLEM- 06
• A trapezoidal weir having a side slope
of 1H to 2V discharges 50 m3/s under a
constant head of 2m. Find the length
of the weir assuming C=0.60.

Ans: 9.18m
 HYDRAULICS

PROBLEM- 07
• A trapezoidal weir having a side slope
of 1H to 4V discharges 50 m3/s under a
constant head of 2m. Find the length
of the weir assuming C=0.60.

Ans: 9.51m
 HYDRAULICS

PROBLEM- 08
• A spillway controls a reservoir 4.6
hectares in area. The permanent crest
of the spillway is at elevation 75m. If
the water can be drawn from
elevation 76.5m to elevation 75.5m in
42 minutes, find the length of the
spillway in meters. Use Francis formula
neglecting velocity of approach.

Ans: 11. 86m