September 2020

Intro to Diodes
LEARN WHAT DIODES ARE, HOW THEY
WORK, AND HOW TO USE THEM
 Table of Contents

01. WHAT IS A DIODE?

nn ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND VALENCE SHELLS

02. DOPING IN DIODES

nn PN JUNCTION
nn THE BEHAVIOR OF A DIODE IN A CIRCUIT
»» Forward Bias
»» Reverse Bias

03. VOLTAGE DROP

04. Diode Project: Sky Light

nn PROJECT OVERVIEW
nn HOW THE SWITCHES WORK
nn UNDERSTANDING THE CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC
nn CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY
nn TIME TO SOLDER
nn TEST THE CIRCUIT
nn TROUBLESHOOTING
nn NOTES
nn CONCLUSION

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 Intro to Diodes

We represent a Community of over 700,000 makers, professional engineers, electronics enthusiasts, and
everyone in between. Since our beginnings in 2009, we’ve provided a place to discuss electronics, offer
expert help, and publish your electronic projects and prototypes to show off your skills, and much more.

On our Community, you can find Essentials courses that delve into the details of important electronics
concepts, element14 Presents videos that show you a project from start-to-finish, Design Challenges
that follow a build from concept-to-prototype, and more.

This eBook is focused on the fundamentals of diodes and their behavior, with a project guide that you
can follow to put diodes to work (maybe for the first time)! Diodes allow an electric current to pass in
one direction (called the diode’s forward biasing), while blocking it in the opposite direction (the reverse
biasing). Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are a very common type of diode.

We hope you find this guide useful and enlightening, so happy reading!

element14 Community Team

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 Intro to Diodes
Follow along with Karen Corbeill (on episode 23 & episode 24) from The Learning Circuit as
she explains diodes and illustrates how to use one in a simple Light Box. Also, check out
more episodes on a variety of topics at: element14.com/TheLearningCircuit.

CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS A DIODE?

A diode is an electronic component

that allows current to flow in one
direction. Most common through-
hole diodes look like this.

Through-hole diodes have two

axial leads. Some are clear on the
outside, with red or orange inside,
and a black line on one end.

Others are black with a silver stripe The images above shows the circuit
on one end. symbol for a diode.

Diodes have polarity, with a The line on the symbol matches up

negative lead and a positive lead. with the line on the diode itself. This
helps to make sure the diode gets
The stripe on the diode marks put into the circuit the right way.
which is the negative lead or the
cathode.
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND VALENCE SHELLS
Every element is made of atoms. Every atom has However, this outer shell has the capacity to hold more
a nucleus made of neutrally charged neutrons and electrons. To fill that outer valence shell, one electron
positively charged protons. will bond with an electron from another atom.

Each electron in the outer valence shell of a silicon

atom will bond with an electron of another silicon
atom, making pairs held together by covalent bonds.

These electrons become shared, adding to the total

electrons in the outer valence shell of both atoms.

Electrons exist outside of the nucleus of the atom in

valence shells. Each valence shell can hold a maximum
number of electrons before they must occupy the next
valence shell (2, 8, 8, 16).

Including the four shared electrons, once bonded,

every silicon atom will have eight electrons in its outer
Diodes are made of a semiconductor material. Today,
shell. This forms a very stable structure known as a
most diodes are made using silicon, but sometimes
crystal or lattice.
other materials are used, such as germanium,
selenium, or gallium arsenide.

Semiconductor materials typically have 4 valence

electrons in their outer shell. Silicon, being a
semiconductor, has 4 outer valence electrons.

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 CHAPTER 2 DOPING IN DIODES
To make diodes do what they do, their crystalline
structure is manipulated through a process called
doping, where another element is added to the silicon.
Silicon diodes have two elements added to them
making two regions, the P-type region, with positive
charge carriers, and the N-type region, with negative
charge carriers. Each atom of the new element will
replace one atom of silicon in the crystalline lattice.
P-type=positive charge carriers
In the P-type region, the silicon is doped with an
element like boron or aluminum, which have 3 instead
of 4 electrons in their outer valence shells.
The missing electron creates holes in the crystal
structure. Instead of having the very stable 8 electrons,
now some atoms only have 7.
But they still want that 8th electron to make them
stable again. These holes are positive charge carriers.
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N-type=negative charge carriers
In the N-type region, the silicon is doped with an
element like antimony or phosphorus.
These elements have 5 electrons in their outer valence
shell. One more than what the silicon crystal structure
needs. So, 4 of those electrons pair with silicon atoms
while the 5th becomes a free electron that can travel
from atom to atom.
These free electrons are negative charge carriers.
PN JUNCTION
So there are two regions in the diode, one doped with
positive charge carriers, and one doped with negative
charge carriers.
Where these two regions meet is referred to as the p-n
junction. Near the junction, the positive charges and
negative charges, having opposing charges, are drawn
to each other like magnets.
The free electrons in the N-type region migrate over
and fill the holes in the P-type region.
Because of the charged particles moving around, the
area near the junction in the P-type region becomes
slightly negatively charged, while the area near
the junction in the N-type region becomes slightly
positively charged.
 INTRO TO DIODES
Forward Bias
Forward bias is the normal operating mode of a diode.
A diode connected in forward bias, has its negative
cathode connected to the negative lead of the power
supply, and its positive anode, connected to the
positive lead of the power supply.

