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Structural design –
achieving excellence
Task group
A M Cormie BSc CEng FIStructE FICE FIES MWeldI (J&D Pierce (Contracts) Ltd)
J S Johnston BSc(Hons) CEng FIStructE FICE FConsE (Sinclair Johnston & Partners)
A M Low MA CEng MICE (Arup)
M W Manning FREng MA(Cantab) CEng MIStructE (Arup) Chairman
J C Mason MA CEng MIStructE (Alan Baxter & Associates)
Dr C Melbourne BEng PhD CEng FIStructE FICE (University of Salford)
R D Nicholl BEng(Hons) CEng FIStructE MICE (AECOM)
M F Ryland BSc(Hons) CEng FIStructE MICE (Ryland Consulting)
F E Weare MSc DIC CEng FIStructE MICE MIMMM DMS MIHT (Consultant)
Corresponding member
Dr F T K Au BSc(Eng) MSc(Eng) PhD CEng FIStructE MICE (University of Hong Kong)
Reviewing editors
A M Cormie BSc CEng FIStructE FICE FIES MWeldI (J&D Pierce (Contracts) Ltd)
A S Rahman MEng ACGI (The Institution of Structural Engineers)
Acknowledgements
Figure 1.1: Andy Gardner
Figure 1.2: Colin Brenchley
Figure 2.1: J&D Pierce (Contracts) Ltd
Figure 3.1: J&D Pierce (Contracts) Ltd
Figure 4.1: Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales
Figure 4.2: Fairfax New Zealand Limited
Box 4.1: Antony Dubber
Box 5.1: Angus Cormie
Figure 5.2: J&D Pierce (Contracts) Ltd
Figure 5.3: J&D Pierce (Contracts) Ltd
Figure 5.7: Milner Associates
Box 5.2: Courtesy of the National Law Enforcement Museum, Washington, DC
Box 5.4 (dampers under deck): Victor Salcedo, GERB Vibration Control Systems Inc.
Box 5.4 (plan with deck removed): Arup
Figure 5.9: Angus Cormie
Figure 5.10: Joseph Penzien, Godden Collection, NISEE-PEER, University of California, Berkeley
Figure 6.1: Mott MacDonald
Figure 7.1: J&D Pierce (Contracts) Ltd
Box 8.1: J&D Pierce (Contracts) Ltd

Published by The Institution of Structural Engineers

International HQ, 47–58 Bastwick Street, London EC1V 3PS, United Kingdom
T: þ44 (0)20 7235 4535
E: mail@istructe.org
W: www.istructe.org

First published 2015

Version 1.0 (May 2015)
ISBN 978-1-906335-29-8

# 2015 The Institution of Structural Engineers

The Institution of Structural Engineers and those individuals who contributed to this Report have
endeavored to ensure the accuracy of its contents. However, the guidance and recommendations
given in the Report should always be reviewed by those using the Report in the light of the facts of
their particular case and specialist advice obtained as necessary. No liability for negligence or
otherwise in relation to this Report and its contents is accepted by the Institution, the members of
the task group, their servants or agents. Any person using this Report should pay particular
attention to the provisions of this Condition.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means without prior permission of The Institution of Structural Engineers, who may
be contacted at International HQ, 47–58 Bastwick Street, London EC1V 3PS.
Contents

Foreword iv 6.3 Calculations 31

6.4 Computer modelling 31
1 Introduction 1 6.5 Testing and monitoring 32
1.1 Introduction and scope 1 6.6 Codes of practice 32
1.2 References 2 6.7 Checks 33
6.8 References 33
2 The structural engineer’s responsibilities 3
2.1 General considerations 3 7 Communicating the design 35
2.2 Ethics 3 7.1 Communication needs 35
2.3 Professional development 4 7.1.1 Why, what and when to communicate 35
2.4 Role of the structural engineer 4 7.1.2 Needs of the client 35
2.5 Managing risk 4 7.1.3 Needs of the design team 35
2.6 References 6 7.1.4 Needs of the drafting/detailing team 36
2.7 Bibliography 6 7.1.5 Needs of the construction team 36
7.1.6 Building control and statutory authorities 36
3 Engaging in design 7 7.2 Effective strategies for communicating information 36
3.1 Concept design 7 7.3 Information for construction 37
3.2 Scheme design 7 7.3.1 Working drawings 37
3.2.1 Overview 7 7.3.2 Specifications 37
3.2.2 Non-structural evaluations 8 7.3.3 Schedules 37
3.2.3 Structural evaluations 9 7.3.4 Bill of quantities 38
3.2.4 Output 10 7.4 Design coordination and change control 38
3.3 Detailed design 10 7.5 References 38
3.4 References 10 7.6 Bibliography 38
3.5 Bibiliography 10
8 The construction stage 39
4 Structural design philosophies 11 8.1 Role of the structural engineer 39
4.1 Overview of structural performance 11 8.2 Contract relationships 39
4.2 Value 11 8.3 Temporary works 40
4.3 Design life 12 8.4 Quality control of workmanship 40
4.4 Limit states 12 8.5 Site inspections and reports 40
4.5 Actions 13 8.6 References 41
4.5.1 General 13 8.7 Bibliography 41
4.5.2 Permanent actions 13
4.5.3 Variable actions 13
4.5.4 Accidental or extreme actions 14
4.5.5 Sensitivity analysis 15
4.6 Sustainability 15
4.7 References 16
4.8 Bibliography 17

5 Stability, robustness and serviceability 18

5.1 Scope 18
5.2 Stability 18
5.3 Stability systems and features 18
5.3.1 General features 18
5.3.2 Examples found in different forms of
construction 21
5.4 Stability during construction 23
5.5 Stability during alteration 23
5.6 Robustness 24
5.7 Dynamics 25
5.8 Serviceability 26
5.8.1 General 26
5.8.2 Movement effects 27
5.9 References 28
5.10 Bibliography 28

6 Demonstrating structural adequacy 29

6.1 Overview 29
6.2 Analysis 29
6.2.1 General 29
6.2.2 Superstructure 29
6.2.3 Substructure 30
6.2.4 Reliability and risk 30
6.2.5 Assessment of existing structures 31

The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence iii

Foreword

This report has arisen from the Institution’s decision

to update the following reports:
– Aims of structural design 2nd edition (1987)
– Communication of structural design (1975)
– Stability of buildings (1988)
– The achievement of structural adequacy (1990)

An Institution Task group, ‘The Philosophy of

Structural Design’, was convened to carry out this
work. This is the second of the two reports the group
decided to produce to amalgamate the original four.
Its accompanying publication is Structural Design –
the engineer’s role which was published in 2011.

The original reports were of their era and with the

passage of time the processes and tools available to
structural engineers have moved forward.

This report is primarily aimed at structural engineers

in their formative years post-graduation striving
towards chartered membership of the Institution. It
covers the different stages that engineers will
discover as they progress through the design and
construction of a project, from inception and scheme
design, through detailed design to construction.

There have been many changes in structural design

since the original reports were published. Some are
significant such as code changes and major
advances in computing power. However, the
principles of loadpath and basic building physics are
unchanged through time.

The conceptual output from this report is an

understanding of the plan of engagement of the
structural engineer with clients and other design
professionals through the design process. Once
through the plan the engineer should be able to
advise on and develop the structural concepts
through the varying stages, such that a competent,
safe and sustainable end product is achieved – with
excellence.

Sincere thanks are due to the time and efforts

expended by the group in their many and varied
contributions to this report. Special mention must go
to Arif Rahman, former Technical Assistant at the
Institution, for his collation and tireless editing of the
drafts and close attention to detail during the formal
review period.

