Introduction to Remote Sensing

Mohammad Asad Hussain

Assistant Professor
Institute of Water and Flood Management
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Tel. 9665650-80/7952
Email: asadh@iwfm.buet.ac.bd
Web: http://teacher.buet.ac.bd/asad/
Contents

‰ Concept of Remote Sensing

‰ Elements Involved in Remote Sensing
‰ Energy Sources and Electromagnetic Radiation
‰ Electromagnetic Spectrum
‰ Classification Electromagnetic Spectrum
‰ Types of Remote Sensing with Respect to Wavelength
‰ Interactions of EM Radiation with the Atmosphere
‰ Interactions of EM Radiation with the Earth’s Surface
‰ Spectral Reflectance Curve
 Concept of Remote Sensing

Remote Sensing is defined as the science (and to some

extent art) of acquiring information about the objects of
interest without actually being in contact with it.

This is done by sensing

and recording reflected
or emitted energy and
processing, analyzing
and applying that
information.

Data collection by remote sensing

 Elements Involved in Remote Sensing

1. Energy Source or
Illumination (A)
2. Radiation and the
Atmosphere (B)
3. Interaction with the
Object (C)
4. Recording of Energy
by the Sensor (D)
5. Transmission,
Reception and
Processing (E)
6. Interpretation and
Analysis (F)
7. Application (G)
Energy Sources and Electromagnetic Radiation

All mater with a temperature above absolute zero (k)

radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves of
various wavelengths.

Electromagnetic radiation is a carrier of electro-

magnetic energy by transmitting the oscillation of the
electro-magnetic field through space or matter.

Electromagnetic energy can be modeled in two ways:

by wave motion and particle motion.
 Wave Motion

Electromagnetic radiation can be considered as a

transverse wave with an electric field and a magnetic field.
The two fields are located at right angles to each other.

c=λ×ν
c = velocity of EM energy
(light) = 3 × 108 m/s
λ = wavelength [m]
ν = frequency [s-1 or Hz]

• Light is considered as as wave

• Wavelength and frequency has a inverse relationship
 Particle Motion (Quantum Theory)
Electro-magnetic radiation can be treated as a photon or a
light quantum. The amount of energy held by a photon of a
specific wavelength is given by

E=h×ν=h×c/λ
where E = energy of a photon [J]
h = Plank's constant [6.6262×10-34 J s]
ν = frequency [Hz]

ƒ The longer the wavelength involved, the lower its energy

content
ƒ Gamma rays (wavelength is around 10-9 m) are the most
energetic and radio waves (> 1 m) the least energetic.
ƒ It is more difficult to measure the energy emitted in longer
wavelength than in shorter wavelength.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

The total range of wavelengths is Gamma-ray

commonly referred to as the
electromagnetic spectrum. X-ray
Ultraviolet (UV)

The electromagnetic spectrum ranges Visible light

from the shorter wavelengths (including Infrared (IR)
gamma and x-rays) to the longer
wavelengths (including microwaves and Microwave
broadcast radio waves). Radio wave
Classification Electromagnetic Spectrum
EM Spectrum Classification
(based on wavelength)
 Electro-magnetic spectrum used in remote sensing

Near UV(ultra-violet): 0.3-0.4 µm

Visible light: Blue: 0.4-0.5 µm
Green: 0.50.6 µm
Red: 0.6-0.7 µm
Infrared (IR): Near IR: 0.7-1.3 µm
Shortwave IR: 1.3-3 µm
Thermal IR: 8-14 µm
Microwave: 1 mm - 1 m
The spectral range of near IR and short wave infrared is
sometimes called the reflective infrared (0.7-3 µm) because the
range is more influenced by solar reflection rather than the emission
from the ground surface.
In the thermal infrared region, emission from the ground surface
dominates the radiant energy with little influence from solar
reflection.
 Types of Remote Sensing with Respect to Wavelength

1. Visible and Reflective

Infrared Remote
Sensing

2. Thermal Infrared
Remote Sensing

3. Microwave Remote
Sensing.
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Atmosphere
The most important source of energy is the Sun. Before the
Sun’s radiation reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel
through some distance of the Earth's atmosphere.
The composition of the atmosphere is thus of importance in
remote sensing because electromagnetic radiation must pass
through it in order to reach the Earth’s surface.

Composition of the atmosphere

Component Percentage The atmosphere also contains
particles with a range of sizes
N2 78.08 and sources which are of great
O2 20.94 importance in remote sensing.
Ar 0.93
CO2 0.0314
O3 0.00000004
 Interactions of EMR with the Atmosphere

The reduction in solar intensity is called ‘Extinction’. The

rate of extinction is expressed as Extinction Coefficient.

The energy transmitted to the Earth’s surface is then

reflected, absorbed or transmitted by the surface
material.
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere

EMR interacts with particles and gases in the atmosphere

Primarily the distance EMR travels depends on

PATH LENGTH which again depends on (i) Latitude,
(ii) Time of day and (iii) Season
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere

Three processes serve to attenuate the signal we are trying

to detect:

1. Scattering
2. Absorption
3. Refraction
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules
present in the atmosphere interact with and cause the
electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its
original path. How much scattering takes place depends
on several factors including the (i) wavelength of the
radiation, (ii) the abundance of particles or gases, and
(iii) the distance the radiation travels through the
atmosphere. There are three (3) types of scattering
which take place.