This area is known as the depletion zone.

Free electrons in the N-type region will continue

migrating into the holes in the P-type region, causing
When power is supplied, the negative charge at the
the charges within the depletion zone to increase.
cathode pushes more free electrons into the N-type
These charges will eventually grow strong enough to
region and further into the depletion zone. Since the
begin repelling the charges in their region. The N-type
depletion zone is gaining negative charge carriers, its
side gains enough positive charge in its depletion zone
positive charge decreases.
to repel the negative charges in the region. And the
same occurs in the P-type side, where the depletion
zone gets enough of a negative charge to repel the
positive charge in the region.

Eventually the depletion zone becomes charged

enough to stop electron migration. In a silicon diode,
this happens at around 0.7V.

THE BEHAVIOR OF A DIODE

IN A CIRCUIT
When the diode is connected to power the depletion
zone will react. How it reacts depends on polarity,
which is the way the diode is connected to a battery’s
positive and negative terminals.
When power is supplied, the negative charge at the
cathode pushes more free electrons into the N-type
region and further into the depletion zone. Since the
depletion zone is gaining negative charge carriers, its
positive charge decreases.

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 The charge of the power supply is stronger than that
within the diode. The free electrons will always move
towards the strongest charge.

The free electrons that flowed from the N-type region,

and traveled into holes in the P-type region, will
continue to flow out the anode to the power supply.
As the free electrons move along, they leave behind
holes. More free electrons flow from the power supply,
in through the cathode to the N-type region, filling the
holes that are found there. The atoms in the positively doped P-type region are
attracted away from the depletion zone in the center,
Since the charge at the power supply will always be
towards the negative charge of the power supply at the
stronger than that within the diode, free electrons will
anode. Positive is drawn to negative.
continue to be drawn from the power supply, into the
diode through the negative cathode, passing through The atoms in the negatively doped N-type region
the N-type, then P-type regions, and out of the diode are also attracted away from the depletion zone in
through the anode, back to the power supply. the center, towards the positive charge of the power
supply at the cathode. Negative is drawn to positive.
This cycle will continue, around and around in the
circuit as long as power is supplied.

Reverse Bias
One way to connect the diode is in what is called
reverse bias. The diode is connected “backwards,”
with the negative terminal connected to its anode (+)
and the positive terminal connected to its cathode (-).

The charges in both regions move away from the

junction, causing the depletion zone to widen.

Since a diode is meant to only allow current to flow in

one direction, it should stop electricity flowing through
it in this direction. Let’s take a look inside the diode to
see what’s happening.

The reaction of charges within a diode and circuit
can be compared to the repelling and attracting of
magnets. The like sides will repel, while the opposing
sides will attract The same is true for positive and
negative charges.
With the charges this far apart, there is no sharing of
electrons. Electron flow is impossible.
Ok, not completely impossible. There is an exception.
Diodes have a breakdown voltage. A voltage applied to

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a diode in reverse bias can become
strong enough to overcome the
depletion zone, breaking down the
diode, causing it to allow current
to flow in the wrong direction. But
this usually damages or completely
destroys the diode.For example,
a 1N4001 diode may break down
at as little as 50 volts, while a
INTRO TO DIODES
1N4007 may withstand 1000 volts Example: Less than 0.7V - current
before breaking down. In a silicon will not flow across the diode.
diode, the charge at the depletion
zone is around 0.7V. This is called More than 0.7V - current will flow
the barrier potential, or threshold across the diode.
voltage. So, to overcome the
0.2V = No Flow, 3V = Yes Flow!
charge in the depletion zone, a
voltage of at least 0.7V must be
applied across the diode.

CHAPTER 3 VOLTAGE DROP

It is important to note that the threshold voltage
causes a voltage drop. The 0.7V, or however much
voltage is required to overcome the depletion zone,
is also the forward voltage drop. In the circuit, this
voltage is lost to heat energy. If the diode has a
threshold voltage of 0.7V, and is put in a circuit using a
9V power supply, then 0.7V would be dropped, leaving
8.3V available to power the rest of the circuit.