Angus Cormie
Reviewing Editor

iv The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction and scope
This Report provides an overview of the tasks
undertaken by structural engineers during both
design and construction. The Report focuses on
building structures, but remains a valid blueprint for
any type of structure. While aimed primarily at
graduate structural engineers, the guidance
contained herein covers fundamental considerations
of value to structural engineers of any experience
level.
An introduction to the broader scope of what the
profession is and does can be found in the
companion report, Structural design – the engineer’s
role1.1.
Since 1976 the Institution has adopted the following
definition for what structural engineers do1.2:
‘‘Structural engineering is the science and art of
designing and making, with economy and
elegance, buildings, bridges, frameworks and
other similar structures so that they can safely
resist the forces to which they may be subjected.’’
It is a definition that is very much of the time in which
it was written, yet still applies decades later albeit
with an altered context and meaning. It is strongly
reminiscent of, amongst other things, the international
style in architecture, the immediate post-war period in
the United Kingdom and the aftermath of the Ronan
Point disaster1.3.
Figure 1.1 Gardens by the Bay, Singapore, applies inspiration from nature to the built environment
Simplistically it talks of cost, beauty, stability and
strength and of course those are still essential
characteristics of the structural engineer’s work.
However, science and art (and what society expects
of them) have all moved on so that while those
characteristics remain necessary they are certainly
not sufficient. Since the adoption of this definition, the
structural engineer has become increasingly
concerned with characteristics such as robustness,
stiffness (under both static and dynamic cases),
durability, sustainability and safety in construction.
These have arisen from the profession’s response to
the evolving needs of society, together with the
utilisation of advances in applied science and
technology in meeting these.
This Report sets out to discuss the issues bearing on
structural design, where the accepted standards
might be found for these, and describes how the
structural engineer approaches the different stages of
a project as a basis for achieving excellence. This is
excellence not just in design but also in construction;
the structural engineer’s aim must be the creation of
a built environment considered as a whole to
maximise its potential value to the standards chosen
by society at the time or for the project. This aim is
therefore a movable target since what one generation
would regard as excellent, another may declare to be
simply adequate.
Within the design team, the structural engineer bears
responsibility over structural integrity and, depending
on the type of project, may take a leading role with
respect to either or both decision-making and
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 1
1.2 Introduction
Figure 1.2 Primary structural components of bridges often have an expressed role. Media City Footbridge, Manchester
management of the design process. Further roles that
a structural engineer can play in this process, be it as
client, designer, constructor or inspector, are detailed
in Structural design – the engineer’s role.
A clear understanding of the principles of structural
behaviour is an essential element of a structural
engineer’s education. Only with this knowledge can
the various tools for structural analysis be safely
used. A truly excellent design will employ a holistic
approach: structural engineering knowledge (of
structural mechanics, soil mechanics, material
behaviour, boundary conditions and the interactions
between these), calculation and analysis in
combination with the wider appreciation of non
structural matters such as cost, sustainability and
aesthetics to produce an effective and elegant
outcome (Figures 1.1 and 1.2).
This Report is formed of three principal parts.
Chapters 2 and 3 describe considerations at the
outset in relation to the structural engineer’s
profession, the design proposal and the general
activities carried out during design.
Chapters 4, 5 and 6 give guidance on the means for
demonstrating adequacy and the key performance
requirements and features needed to sustain global
structural integrity.
Chapters 7 and 8 outline the role of the structural
engineer during the construction stage and explain
ways in which the structural design may be
communicated.
A project is not fulfilled by a series of linear
processes, and this Report does not purport to be a
checklist of all the things the structural engineer must
do. Structural design includes the provision of
sufficient performance criteria, but is also impacted
by two other sets of criteria; namely its role within the
2 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
whole design and the method of construction.
Structural performance neither dominates nor is
subservient to those two issues. There will not be a
single correct solution but several depending upon
how, eventually, the various stakeholders decide the
compromises should be ranked on the particular
project.
Implicit within this Report are assumptions relevant to
the time of writing. They were not the same in 1976
and will change again in the future. Trends indicate
that material efficiency is one of the primary and ever
increasing driving forces behind structural design, but
how will this be met? Will stronger, lighter, more
durable and cheaper materials be discovered? Will
higher standards of construction and manufacture
need to be developed? Will the understanding of
actions and how performance is predicted become
more refined? Will the construction industry change
its expectations of performance, and what can be
considered a proportionate consumption of resources
to achieve that?
Whatever happens, structural engineers will have to
both advise on the issues and then deliver the
solutions so that our built environment can meet the
needs of humanity.
1.2 References
1.1 Institution of Structural Engineers. Structural design –
the engineer’s role. London: IStructE, 2011
1.2 ‘Institution notes’. The Structural Engineer, 54(8),
August 1976, p275
1.3 Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Report of
the Inquiry into the collapse of flats at Ronan Point,
Canning Town. London: HMSO, 1968
2 The structural engineer’s responsibilities
2.1 General considerations
Structural engineers can provide services in different
roles on a variety of different projects, from building
component design to the appraisal of bridges, but
what applies to all is a standard of service
appropriate to the expectations of the profession.
Structural engineers may become a member of an
engineering institution as a way of supporting their
professional development, and to indicate to others a
suitable level of qualification and an obligation to
follow set standards of behaviour2.1, 2.2. It should be
noted that requirements for practice vary between
countries. For example in Queensland, Australia it is a
legal requirement that engineers attain registration or
are at least supervised by a Registered Professional
Engineers of Queensland (RPEQ) qualified engineer
before being able to engage in engineering
services2.3.
At the beginning of any project the structural engineer
should consider whether the tasks are compatible
with the standards expected of the profession. A
number of considerations exist beyond technical
competence including:
– Is another structural engineer already involved?
– Are there any conflicts of interest? There may also
be issues about the project itself. Although its
function is unlikely to be illegal, the structural
engineer might want to consider whether the
function is compatible with their own moral
views.
– Will its construction and subsequent operation
be proportionate with principles of
sustainability?
– Might it be damaging to the environment?
– Might it conflict with any political or legal
principles?
– How will the local community be affected?
The structural engineer has a duty to consider
such issues and to be aware of the consequences
of their actions and involvement. In some
contracts, particularly for bridge structures, the
role of lead designer is taken. However in most
forms of contract the position of a specialist
consultant working within a design team is taken.
In such cases the structural engineer might have
to find a way of satisfying potentially conflicting
obligations. For this they are called upon to advise
early, and initially with little data, on just how
sensible the approach is. This can involve some
professional risk in cases where the structural
engineer is yet to determine how design problems
are to be solved, and are therefore only able to
estimate the possible consequences. However, it
is wrong to give excessively cautious advice on
the basis of trying to make design service easier
later. Providing value is key to the profession of
structural engineering. It is therefore important to
explore, through discussions with the client and
close collaboration with principal members of the
design team, how this can be achieved
(Section 4.2).
2.2 Ethics
Engineers must act in an ethically responsible
manner. Predefined rules are a good guiding baseline,
but it is also imperative to put personal effort into
understanding ethical conflicts. Ethics may be defined
as the study of moral dilemmas in human actions. A
degree of empathy is therefore expected of
construction professionals by default in order to
respond appropriately in accordance with social
standards. Like any technical design issue, ethics has
to be part of the learning process.
Structural engineers have exhibited an increasing
ethical commitment in their professional conduct in
addition to their duty of care (Section 2.5) to design
and construct safe structures compliant with their
clients’ briefs. There is a great urgency to rethink our
responsibilities to both the natural environment and
each other, and to design for a more sustainable future
(Section 4.6). Reference should be made to the Royal
Academy of Engineering’s Statement of Ethical
Principles2.4, which were developed in collaboration
with the UK Engineering Council, and aspire to the four
principles quoted therein:
– Accuracy and rigour
– Honesty and integrity
– Respect for life, law and the public good
– Responsible leadership: listening and informing
The structural engineer, as a key member of the
design team, may come into disagreement with fellow
professionals and clients. Where conflicting views are
held, a compromise or resolution must be reached
and justified, notwithstanding any prior position. Acts
of compromise are often part of team working,
requiring an understanding of the issues (be they
technical or ethical) and a mature skill in the robust
justification of their resolution.
Technical issues may include those arising between
different members of the design team where a
practical solution for accommodating service routes
or architectural finishes may not be immediately
obvious. Collaboration in such cases is key, and this
extends equally to interaction with members outside
of the design team. However, issues may still arise as
a result of miscommunication or technical error. The
consequences may include significant programme
delays. Where the potential for serious hazards or
danger to health and safety is identified, the structural
engineer has a ‘duty to warn’. The duty to warn
principle is recognised by law and discussed further
in the 13th report of the Standing Committee on
Structural Safety (SCOSS)2.5. Box 2.1 gives an
example of a structural engineer’s commitment to
professional ethics.
In addition to alerting others of potentially dangerous
situations, structural engineers have a
responsibility to inform others when novel
structural behaviour or failure has occurred. Past
failures provide vital learning points, which can
help prevent recurrence.
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 3
2.3 The structural engineer’s responsibilities
Box 2.1 Citicorp Center Tower re-examination
The prevention of a potentially dangerous failure of the
Citicorp Center Tower provides a useful lesson into how a
structural engineer’s actions were exemplary2.6. The
structural engineer who conceived the design, following re-
analysis of the building’s unique bracing system, identified
that the forces were higher than expected when subjected to
quartering winds (45 degrees to the façade). This,
compounded with an incorrectly approved design change
during construction, increased the potential for failure of the
bracing. By acting with due diligence and issuing a warning
as needed, the structural engineer was able to ensure that
the bracing was strengthened to resist an appropriate wind
event. The structural engineer regarded this as ‘social
obligation’, which was to be met regardless of the
commercial or personal implications.
2.3 Professional development
The structural engineer must evaluate whether they
are competent to undertake the work. One of the
main skills of a qualified structural engineer is the
ability to realise when the tasks are beyond their own
experience or competence. Failing to do so is
negligent.
Structural engineers inevitably and instinctively
develop solutions to the problems they are faced with
based upon past experience, but the depth and
range of their design vocabulary influences both their
perception of the questions that are being asked and
the shaping of the solutions that they offer. If the
understanding of the design language is limited, then
the range of possible solutions to a problem will also
be limited. It is therefore important that a broad and
inclusive mindset is developed to embrace both the
conventional and the innovative. Reference should be
made not only to technical literature but also to
literature dealing with broader issues such as cultural
context, aesthetics, ethics and sustainability in order
to supplement both Initial and Continuing
Professional Development2.1. Consistent engagement
in professional development and a record of such is
essential for both the structural engineer and the
profession as a whole. The Institution of Structural
Engineers agreed a change of policy on CPD in 2014
(effective from 2015 onwards) making reporting
mandatory to recognise this importance.
2.4 Role of the structural engineer
The structural engineer has the overall responsibility
to provide, within the client’s brief and commensurate
with safety, a structure that will perform acceptably
during its required life, and which is capable of being
built. Care must be taken to ensure that the scope of
services to be delivered and associated levels of
responsibility are clearly defined. That responsibility is
not only to the client but also to the wider community
and environment, as defined in the Institution’s CPD
Guidance2.1.
The structural engineer’s responsibilities will vary
between different roles to include that of consultant,
contractor or inspector, but their responsibility to the
profession and to society will be constant. Further
4 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
guidance on the different roles taken by the structural
engineer are noted in Structural design – the
engineer’s role2.7.
The structural engineer has relationships with all
members of the client’s project team, with different
input at different times in the project. The structural
engineer can, in fact, take on more than one role in
the team. The following is a list of the principal
members involved in delivering a project, each of
whom may collaborate or even employ a structural
engineer to deliver their services and vice versa:
– Client
– Architect
– Structural engineer
– Specialist consultant
– Contractor
– Specialist contractor
It has become prevalent for clients to split up the
design, sometimes without global responsibility
defined. As an example, the client may employ a
design team to produce preliminary designs, which is
then not novated to the contractor as part of a
‘design and build’ contract (Section 8). This can be
dangerous where there is a lack of control at
interfaces (leading to the potential for components to
be missing) or worse – global instability. Structural
engineers involved in such arrangements, either as
consultants or specialist subcontractors, must
highlight these potential areas of conflict under their
global duty of care.
The structural engineer should refer to the relevant
building standards, codes of practice and other
statutory or advisory documents in order to achieve
this. The international community has different ways
of assuring good practice. An example is compliance
with the Scottish Technical Standards2.8, which can
be signed off by a registered structural engineer who
confirms they have assessed all aspects of the
structure and that they comply with the standards.
This can provide a degree of assurance since (even
with a variety of designers) there is one overriding
review and check. While these technical documents
are produced to protect the interests of society, it is
the responsibility of the structural engineer to
understand the guidelines included therein and to
exercise engineering judgement to meet structural
performance requirements.
2.5 Managing risk
Providing end users and clients with confidence in
both the safety and the fitness for purpose of a
structure is a fundamental part of a structural
engineer’s role. Over the course of a project, the
structural engineer will need to consider the different
hazards or challenges which, if neglected, could lead
to harm to persons, damage to the environment,
additional cost or programme delays. This section
provides only a brief description of what risk means in
the context of structural engineering. The Institution’s
report, Risk in structural engineering2.9 is
recommended for further guidance on the types of
risks involved through all stages of a construction
project and how to approach their management.
The structural engineer should both understand and
be aware of the legal framework associated with