1. Rayleigh scattering
2. Mie scattering
3. Non-seective scattering
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere

Rayleigh scattering:
Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small
compared to the wavelength of the radiation. These
could be particles such as small specks of dust or
nitrogen and oxygen molecules. Rayleigh scattering
causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered
much more than longer wavelengths. Rayleigh
scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the
upper atmosphere.
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere
Rayleigh scattering:
The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is
because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes
through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e.
blue) of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the
other (longer) visible wavelengths. At sunrise and
sunset the light has to travel farther through the
atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the
shorter wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a
greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to
penetrate the atmosphere.
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere
Mie scattering:
Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the
same size as the wavelength of the radiation. Dust,
pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of
Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths
than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie
scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the
atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant,
and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere
Nonselective Scattering:
The final scattering mechanism of importance is called
nonselective scattering. This occurs when the particles
are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation.
Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this
type of scattering. Nonselective scattering gets its name
from the fact that all wavelengths are scattered about
equally.
This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear
white to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are
all scattered in approximately equal quantities
(blue+green+red light = white light).
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere
Absorption is the other main mechanism when
electromagnetic radiation interacts with the atmosphere.
In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes
molecules in the atmosphere to absorb energy at various
wavelengths.

Three main atmospheric

constituents which absorb
radiation are:
1. Ozone
2. Carbon dioxide and
3. Water vapor
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere

Absorption:
You may have heard carbon dioxide referred to as a
greenhouse gas. This is because it tends to absorb
radiation strongly in the far infrared portion of the
spectrum - that area associated with thermal heating -
which serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere.
Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the
incoming longwave infrared and shortwave microwave
radiation (between 22µm and 1m). The presence of
water vapour in the lower atmosphere varies greatly
from location to location and
at different times of the year. For example, the air mass
above a desert would have very little water vapour to
absorb energy, while the tropics would have high
concentrations of water vapour (i.e. high humidity).
Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere
Ozone absorbs the harmful (to most living things) ultraviolet
radiation from the sun. Without this protective layer in the
atmosphere our skin would burn when exposed to sunlight.
Carbon dioxide absorbs radiation strongly in the far infrared
portion of the spectrum - that area associated with thermal
heating - which serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere.
Water vapor in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming
longwave infrared and shortwave microwave radiation (between
22µm and 1m).

Atmospheric transmission expressed as percentage

About half of the spectrum between 0-22 µm is not useful
for remote sensing of the Earth’s surface, simply because
none of the corresponding energy can penetrate the
atmosphere.
The wavelength at which electromagnetic radiation are
partially or wholly transmitted through the atmosphere are
known as atmospheric windows.
The wavelength regions of the atmospheric windows can be
used for remote sensing.
Atmospheric Windows

Atmospheric windows Wavelength (µm)

Upper UV – photographic IR 0.3 – 1(approx.)
Reflected IR 1.3, 1.6, 2.2
Thermal IR 3-5, 8-14
Microwave >5000
 Interaction of EMR with the Atmosphere

Summarizing:

Three processes serve to attenuate the signal we are trying to detect:

1. Scattering:
Rayleigh Scatter: diameter of particles << wavelength of EMR
Mie Scatter: diameter of particles = wavelength of EMR
Non-selective Scatter: diameter of particles >> wavelength of EMR
2. Absorption: retention of EMR by molecules in the atmosphere
(H2O, CO2, O3)
3. Refraction: ‘bending’ of EMR as it passes through the atmosphere
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Earth’s Surface
Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can
reach and interact with the Earth's surface.
When electromagnetic energy is incident on any given earth
surface feature, three fundamental energy interaction are possible.
These are:
1. Absorption (A)
2. Transmission (T)
3. Reflection (R)

The proportions of each will depend on the

- wavelength of the energy,
- angle at which the radiation intersects with the surface and
- roughness of the material and condition of the feature.
Two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme ends
of the way in which energy is reflected from a target are:
1. Specular reflection and
2. Diffuse reflection.
Specular or mirror like reflection,
typically occurs when surface is
smooth and all (or almost all) of the
energy is directed away from the
surface in a single direction.

Diffuse or Lambertian reflection

occurs when the surface is
rough and the energy is reflected
almost uniformly in all directions.
Spectral Reflectance Curve
The reflectance characteristics of earth surface
feature may be quantified by measuring the
portion of incident energy that is reflected.
This energy is measured as a function of
wavelength and is called spectral reflectance.
It is defined as:
Rs
Reflectance =
I

Reflectance ranges from 0 to 1. Equipment to measure

reflectance is called spectrometer
A graph of spectral reflectance as a function of wavelength is
termed as spectral reflectance curve
Spectral Reflectance of Land Covers

Spectral reflectance is assumed to be different with respect

to the type of land cover.

Vegetation: A chemical
compound in leaves called
chlorophyll strongly absorbs
radiation in the red and blue
wavelengths but reflects green
wavelengths.

The internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent

diffuse reflectors of near-infrared wavelengths.
Water: Longer wavelength
visible and near infrared
radiation is absorbed more by
water than shorter visible
wavelengths.

Water typically looks blue or blue-green due to

stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and
darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths.
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation and Water

By measuring the energy that is

Blue Green Red Infrared
reflected (or emitted) by targets on
the Earth's surface over a variety of
different wavelengths, it is possible
to build up a spectral response for
that object.
By comparing the response patterns
of different features we may be able
to distinguish them.

Water and vegetation may reflect somewhat similarly in the

visible wavelengths but are almost always separable in the
infrared zone.