One type of diode that has become more and more

popular is the LED. LED stands for Light Emitting
Diode, and it is just that, a diode that emits light.
Below is a project using LEDs and other diodes to
show how they work in a circuit.
To demonstrate how diodes work in a project, we will
use 4 LEDs, 3 standard diodes, and use logic to make
this “sky light” with a white moon and three different-
colored stars.

CHAPTER 4 DIODE PROJECT: SKY LIGHT

PROJECT OVERVIEW
In this project, a white LED illuminates the moon,
while 3 other LEDs, green, blue, and purple, are used
to illuminate stars. Each star is controlled by a toggle
switch. If any of the stars are turned on, the moon will
also turn on.

The project is powered by a 9V battery and snap that

are stored within the project box.

HOW THE SWITCHES WORK

Here is a breakdown of how the LEDs will turn on when
any of the switches are flipped.

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 With all switches off, all four LEDs are off.

1. If only switch 1 is flipped on, the green and white LEDs will be on.

2. If only switch 2 is flipped on, the blue and white LEDs will be on.

3. If only switch 3 is flipped on, the purple and white LEDs will be on.

4. Any combination of switches being turned on will turn on the white LED and whichever colored LEDs are
attached to that switch. Turning two switches on will result in two colored LEDs and the white LED to be
on. All three switches being flipped on will cause all LEDs to be on.

Switch 1 Switch 2 Switch 3

Green Off On Off Off

Blue Off Off On Off

Purple Off Off Off On

White Off On On On

UNDERSTANDING THE CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC

Understanding the circuit diagram will help understand
how the LEDs, switches, and diodes should be wired
together. To begin, see first figure on right we have:

nn a 9V battery power supply on the left

nn 3 switches on the top

nn 4 LEDs on the right, each with a current limiting

resistor

Each switch connects to one of the colored LEDs.

Switch 1 - turns on the green light

Switch 2 - turns on the blue light

Switch 3 - turns on the purple light

Diodes only allow current to flow in one direction. LEDs

are a type of diode, so even though the cathodes of
these LEDs are all connected, current will not flow
backwards through them.

Each switch will only turn on one colored LED (see the
second figure on the right).

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Since each switch should also turn on the white light,
we can add those connections and see what happens.
The half circles indicate that the line jumps over the
line it is crossing, and no connection is made at that
point. With these connections, each switch turns on
one colored LED and the white LED. But with this
setup, there is a problem:
Adding the connections to the white LED,
INTRO TO DIODES
also connects that switch to the other LEDs.
So with these connections, when Switch 1 is turned
on, all the LEDs would turn on.
To correct this problem, each circuit can be isolated by
adding a diode as shown here.
Diodes are placed after the connection to the colored
LEDs and before the white LED’s resistor, with the
cathode connected towards the white LED and the
anode connected to the switch.
This way, current can flow from the switch, through
the resistor to the colored LED, as well as through the
diode to the white LED. Since diodes only allow current
to flow in one direction, each diode prevents the
current from flowing back from the white LED to the
other colored LEDs.
Since our circuit runs on 9 volts, we can use Ohm’s
Law to determine the resistor value we need to be
using, with the following equation:
Resistance = Supply voltage - LED rated voltage / LED
rated current
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 Many common 5mm LEDs operate at 20mA, which is
converted to .02A for the equation.
Red LEDs typically operate at one of the lowest
voltages of common LED colors, around 2V. White
and blue LEDs operate at one of the highest voltages,
commonly around 3V. We can use these to calculate a
resistance range and choose a common resistor value.
Red
nn Printout of a moon
nn Black craft foam sheet
nn Electrical tape
nn Optional: additional masking tape or glue
The entire circuit can be placed in a container,
attached to the back of a picture frame, or you can
create your own idea. Get creative!

R = (9-2 = 7) / .02A Black foam core or craft foam is opaque and can be
used to help isolate the light of each LED.
R = 350Ω
(I recommend reading through all the instructions first.
White
That way you can lay out all the components and trim
R= (9-3 = 6) / .02A leads and wires to an optimal length.)

R = 300Ω 1. Choose your container and lay out your design. This
will affect where the LEDs and switches will be placed.
330Ω is a common resistor value and can be used for
all 4 LEDs. a. Add any cutouts and printouts. Wax paper
can be used over any cutouts to diffuse the light

CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY of the LEDs.