their profession, as this exists for the purpose of risk
mitigation (Box 2.2). It should be noted that
although the boxes in this section refer to aspects
of UK law, the general principles discussed apply
internationally.
Box 2.2 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
and duty of care
The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 19742.10 provides the
primary legal framework for occupational health and safety in
Britain, outlining the duties held by both employers and
employees to colleagues, other parties involved on the site,
and members of the public. Structural engineers should also
be aware of the ‘duty of care’ principle, which is recognised
by law. Where an individual has caused harm resulting in
injury or loss of property which was reasonably foreseeable,
they have failed to act with a duty of care. Failing to note the
presence of existing services when carrying out ground
works, for example, would be liable to claims for negligence.
Organisations also have a duty of care as a collective body
and can be found guilty of corporate manslaughter, under the
Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act
20072.11, where gross failures in health and safety
management have led to a person’s death.
Risks to health and safety are of particular note in the
construction industry given the numerous hazards
present on site and the potential consequences of
the structure failing.
Designers must keep health and safety in mind
throughout the structure’s life; from construction
through the in-service period to final decommissioning.
Each stage exposes various people to different risks,
and the potential hazards that may be encountered
should be investigated and mitigated where possible.
Any residual risks should be identified, recorded and
communicated so those dealing with the structure at
that time can take due notice.
Figure 2.1 Mitigating risk of instability during transportation of a bridge section
The structural engineer’s responsibilities 2.5
It should be noted that risk can extend beyond the
confines of the construction site, such as with the
transportation of the bridge unit in Figure 2.1, where
wind and road camber issues required the addition of
heavy kentledge blocks to the trailer to reduce the
propensity for overturning.
The structural engineer must ensure clarity in their
scope of service and with whom they have to
coordinate to ensure that stability is maintained both
during construction and in service. The structural
engineer should agree these terms contractually with
the other parties. Some residual risks may be related
to the completed structure and are therefore
controlled by monitoring or operations management,
while others concerning hazards as well as instability
during erection require careful management and
control of site activity. In any project, reference should
be made to relevant legislation and guidance on the
roles and responsibilities of all duty holders (Box 2.3).
Box 2.3 Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 2015
In the UK, the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 20152.12 (CDM), define the roles and
responsibilities of all relevant duty holders involved in a
project to help reduce risk of harm during construction, use,
maintenance and demolition. The legal duty holders include
the client, designer, contractor and workers. The structural
engineer should refer to the Guidance on Regulations2.13,
which explains what they should do in order to comply with
the law.
While it is important to ensure that risks relating to
safety and instability are minimised and controlled,
the structural engineer must consider a wider range
of criteria relating to structural adequacy. This
includes aspects such as ease of maintenance,
durability of materials, routes for services and
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 5
2.6 The structural engineer’s responsibilities

compatibility with non-structural finishes. 2.13 Health and Safety Executive. Managing health and
safety in construction: Construction (Design and
The structural engineer, by collaborating as part of Management) Regulations 2015. Guidance on
the design team, should explore how to best meet Regulations. Available at: www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/
the client’s expectations. Understanding the books/l153.pdf
commission is a two way process since uninformed
clients often misunderstand what is required and
what is being offered. Clarity at the outset will not
only guard against problems later, but also help to 2.7 Bibliography
identify the opportunities for adding value to a
project.
Institution of Structural Engineers. ‘Managing Health & Safety
Risks. No. 14: Competence’. The Structural Engineer, 91(3),
March 2013, p20
2.6 References

2.1 Institution of Structural Engineers. Continuing

Professional Development. Available at: http://www.
istructe.org/careers-and-development [Accessed:
23 January 2015]

2.2 Institution of Structural Engineers. Code of conduct and

guidance notes. Available at: http://www.istructe.org/
about-us/governance/code-of-conduct [Accessed:
23 January 2015]

2.3 Engineers Australia. National Engineers Registration

Board: Registration as an RPEQ. Available at: http://
www.engineersaustralia.org.au/nerb/registration-rpeq
[Accessed: 23 January 2015]

2.4 The Royal Academy of Engineering. Engineering ethics

in practice: a guide for engineers. Available at: http://
www.raeng.org.uk/publications/other/engineering-
ethics-in-practice-full [Accessed: 23 January 2015]

2.5 The Standing Committee on Structural Safety.

Structural safety 2000–01: thirteenth report of SCOSS.
Available at: http://www.structural-safety.org/media/
111149/141_13th_scoss_report_2001.pdf [Accessed:
23 January 2015]

2.6 Brady, S. ‘Citicorp Center Tower: failure averted’. The

Structural Engineer, 92(2), February 2014, pp14–15

2.7 Institution of Structural Engineers. Structural design –

the engineer’s role. London: IStructE, 2011

2.8 The Scottish Government. Local Authority Building

Standards. Available at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/
Topics/Built-Environment/Building/Building-standards/
verification [Accessed: 23 January 2015]

2.9 Institution of Structural Engineers. Risk in structural

engineering. London: IStructE, 2013

2.10 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974. Chapter 37.
Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/
1974/37/contents [Accessed: 23 January 2015]

2.11 Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act

2007. Chapter 19. Available at: http://www.legislation.
gov.uk/ukpga/2007/19/contents [Accessed:
23 January 2015]

2.12 The Construction (Design and Management)

Regulations 2015 (SI 2015/51). Available at: http://
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/51/contents/made
[Accessed: 14 April 2015]

6 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

3 Engaging in design
3.1 Concept design
Where appointed at the feasibility stage of a project,
the structural engineer should start to consider the
issues that will have an impact on the conceptual
design of the structure. Some of the initial questions
to ask include:
– What is to be built and what is its function?
– Where is this structure to be built?
– Are there any existing services or obstructions
either below ground or surrounding the structure?
– Are there any social or political issues that might
bear upon the design and how it will be
constructed?
– What are the climatic conditions? Is the region
subjected to particularly high winds or variations in
temperature. Are there opportunities the client may
want to exploit, e.g. harvesting of rainwater or the
capture of solar energy?
– What are the geological issues of the region and
the geotechnical issues relating to the site?
– Are there any local environmental issues that might
bear upon the choice of materials or types of
detail? Might the structure adversely impact on the
surrounding environment?
The location will have a large impact on what can be
done in terms of both the standards for technical
approval and the local resources available. Some
designs can be readily achieved within these
constraints, but for others this will not be the case
and the client should be advised accordingly.
Consequently the budget, programme and
associated outline documents may need to be
reassessed.
There may be particular aspects influencing the
choice of structure. Such considerations include:
– Will any proposed footprint, vertical profile, column
grids and service/access cores provide adequate
stability?
– The envelope required. For example heavily glazed
office buildings will need closer control over
deflections.
– The complexity of the route for services and their
weight. Will the penetrations need to be known at
an early stage, will they change during the life of the
building or should they be established later on in
the design? Highly serviced buildings such as
hospitals or laboratories have extensive routes and
often need changes to suit updated equipment.
– Requirements of equipment and plant. Will any
functional equipment be installed that will require
either a very strong or stiff structure? Laser surgery
departments need to be very stiff or isolated from
the main structure to prevent movements affecting
the precision equipment. Similarly, projection rooms
in cinemas should not be influenced by audience
movement.
– Will the structure play an expressed role within the
architecture? Does it help to define the scale of the
project or articulate its facade? Is the size,
uniformity or surface finish expected of the
structural elements going to be critically visible?
– Interior space requirements may influence the
choice of structural arrangement. Are the spans to
be large, the storey heights high and will the
geometry be irregular and/or non-Cartesian?
The structural engineer should also consider the
client’s resources, i.e. monetary and time allowance.
Very short programmes, the way in which the project
is designed and procured, and the technical solution
itself will have an impact on the choice of structural
form and materials. While it is important to be aware
of the commercial risks, this should not impact
adversely on the thought process to the extent of
creating a risk averse culture.
It should be noted that this list of considerations is
just a selection. A more extensive list of potential
constraints, many of which are influenced by the site,
are given in Table 1 of Structural design – the
engineer’s role3.1. All these factors should be gleaned
by the structural engineer in early meetings and
discussions.
While the contextual influences are being considered,
the structural engineer can begin to review the
technical factors in collaboration with principal
members of the design team, which at first
qualitatively, and later quantitatively, will bear upon the
formulation of a concept. At this stage the structural
engineer is thinking primarily in qualitative terms,
producing diagrams of likely arrangements of
members while bearing in mind the materials and
sizes.
3.2 Scheme design
3.2.1 Overview
The structural engineer needs to determine, with the
rest of the design team, the output and associated
design documentation that will be necessary for the
project and the means by which that will be achieved.
The structural engineer will have to find a way to
describe and explain their proposed structure to the
whole team so that it may be evaluated and
developed together with non-structural components
of the concept. Sketches are particularly useful during
the early stages of design, to help express and
explore ideas and aid discussions.
Client requirements and expectations must also be
taken into account. For example some clients may not
care what their building looks like as long as it functions
to protect their manufacturing process or stored
materials, while others may want to use their building
as a statement. The client’s expectations should
therefore be managed throughout the process with the
level of design pitched accordingly. It is often the case
for the design brief to evolve as design proceeds and
the client and design team collectively become better
informed of the opportunities and objectives.
Table 3.1 highlights some key factors influencing
design. As a member of the design team, the role of
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 7
3.2 Engaging in design

Table 3.1 Factors influencing design

Factor influencing design Description Relevant section
in this Report
Scheme location and site This involves consideration not only of the physical location but also cultural 3
constraints context. Aspects which may differ between sites include climate, ecological
sensitivities, geology (seismicity) and cultural tradition. Assessment of
physical site constraints such as site accessibility, the surrounding use of
space and existing underground services is essential to inform both design
and construction on site.
Performance requirements These relate to what the end product is to achieve. Ultimate criteria, 4, 5
serviceability criteria and objectives set out in the brief are key components.
Consequences of failure Infringement of the various performance criteria will vary in severity between 2.5, 6.6
the extremes of catastrophic collapse and some slight loss of durability. An
understanding of risk and robustness are key to determining appropriate
measures against structural failure.
Design models Design and detailing rules and equations are derived from experience, 6
theories or research, aimed at modelling the actual behaviour of a structure,
structural element or material under various actions. Designers should satisfy
themselves that a robust approach is always adopted.
Materials specifications, These involve the specification of the procedures to ensure that the material 8
workmanship and construction properties and tolerances assumed in analysis are achieved and that the
structure can be safely constructed. This will involve the assessment of the
quality of the available skills and construction plant in the context of the
strengths/limitations of the local industry and its location. There may be
particular site constraints – access, geology, etc.
Required levels of maintenance This involves the setting of standards relating to the maintenance and 5.8.1
and operation operation requirements for the structure. Although these may relate to the
initial use of the structure, designers should be mindful of the potential
change of use.
Ethical issues The structure should recognise responsibilities to society and environment, 2.2
and be considerate of its impact on neighbouring buildings and
infrastructure.
Sustainability issues The extent to which the structure is sustainable in relation to the broader 4.6
context of the project should be reviewed by the design team. The resources
needed to build, operate, maintain and recycle or demolish the structure
should be considered.
Procurement The impact that the method of procurement may have on design and 8.2
construction should be considered.
Operation The nature of the operation of the structure should be embedded into the 3
design considerations and should anticipate future uses and situations.
Fixtures and fitments will need connection to the structure and suitable
tolerances will be needed at these interfaces.
Demolition and recycling The de-constructability of the structure and potential for recycling should be 4.6
considered at the initial conceptual design stage.

the structural engineer is to select and implement the
option in design and construction which they
consider will best meet these requirements. Some of
the individual items in this table are considered in
more detail in other chapters of this Report.
3.2.2 Non-structural evaluations
building best reflects its purpose. As an expert in
the use of space they are generally best placed to
review how the functions to be housed within the
building can be accommodated within the
proposed geometry. Considerations may include
whether the spans and storey heights are
appropriate.

For a building project it is most likely that the nature
of the concept will have been chosen in close
collaboration with the architect and perhaps other
members of the design team. However, all members
of the design team will need to review the aspects
with which they are especially concerned and how
these are to be feasibly developed with the design.
This will typically involve identifying the extent to
which the proposal is either standard (and so will
work by inspection) or non-standard – where a more
novel solution will be required.
The architect is concerned with how the form of the
In addition to the geometrical issues, the architect will
want to establish how the physical elements of their
design will be influenced by the structure. These
include the envelope, the partitions, the ceilings and
the finishes. It is prudent to discuss at this stage
serviceability and follow-on trades.
The services engineer will want to understand how
the building structure relates to their work; not just in
terms of the spatial requirements but also the ease of
penetrability both now and in the future. Figure 3.1 is
an example of the use of cellular beams to
accommodate the passage of services, while

8 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence


Figure 3.1 Use of cellular beams
maximising the height from floor to ceiling finishes.
There might be special requirements for any
mechanical transportation in the building. This
includes lifts and escalators, for which displacements
between storeys, i.e. interstorey drift, should be
checked to be within allowable limits. For buildings
such as airport terminals the baggage handling
machinery has a significant impact on the structural
characteristics. The structure can also play a role in
the overall thermodynamics of the environmental
design, and the client may request this to be looked
at specifically or as part of a wider sustainability or
cost saving strategy. The structural engineer should
consider, together with the whole design team, what
the thermal mass of the structure should be. During
discussions, aspects which affect thermal
characteristics of the building should be resolved,
e.g. whether members or surfaces should be
exposed as an aesthetic feature.
The cost consultant or quantity surveyor will also
need to begin to develop their cost model for the
project. For this, the design team can be expected to
provide early estimates of material quantities. Great
care needs to be taken here; by definition the ideas
are not fully formed and so the exact material
quantities cannot be known yet. It may be beneficial
at this stage to consult specialist contractors for
additional input. If the estimates are too large then the
particular design might never proceed; if they are too
small then this will emerge later when it is perhaps
too late to remedy the situation. Explanation of the
basis and accuracy of the estimate should therefore
be provided to accompany any quantitative data.
Some clients also engage a construction consultant,
or project manager at an early stage. Their brief can
Engaging in design 3.2
vary. Some just advise on programme; others do that
and also advise on procurement method, cost
control, managing the design team and sometimes
give specific advice from specialist knowledge. Client
requirements and perceptions must be taken into
account too.
3.2.3 Structural evaluations
As the structural engineer discusses the structural
concept with others in the team, thought will need to
be given towards how the scheme will be developed
and detailed in a way that satisfies all of the structural
performance criteria.
Some projects are simple and can be analysed and
designed from simple statics and common codes.
Others require a great degree of computer (and
sometimes physical) modelling to determine the
stresses and serviceability actions on the structure,
but a simple to understand structural concept is still
essential to test the validity of the computer model.
The modern focus on rigorous analysis is fairly recent;
while calculations have been adopted historically, the
extent to which algebraic relations are used has
evolved significantly. Prior to the focus on in-depth
analysis, buildings were designed using rules set out
by the trade guilds based on what had worked
before. Actions can now be more accurately
determined, and for those that are more complex or
less predictable, such as for earthquakes, blast and
fire, a combination of calculations and empirical rules
can be used.
When the scheme is defined it may be beneficial to
analyse the structure with a sophisticated
computational design package, which allows for a
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 9
3.3 Engaging in design

greater breadth and depth of detail to be 3.1 Institution of Structural Engineers. Structural design –
incorporated into the analysis (e.g. progressing from the engineer’s role. London: IStructE, 2011
linear static to non-linear dynamic modelling of
structural behaviour). However, there is a difference
between studying a structure to confirm that it will
work and studying it so that an understanding 3.5 Bibiliography
emerges of how it might be improved. At this stage
of the project the structural engineer is thinking about
both. The structural engineer will need to consider Tunstall, G. Managing the building design process. 2nd ed.
how the structure may be developed to suit the Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006
client’s needs and understand how its adequacy can
be demonstrated in principle.