2. Once you have your design, take a piece of foam

1. Start by gathering your materials.
sheet or cardboard and cut holes where you want the
LEDs to be placed.
MATERIALS
a. Tape or glue the LED in place so that the light
To make this project, you’ll need
shines out one side, and the wire leads stick out
nn Four LEDs (I used green, blue, purple, and white) the other side.

nn Four 330Ω resistors b. Rotate the LEDs so that the cathodes (short leads)
are all facing the same direction.
nn Three toggle switches

nn Three 1N4007 diodes

nn Some wire

nn 9V battery and snap

nn A soldering iron w/ solder

nn Wire cutter and stripper

nn Scissors or utility knife

nn A plastic sandwich container or other box

nn Wax paper

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3. Add the three switches.
a. If using a box, cut or drill holes in one side so
that the switches stick out. Screw or glue them
in place. Ensure you can still access the leads/
terminals for soldering.
4. Place the 9V battery and snap.
a. Figure out where your battery can be placed and
secure it with tape or glue. Make sure you can
add the battery snap, but do not connect it to the
battery yet.
TIME TO SOLDER
1. Solder one resistor to each LED.
a. Identify the longer, anode lead of the LED and
solder it to either lead of the resistor (4 sets of 2
leads connected together).
2. Solder the 3 Diodes.
a. Connect all the cathodes (striped end) of each
diode to the resistor of the white LED (4 leads
connected together).
b. The anode (non-striped end) of each diode is
connected separately to the resistors of the
colored LEDs. One diode should be soldered to
one resistor, with 3 sets of 2 leads connected
together in total.
3. Solder in the switches.
a. Solder a wire to the left pin or post of each switch.
b. Each wire will then connect to the solder point
where the LED resistors connect to the diode
anodes (this is the last connection you soldered).
c. Cut two jumper wires and solder them to connect
the middle pins or terminals of Switches 1 and
2, then 2 and 3. Note that you are soldering the
switches in series.
d. Take another piece of wire and solder the middle
pin/terminal of Switch 1 (where you just soldered
a jumper) to the red wire of the 9V battery.
INTRO TO DIODES
4. Solder Ground connections
a. Take 4 pieces of wire and solder each LED
cathode (short lead) to the black wire of the 9V
battery snap.
5. Tape the battery connections.
a. Wrap a piece of electrical tape around where you
soldered to the black snap wire.
b. Repeat with the red wire.
c. DO NOT tape them together unless they are
already taped individually.
TEST THE CIRCUIT
Connect the battery snap to the 9V battery.
Test for these results:
nn With all switches off, no LEDs are on.
nn Switch 1 flipped: white LED and colored LED #1
are on.
nn Switch 2 flipped: white LED and colored LED #2
are on.
nn Switch 3 flipped: white LED and colored LED #3
are on.
When you flip any two switches on, the white LED, plus
2 colored LEDs should be lit.
TROUBLESHOOTING
Check all your solder connections to make sure they
are good.
Make sure no solder points are touching other solder
points. This can create a short. Cover them in electrical
tape if needed.
Are all the LEDs in the right orientation?
Are all the diodes in the right orientation?
Do you need a fresh battery?
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 INTRO TO DIODES
NOTES
Try adding foam craft blocks, bits of cardboard, or another spacer between the star/moon layer and the LED
layer. This may hold the LEDs back a little farther, so the light spreads more evenly.

Placing black construction paper, craft foam, or cardboard around each LED or clump of stars can help prevent
the light from one LED from lighting up the other stars.

CONCLUSION
I like stars and space, so this is the design I came up with for my project. But when it comes to the possibilities
of what you can do with this circuit based around diodes, the sky’s the limit (get it?). Feel free to experiment! Try
adding more switches and lights, just don’t forget the diodes.

Also, check out our website on The Learning Circuit to watch more episodes on diodes and build your
knowledge. You can share your own projects, ask questions of our members, and suggest topics for future
episodes. Happy Learning!

Bill of Materials

Product Name/Description
2238 - Battery Holder, PP3 (9V) x 1, Strap, Wire Leads
LED, Purple, Through Hole, T-1 3/4 (5mm), 30 mA, 3 V, 405 nm
LED, Blue, Through Hole, T-1 3/4 (5mm), 20 mA, 3.2 V, 480 nm
LED, Green, Through Hole, 5mm, 20 mA, 3.2 V, 527 nm
LED, Cool White, Through Hole, T-1 3/4 (5mm), 20 mA, 3.2 V, 46.1 cd
Through Hole Resistor, 330 ohm, 250 mW
Toggle Switch, SPDT, On-Off-On, Panel, 5 A
Standard Recovery Diode, 1 kV, 1 A, Single, 750 mV, 30 A

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