3.2.4 Output

The iterative process of evaluating and developing the

concept will lead to the definition of a scheme design
which satisfies all the requirements of the project, and
with which the structural engineer is confident can be
developed in detail so as to comply with all structural
performance criteria. It is important that the client is
satisfied with the proposed scheme, as fundamental
changes to design later in the design process (and
worse still during tender and construction) have the
potential to be costly. It should be noted that
modifications need not only apply to correcting
errors; some may result in improvements as
suggested later – for example where a contractor
may advise on connections which are less complex,
quicker and cheaper to construct.

The way in which the scheme is communicated is

key. The scheme should be represented visually in
drawing and/or diagrammatic form and explained to
all concerned. Further guidance on design
documentation and effective means of
communicating design is given in Chapter 7.

3.3 Detailed design

With the scheme design agreed, the structural

engineer can then proceed to refine the structural
layout, member sizing, connections and material
selection. This will need to be completed in
collaboration with the client and other members of
the design team. The structural engineer may apply
optimisations, for example to member sizing and the
local arrangement of elements, but these will need to
be carried out with consideration for the non-
structural aspects of design and subsequently
checked by the rest of the design team. Detailed
calculations and design development are carried out
at this stage, leading to the production of drawings
and specifications for the construction stage.

As the design evolves, the structural engineer should

consider the specification of materials and
workmanship. This takes the form of an ‘outline
specification’ and can provide descriptions on a
broad array of structural components including the
substructure, superstructure, roof, cladding and
finishes. The specification should be developed
alongside the design to ratify and record assumptions
relied upon by the solution.

3.4 References

10 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

4 Structural design philosophies
4.1 Overview of structural performance
It has become customary to consider specific
aspects of performance in relation to governing
criteria. These criteria arose from the original
method of design whereby one used rules of thumb
based on past experience. Initially non-rigorous, this
approach built a conservative margin of safety into
design which, to an extent, mitigated the
unknowns.
The computational tools available to structural
engineers in modern practice allow them to
increasingly interrogate structural components
individually and in their final three-dimensional form.
This allows for a much clearer understanding of the
structure’s performance in construction, service
and during decommissioning. Essentially, modern
methods of analysis enable design to the
statistically acceptable limit of material properties.
While this would seem to be sustainable in design
parlance, it removes the added safety factors
inherent when redundancy is allowed for. A
strategy should be in place to ensure that the
structure is designed so that in the event of
adverse actions, it will not suffer collapse to an
extent disproportionate to the cause. Adequate
load paths from point of action to point of reaction
are critical and must be demonstrated by the
structural engineer. Where there may be critical
elements, the design must show that they can be
removed in service without significant damage to
the structure. The minimum aim of a robust design
is to ensure a degree of stability for a period of time
to enable safe egress. Consequently, it is important
for the structural engineer to assess situations of
accidental and malicious damage.
The required outputs of structural performance and
how these are met will depend largely on the context
of the site, actions and materials, and the size,
occupancy or use of the structure. Additional
serviceability performance criteria relating to the
comfort, functionality and appearance will also need
to be considered. These can include the compatibility
of deflections with surface finishes, non-structural
damage and floor vibrations, and impose additional
constraints to those concerned with stability and
strength.
There are many aspects of the structural engineer’s
output which will be defined by codes for strength
and serviceability, however not all aspects will be so
defined. For instance, when long spanning,
lightweight steel decks are used for office floors, the
primary concern may shift from deflection limits to
vibration characteristics and dynamic response.
The impact the structure has on both adjacent
structures and the surrounding environment may also
need to be investigated, and this extends beyond
considerations of access and existing underground
infrastructure. A building’s envelope may impact very
significantly on the wind pressures in its vicinity and
this is highlighted by the high wind speeds which
developed at Bridgewater Place, Leeds, causing a
lorry to overturn and kill a pedestrian4.1. Modifications
to structures can also affect neighbouring buildings
e.g. the raising of a roof in a terrace could add
potential drift snow load to an adjacent roof. Section
4.5.3 discusses loading on both a structure and its
environment.
It is therefore important that the structural engineer
identifies where further analysis is required, to assess
both structural behaviour and impacts on the
surrounding site. Methods of analysis allow close
interrogation of the individual components in a
structure and their interaction.
The premise is that performance can be predicted
analytically and evaluated against multiple objectives,
such that a more optimal solution can be reached
based on lifecycle considerations rather than
construction costs alone.
4.2 Value
Value is defined in EN 1325 as ‘‘a measure of how
well an organisation, project or product satisfies
stakeholders’ objectives in relation to the resources
consumed’’4.2.
As this definition suggests, the perception of value is
subjective since each client (or stakeholder) may have
differing preconceptions and aims. To generate value
for the client, the design team will need to understand
and meet the client’s expectations in relation to their
brief – exploring the options and associated costs for
achieving the objectives. The structural engineer may
find costs can be cut by using minimum materials to
resist actions. This may seem to be both a cost
effective and sustainable option, but may not always
be the case when considering the overall design. The
structure itself may lose redundancy which was
intended to accommodate future use, or there may
be benefits in retaining portions of structure for other
benefits, e.g. additional concrete can increase
thermal mass as part of a strategy to reduce energy
consumption in service. It is therefore important to
adopt a holistic approach to design in consultation
with the client, such that its development
incorporates the different overlapping specialist areas
cohesively.
At the outset the client will have views on the
commercial criteria for the project such as the
considerations of capital, operation and
maintenance costs, and to what timescale the
project must be completed. The design will respond
to these, but will also be affected by factors such as
the method of procurement, off-site manufacture
with simple site assembly versus traditional work on
site, and allocation/apportionment of risk. Examples
of the residual project risks include underground
services, asbestos in old buildings or archaeological
findings where specialists may be called upon to
advise.
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 11
4.3 Structural design philosophies
When taking the client’s perspective on the overall
costs to their business, the opportunity for adding
value during design and construction should not be
underestimated. Designers should have open minds
to suggestions from contractors since their methods
of working may bring benefit to the project. Additional
strengthening of a structure can often be achieved at
little extra cost, presenting the option to not only
increase a structure’s resilience but to also increase
capacity for future flexibility of use.
While costs should necessarily be considered, they
should not inhibit the scope for generating value i.e.
delivering quality and innovation. The Kano model4.3,
established in 1980, presents three tiers of customer
satisfaction: ‘basic’, ‘performance’ and ‘delighter’.
These respectively refer to attributes that are
essential, improved and those going beyond
expectations. On construction projects this can apply
to the design and execution of subsequent works.
Rather than simply providing components to
specification, innovation should be pursued where the
opportunity exists, particularly when that adds value
for the client. Designing in resilience, to allow for
future changes in use, is an aspect that the structural
engineer should discuss with their client. The aspects
of a project in which a structural engineer has the
potential to generate value, reach beyond the
considerations of simply material efficiency and
structural performance. This is demonstrated in the
publication, Creativity and innovation: the structural
engineer’s contribution to design4.4 through the use
of various case studies.
4.3 Design life
Before the structural engineer can start defining the
actions on the structure, the design life requested by
the client should be defined. National design codes
may give recommendations. Table 2.1 in BS EN
1990:20024.5, for example, provides the design life
typically allocated to different types of building. A
design life of 50 years is most commonly adopted for
buildings, yet for many other structures such as
bridges, temporary structures and civic structures,
this will not be the case.
The timescale being considered for service will impact
on a number of the actions which will be applied to
the structure. The effects of deterioration on structural
and building components in the long term (and the
short term e.g. fire damage) will need to be assessed
with the design life of the structure. With offshore
structures for example, corrosion can be a major
issue, thus requiring sealed connections to prevent
water ingress. This is usually achieved by using fully
welded joints.
When designing for probabilistic hazards such as
earthquakes, winds or tall wave events on marine
structures, the magnitude of the event will be
chosen based on the associated recurrence interval
and therefore depend to some degree on the
design life of the structure. Temporary event
structures can have varying design requirements
depending on the location and timescale of their
service period as wind velocities are seasonal.
Further guidance can be found in Temporary
demountable structures: guidance on procurement,
design and use4.6.
12 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
4.4 Limit states
Until relatively recently, structural engineers had
widely utilised the concept of permissible stress when
designing structural elements. A material’s
permissible stress is defined as its yield strength
divided by an appropriate factor of safety. This
ensures that the working stresses fall within the
elastic stress range of the material where linear
proportionality is maintained between stress and
strain.
Contemporary codes of practice worldwide have
adopted the concept of designing structural
elements to limit states and hence it is now
employed as the standard method of structural
design. The Eurocodes define limit states as the
‘‘states beyond which the structure no longer fulfils
design criteria’’4.5. This approach applies margins of
safety to design by applying ‘partial factors’ to values
for material strength and applied actions. Partial
factors vary between materials and actions
depending on the degree of uncertainty inherent. By
accounting for these statistical variations, a
consistent probability of failure results across the
constituent elements of a structure that is deemed to
be at an acceptable minimum.
There are two categories of limit states which need
to be satisfied. Of utmost importance is the safety of
people and/or the structure. This is covered by the
use of ultimate limit states (ULS). Although the
structural engineer must fulfill ULS requirements, this
is expected at the very minimum. There also exists
the need to fulfill serviceability requirements which
relate to the functioning of the structure or its
elements in use, as well as comfort and appearance
to the public. Serviceability limit states (SLS) as they
are known, typically consist of limits to deflections,
crack widths, and the frequency and magnitude of
vibrations.
Both serviceability and ultimate requirements should
be considered for the duration of the design life
where dilapidation, durability and maintenance are
concerned, e.g. building settlement, chemical
corrosion, cladding staining and movement, and
cracks allowing moisture ingress. The structural
engineer should adopt a case by case approach to
the serviceability needs of each client; a warehouse
containing tall plant will demand more level surface
finishes, while one susceptible to high levels of footfall
will require sufficiently stiff and/or damped floors to
avoid excessive vibration. Further discussion on
serviceability issues is given in Section 5.8.
There may be cases where ‘beyond limit-state’
approaches are preferred, where unique or extreme
performance requirements are to be met more
effectively than can be achieved within the scope of
codes of practice which apply to generic categories
of structures. Performance based design has seen
increasing attention recently, as more bespoke,
complex or onerous design is undertaken. It may, for
example, be appropriate to apply this principle in tall
building, offshore or seismic design, where analytical
methods are typically required to investigate and
interrogate structural design. With a performance
based approach, structural design is driven more
specifically by the demands of the individual project,
whether underpinned by the client or the structure’s
unique performance requirements.

4.5 Actions
4.5.1 General
Structures can be subjected to various types of
actions, some of which are of common and frequent
in nature while others are more extreme, infrequent or
accidental. The former type includes the self-weight
of the members and finishes as well as conventional
variable actions such as those due to occupants,
furniture, snow etc. The latter and more severe type
of actions can be caused by storm events, accidental
damage, major fires, explosions, strong seismic
events or a combination of such effects.
The combinations of actions on all members should
be assessed to determine the most adverse cases.
The net effects of loading on the incomplete structure
should also be carefully considered to ensure the
changing load paths, which result from the different
actions and structural arrangements at each stage of
erection, are adequate. For example, the incomplete
structure may leave members exposed to more
onerous conditions of wind loading, or the method of
construction may require large point loads to be
imposed at the crane lifting points for large structures
being lifted in place. This principle also applies to
adaptable structures such as retractable stadium
roofs, temporary demountable structures and
movable bridges.
Clearly, structural engineers have to design and build
structures with appropriate consideration of the
different conditions that may be experienced by the
structure throughout its life cycle. However, the
design philosophy can vary significantly depending on
the applied forces under consideration. While a
structure is expected to resist the conventional
variable actions without breaching serviceability
criteria, the aim of design for more extreme or
unforeseeable events is to prevent disproportionate
collapse and loss of life, even at the expense of a
substantial repair or replacement. Reference should
be made to design codes such as BS EN 1991-14.7
for guidance on the actions discussed in the
remainder of this section.
4.5.2 Permanent actions
Permanent actions are those considered to be largely
fixed. This includes the self-weight of all structural
and permanent non-structural materials making up
the structure, such as services, their conduits, non-
structural finishes and cladding. Certain rooms or
areas of a building may also be known to contain
plant. It should be noted that a degree of variance
may be observed between the calculated and actual
values and for some buildings these variations may
be significant. Deviations from assumed dimensions
and densities, changes in moisture content, design
alterations, additions and demolition are all known to
have an effect. Note also that these variations are not
necessarily covered by partial factors, which only
cater for statistical variations.
At the outset, the permanent actions will not be
known; this will need to be established on an iterative
basis, where an initial size will need to be suggested.
The self-weight may be computed by assuming a
weight per unit length or volume. Guidance for sizing
and weight of standard construction elements such as
universal steel sections or depths for concrete floor
Structural design philosophies 4.5
slabs can be sought from product suppliers or
technical documentation produced by trade bodies.
Densities and characteristic values for self-weight may
also be sought from the codes of practice. In the UK,
the National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-14.8 would apply.
4.5.3 Variable actions
General
Variable actions are the transient forces imposed on a
structure. Typically, these can be the result of use
(e.g. people, fixtures and fittings) and environmental
impacts or forces (e.g. snow, wind or possibly more
extreme events). They are likely to have particular
design requirements. The values of all these actions
can be obtained from a variety of sources; most
notably national codes of practice and standards.
However, more unusual or challenging designs (e.g.
super tall buildings) may require model testing to
generate the design values needed.
This section covers typical environmental actions that
commonly apply, but there may be many more actions
which should be considered due to the site-specific
conditions. Coastal structures for example, are
susceptible not only to wind forces but also wave
impact, hydrostatic pressure and undermining, which
can have severe impacts (Figure 4.1).
Roof deposits
In regions where snowfall is expected, the structural
engineer should allow for a ‘worst case’ loading
scenario. It may at first seem adequate to assume
snow acts as a uniformly distributed action.
However, depending on aspects including: the
roof’s geometry, thermal properties, surface
roughness, interior heating and location, a degree of
sliding, drift or accumulation of snow, ice or
meltwater often cause an uneven distribution of
forces to develop.
There are also environments where sediment (e.g.
sand) is deposited in unusually large quantities and
this action should be considered where appropriate
for the local conditions.
Wind
Wind is generally treated as a quasi-static action.
However pressure variations can result in a cyclic
pattern of forces being exerted, which if in tune with the
frequency of the structure, will cause resonant
Figure 4.1 Foundations of coastal shelter undermined by waves during storm
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 13
4.5 Structural design philosophies
vibrations. Structures that are tall, slender or lightweight,
such as chimneys, masts and stadia are generally more
sensitive to dynamic effects from wind action. BS EN
1991-1-44.9 provides guidance for the determination
of wind actions on structures and includes, in its
Section 6, guidance on dynamic response.
The variation of wind pressures is dependent on a
range of factors; from the geophysical shape of the
site to features of the built environment. For example,
a windward opening on a building will cause a
positive internal pressure to develop with the
converse being true for a leeward opening. Wind can
also cause uplift conditions, and it is recommended
that the combined effect this has with the roof’s
gravity action, is analysed. There may be a tendency
to adopt a low value for the roof’s self-weight, but this
may result in a non-conservative case of loading
when considered in conjunction with uplift forces.
Envelope components will be subjected to local
conditions at their edges and changes in the direction
of applied forces. Surrounding objects and structures
may also influence the wind pressures exerted on a
building. The structural engineer should note how
wind velocities (and corresponding pressures) are
affected by neighbouring structures or by the
structure to be built. Confinement of wind between
buildings causes increased wind velocities,
sometimes referred to as the ‘wind tunnel effect’, and
this has been known to present a hazard not only to
neighbouring structures but also to nearby
pedestrians and moving vehicles4.1. For unusual
structural forms or configurations, it may be
necessary to use computational analysis or wind-
tunnel analysis to model wind flows and resulting
pressures.
4.5.4 Accidental or extreme actions
General
Structures should be designed to limit the extent of
damage that may be caused by accidental or less
probable events such as vehicle or boat impact,
seismic events, high wind events and explosive
damage. As with any variable action, those that are
accidental or extreme will vary depending on the
structure and its location.
In Japan, a reasonable level of preparedness for
earthquakes and tsunamis is expected. The
increased resistance incorporated into buildings and
infrastructure has followed in response to the severe
consequences of previous earthquakes and in line
with various other strategies such as early warning
systems and sea defences. Advances continue to be
made with lessons learnt recently from earthquakes in
1995, 2004, 2007 and most notably in 2011 when a
magnitude 9.0 earthquake and its resulting Tsunami
propogated from the Japan Trench to the coast of
Tōhoku4.10. Similarly in the Phillipines, high intensity
wind and rain from typhoons can have a devastating
impact, particularly where the resultant effects such
as flooding and storm surge are significant.
It may not always be practical to build a structure to
resist extreme events against significant damage.
Instead, the extent of damage should be measured
against the magnitude of the action and the
consequences of failure. Acceptable limits of damage
are sometimes defined in building regulations and
national standards for the safety of people. There may
be other considerations that could impose further
14 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
limits, but it should be recognised that some damage
arising from accidental actions cannot be avoided.
Mitigation measures available for limiting damage
arising from these actions include:
– enhancement of continuity
– strengthening of structure
– provision of multiple load paths
– provision of sacrificial elements
– control measures
– removal of reliance on critical elements
These measures aim to increase robustness, so as to
prevent damage disproportionate to the cause.
Section 5.6 discusses these strategies further. The
appropriateness of the choice of strategy to be used
for any particular design may be constrained by
economic or practical considerations, or enhanced by
the structure’s risk profile. The Institution’s Practical
guide to robustness and disproportionate collapse in
buildings4.11 is relevant to structures below the high
risk consequence class. A guide to the
considerations and assessment criteria which apply
to high risk structures such as stadia, hospitals and
high rise buildings (for which the consequences of
failure are particularly severe) is also available from the
Institution4.12.
Blasts
Gauging the magnitude and nature of blasts is a
specialist area and careful analysis is recommended.
Sophisticated computer analysis may be necessary
to model the time-dependant characteristics of blast
waves. The source location and type of explosion
should be assessed, as the resulting loads may vary
significantly between scenarios. Considerations may
include whether the blast is internal or external to the
structure, the extent of confinement, and its proximity
to structural members. Guidance can be found in
Blast effects on buildings (2nd edition)4.13.
Seismic actions
For structures in earthquake zones, reference should
be made to a seismic design code, such as BS EN
19984.14. The Institution has also published the
Manual for the seismic design of steel and concrete
buildings to Eurocode 84.15. The main parameter to
estimate the seismic hazard is the Peak Ground
Acceleration (PGA); in a sense it could be argued that
this parameter gives a measure of the ground
motions, as the latter are obtained by integrating the
accelerations. The ground’s shaking may damage a
building because of the inertia forces Fi that arise due
to the mass’s vibration of the building itself
(Figure 4.2). In general the inertia forces are obtained
as follows:
Fi ¼ m
a
The extent of the force that hits a building is,
therefore, a function of the building’s mass and of the
acceleration.
Although the acceleration is one of the most
important parameters to identify the earthquake, it is
not sufficient; other parameters are also important:
the magnitude (energy released by the earthquake),
the earthquake’s duration and, above all, the
frequency. Indeed, earthquakes marked by the same
magnitude and the same PGA may have a different
effect, depending on whether or not they are
characterised by frequencies very close to those of
the buildings.

4.5.5 Sensitivity analysis
A sensitivity analysis can be broadly described as a
process of investigating the uncertainty in a final
model or system by understanding the variations to
its different inputs. To the structural engineer, this
means assessing the structure’s vulnerability to
deviations in design parameters; the aim being to
reduce the probability of failure to an acceptable
level.
The structural engineer should be aware of the
uncertainties inherent in design and reduce these
where possible. Methods of analysis will have inbuilt
limitations of accuracy due to the simplifying
approximations employed for design inputs.
Consideration should be given to factors influencing
design such as the nature and scale of actions, levels
of workmanship and variability of material properties.
Any number of aspects may need closer attention
and the structural engineer will need to identify
combinations which are critical.
Codes of practice specify ‘partial factors’ in line with
limit state design, which when applied to material
strength and actions, provide a margin of safety
based on reliability theory. This margin accounts for a
range of uncertainties, but does not provide
assurance that the structure as a whole will not fail. A
distinction should be made between the term ‘factor
of safety’ and the actual overall ‘degree of safety’ of
the structure. The latter is a function of the risks
involved and can be evaluated by carrying out a risk
analysis.
A series of ‘what if?’ questions should be asked
during design, to measure the structure’s response to
departures from specifications such as poor
tolerances or weak materials. The risks identified in
this process will then need to be minimised. The
appropriateness of inexpensive amendments to initial
design, controls during construction, effective
inspection, maintenance and repair should be
considered.
The designer should be aware that some combinations
of materials, structural form and detailing are more
sensitive to the level of workmanship and method of
construction than others.
4.6 Sustainability
It is accepted that environmental equilibrium
underpins the existence of the ecosystems
supporting all life on earth. In a broad context, design
should therefore be the bridge between the client’s
needs and the sustenance of both the built and
natural environment.
In the context of structural design, there will be a
number of aspects to consider and the structural
engineer should understand the concepts of
sustainability regardless of whether it is specified in
the brief. The Institution’s report, Building for a
sustainable future: An engineer’s guide4.16 provides
guidance for structural engineers on the delivery of
sustainable projects as well as some of the wider
issues associated with construction. It is highly
recommended reading for all practicing structural
engineers.
Structural design philosophies 4.6
Figure 4.2 Damage to homes following 2011 earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand
The extent to which sustainability can be
incorporated into design will depend largely on the
client’s brief. However, the structural engineer, as part
of a wider project delivery team, has a role to inform
the client of the options available. Many of these will
bring benefits of cost savings such as energy savings
in service, reduced material wastage or reduced
transport distance from supplier to site, and thus help
the business case.
So what is sustainable design? Is it simply the efficient
and elegant utilisation of materials? Is it utilising the
existing structural stock where possible and
remodelling for a new use? Is it designing new
structures or components so they can be reused in the
future? It is all of these, and there are many more such
strategies relating to the structure’s lifecycle, which the
structural engineer should consider appropriately
depending on the structure’s use and design life:
– Does the structure need to be designed for 10, 60
or 100 years – or perhaps the structure is a
temporary demountable one such as a stage or
grandstand structure?
– Can the building be designed to be easily modified,
demolished or recycled in the future? Does the
probability of this event warrant the consumption of
additional resources to achieve this design?
– Is there a degree of resilience which can be built in
for the client’s future benefit?
The structural engineer only has to think of the office
floor scenario where the building is to be changed for
domestic use. A degree of floor vibration might be
acceptable in an office, but not in a residence. The
structural engineer should also look closely at the
materials specified for the project:
– Can those materials be sourced in the future?
– Can they be sourced close to the site to reduce
transport costs?
– What levels of embodied carbon does their use
equate to?
The structural engineer must be mindful of such
issues not only in the context of the structural
materials used but also in the context of its whole life
functionality, as well as its environmental and
sociological impact. In particular, design should use
appropriate technology – this may be reinforced
concrete or steel in a tall building within a city centre
but could be rammed-earth construction in a rural
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 15
4.7 Structural design philosophies

Box 4.1 Halley VI, Antarctica

Halley VI, commissioned for use in Antarctica, provides a research base for the British Antarctic Survey4.17. This structure
demonstrates the need to adapt a structure’s design to its particular function and local environment. The modular units were fitted
with hydraulic legs and skis which respectively accommodate varying depths of snow and relocation. With limited resources and
civil infrastructure, the structure was also designed to minimise energy consumption, water usage and its environmental impact.

village. It is all too easy to offer a solution based upon
the designer’s own cultural and economic situation
rather than considering the local situation of the
structure and the community it serves. Box 4.1 gives
an example of a structure designed to suit an
extreme climate.
4.6 Institution of Structural Engineers. Temporary
demountable structures: guidance on procurement,
design and use. 3rd ed. London: IStructE, 2007
4.7 BS EN 1991-1: Actions on structures [7 parts].
London: BSI, 2002

Currently, the evaluation of sustainability and cost 4.8 BS EN 1991-1-1: 2002 – Eurocode 1: Actions on
are carried out separately. As the industry develops structures – Part 1-1: General actions. Densities, self-
its view of energy the two appraisals could possibly weight, imposed loads for buildings. London: BSI,
merge. The measurement of embodied carbon, 2010
recycling, and remoteness of the source from the
site might all become tax issues. There are 4.9 BS EN 1991-1-4: 2005 þ A1: 2010: Eurocode 1:
standard rating schemes for ‘measuring’ Actions on structures – Part 1-4: General actions –
sustainability, such as the BRE Environmental wind actions. London: BSI, 2011
Assessment Method (BREEAM)4.18, the
sustainability assessment, rating and awards 4.10 
EEFIT. The Mw9.0 T ohoku earthquake and tsunami of
scheme for civil engineering (CEEQUAL)4.19 and 11th March 2011. A field report by EEFIT. Available at:
Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design http://www.istructe.org/resources-centre/technical-
(LEED)4.20. The structural engineer should be as topic-areas/eefit/eefit-reports [Accessed: 9 February
familiar with these as with costs and construction 2015]
time.
4.11 Institution of Structural Engineers. Practical guide to
structural robustness and disproportionate collapse in
buildings. London: IStructE, 2010
4.7 References
4.12 Institution of Structural Engineers. Manual for the
systematic risk assessment of high-risk structures
4.1 Wind death in Leeds prompts tower safety fears. against disproportionate collapse. London: IStructE,
Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england- 2013
leeds-12717762 [Accessed: 3 February 2015]
4.13 Cormie, D. et al. Blast effects on buildings. 2nd ed.
4.2 BS EN 1325: 2014: Value management. Vocabulary – London: Thomas Telford, 2009
Terms and definitions. London: BSI, 2014
4.14 BS EN 1998: Eurocode 8: Design of structures for
4.3 Woodley, E.G. The Kano Model: critical to quality earthquake resistance [6 parts]. London: BSI,
characteristics and VOC. Available at: http://www. 2004
processexcellencenetwork.com/six-sigma-quality/
articles/the-kano-model-critical-to-quality- 4.15 Institution of Structural Engineers and AFPS. Manual
characteristics/ [Accessed: 3 February 2015] for the seismic design of steel and concrete buildings
to Eurocode 8/Guide pour la conception parasismique
4.4 Addis, B. Creativity and innovation – the structural des batiments en acier ou en beton selon l’Eurocode
engineer’s contribution to design. Oxford: Architectural 8. London: IStructE/AFPS, 2010
Press, 2001
4.16 Institution of Structural Engineers. Building for a
4.5 BS EN 1990: 2002 þ A1:2005: Eurocode – Basis of sustainable future: An engineer’s guide. London:
structural design. London: BSI, 2010 IStructE, 2014

16 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

 Structural design philosophies 4.8

4.17 Wainwright, O. ‘Halley VI Antarctic Research Station by

Hugh Broughton Architects’, Building Design, 2012.
Available at: http://www.bdonline.co.uk/halley-vi-
antarctic-research-station-by-hugh-broughton-
architects/5034741.article (Accessed: 9 February
2015)

4.18 BRE. BREEAM: The world’s leading design and

assessment method for sustainable buildings. Available
at: http://www.breeam.org/ [Accessed: 9 February
2015]

4.19 CEEQUAL: Improving sustainability. Available at:

http://www.ceequal.com/ [Accessed: 9 February 2015]

4.20 U.S. Green Building Council. LEED. Available at:

http://www.usgbc.org/leed [Accessed: 9 February
2015]

4.8 Bibliography

Eynon, J. The Design Manager’s Handbook. Chichester: Wiley-

Blackwell, 2013

Ghali, A. et al. Structural analysis – A unified classical and

matrix approach. 6th ed. Abingdon: CRC Press, 2009

HM Government and Strategic Forum for Construction. Strategy

for sustainable construction. 2008. Available at: http://www.
strategicforum.org.uk/pdf/1381-Report.pdf [Accessed:
9 February 2015]

Institution of Structural Engineers. ‘Technical Guidance Note 28,

Level 1: Introduction to extreme loading conditions’,
The Structural Engineer, 91(7), July 2013, pp38–39

The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 17

5 Stability, robustness and serviceability
5.1 Scope
This chapter provides an overview of key properties
associated with the global structure, first discussing
the requirements for a structure to remain standing
(i.e. in relation to ultimate criteria) before looking at
issues associated with the integrity of the structure
in-service over time.
An introduction to the principles for achieving
structural stability is given in the early sections of this
chapter. The Institution’s guides, Stability of buildings
Parts 1 and 2: General philosophy and framed
bracing5.1, Part 3: Shear walls5.2 and Part 4: Moment
frames (in production) are recommended as further
reading.
It is important to distinguish between stability of
individual elements and stability of the global
structure. The internal stresses of individual elements
must be in equilibrium with the applied forces for local
stability to hold. The structural engineer must
therefore ensure material strengths are assessed
accordingly (Section 5.2) and that local failure modes
such as material yielding, buckling and fatigue are
accounted for. However, there may be instances of
loading, considered to be outside of the range of
conventional or probable actions, which cause an
element to fail and this prompts the following
questions:
– When should the structural engineer consider less
probable actions?
– To what extent should a structure be able to resist
these actions?
– How is this to be achieved?
This can only be determined in the context of an
overall robustness strategy which should be
approached by considering the structure as a whole
(Section 5.6). However, what should not be neglected
are the serviceability criteria, which govern many
aspects of design. This is discussed in Section 5.8
and includes consideration of durability and
movement.
5.2 Stability
Stability of a structure throughout the many phases of
its existence is at the core of a structural engineer’s
services. Without stability it is not possible to have a
structure. Structural stability can be thought of as an
unchanging state or equilibrium between all its
constituent elements. This is often referred to as a
structure’s ‘global stability’.
A structure is said to be stable if a minor change in
its form, condition, normal loading or equipment
would not cause partial or complete collapse. It is
also important that the structure is not unduly
sensitive to change resulting from accidental or other
actions. This is a feature which must be accounted
for to achieve robustness in design (Section 5.6). It
18 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
should be noted that while structures are typically
static forms, there are those such as Ferris wheel
structures (e.g. the London Eye) which have moving
components and, at least in part, are mechanisms.
As noted in the Institution’s guide on stability5.1 the
basic modes of global instability include overturning,
sliding, racking and twisting. These correspond to a
lack of restraint against the rotational and linear
displacement degrees of freedom. Structural stability
is achieved by provision of a restoring force to
prevent a mechanism or movement persisting.
It follows that for the overall structure (i.e. the sum of
all its components) to be stable, there needs to be at
least one clearly defined load path through which the
effects of the actions are transmitted to the ground.
Load paths may be different during different stages of
the structure’s life as members are added and
removed. The structural engineer should therefore
have a clear understanding of what the load paths
will be throughout the life of a structure (i.e. during
construction, use and maintenance) as well as after
use where critical elements may be affected during
alteration or demolition.
A stable structure must include methods to transfer
forces. This may include structural members,
connections, horizontal ties and vertical ties on a local
scale, and extend to global features such as bracing
and shear walls. Some structural elements are more
critical to global stability than others. Failure of a floor
slab span by punching shear is limited to local
damage, while failure of a primary beam or column
will a cause redistribution of stresses with the
potential for failure to spread. The ground on which a
structure is founded must itself be stable, and should
thus be considered equally fundamental to overall
stability as the integrity of a critical load path.
Formation of slip surfaces due to changing ground
conditions, changes to soil states induced by
fluctuations in groundwater levels (e.g. sinkholes or
hydrostatic ‘flotation’ pressures) or earthquakes
(causing soil liquefaction) are just a few causes of
ground related instability.
5.3 Stability systems and features
5.3.1 General features
All structures must include the provision of resistance
to both vertical and horizontal forces.
Resistance to vertical or gravity forces is accounted
for by suitable structural arrangements including
beams, columns, floor decks/slabs, arches,
tensioned fabrics/cables, piles, ground anchors and
kentledge (or mass). Many of these will have a dual
purpose of transferring horizontal forces.
It is a structure’s ability to resist lateral forces (often
characterised by the corresponding deflections)
which is typically associated with the concept of

Shear wall
Note Axial forces not shown on rigid jointed frame
Figure 5.1 Common lateral load resisting features
stability. Sufficient resistance should be provided in
any horizontal direction to withstand both linear and
rotational modes of deformation. This can be
achieved in a number of ways but the principal routes
are by the use of:
– Shear walls; utilisation of a sufficiently stiff element
in bending and shear
– Braced frames; relying on simple triangulation with
joints notionally pinned
– Rigid jointed or moment frames; relying on stiff
joints that achieve transfer of bending moments
from one member to the next
Reference should be made to Figure 5.1 for
examples of stability features.
All structures (including portions between expansion
joints) should have sufficient sway stiffness such that
deflections are within acceptable limits. A check
should be made for second order forces and
moments which arise from the application of forces to
Portal frame giving sway
stability in spanning plane
Figure 5.2 Frame portalised in one direction and braced in the other
Stability, robustness and serviceability 5.3
Braced frame Rigid jointed frame
the structure in its deflected form, i.e. the ‘PD effect’.
Where the PD effect is significant, iterative non-linear
analysis, the use of modification factors or buckling
checks may be needed to assess and reduce
unacceptable deflections.
There is also a need to consider initial imperfections,
which arise from construction tolerances. This is
modelled by assuming the structure’s axis will
deviate at a small angle from the vertical in the
absence of any actions. BS EN 1993-1-15.3 advises
on the use of an ‘equivalent horizontal force’ in
combination with the actual horizontal actions to
account for this.
Figure 5.2 shows a single storey structure portalised
in one direction and braced in the other. Cladding,
fixed onto the roof and walls, enhances restraint
across structural members and facilitates transfer of
forces by diaphragm action, additional to the primary
bracing.
Diagonal bracing for stability
in longitudinal plane
Gable bracing for stability
of lightweight gable frame
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 19
5.3 Stability, robustness and serviceability

A1 A
Ab
1
B
2 C
3
4
5 6 D
7
8 E
9 F
10
11 12 G F1

Figure 5.3 Example of stability features in a multi-storey building

For multi-storey buildings, diaphragm action is usually
provided by the floors at each level, and this
facilitates load transfer to vertical shear walls or
braced bays. Shear cores are often used to provide
the primary stiffening feature against horizontal
actions. In their simplest and most common form,
shear cores are a closed arrangement of shear walls,
square or rectangular on plan, extending from
foundations to roof (Figure 5.3). This feature adds
significant stiffness, transferring lateral forces much
like a cantilever, and is typically used to house lift
shafts, stairwells and services.
Vertical shear walls and bracing can be combined in
a variety of plan configurations, ensuring the provision
of resistance in two orthogonal axes together with
torsional resistance. Figure 5.4 gives examples of
different arrangements.
As a structure’s slenderness or height increases, its
design becomes increasingly influenced by the need
to control horizontal deflections. Particular attention
needs to be paid to overall structural stability with
emphasis on PD effects, as well as the integrity of
non-structural components such as finishes.
Horizontal actions can cause considerable
deflections which arise from a combination of the
structure’s shear and flexural (or bending) response.
Examples of the corresponding modes of failure
that may result are illustrated in Figure 5.5. Short,

20 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence


Shear walls or Shear walls or
braced bays braced bays
Shear or
braced core
Figure 5.4 Plan arrangements of bracing and shear walls
stocky structures exhibit a predominantly shear
response, while flexure becomes increasingly
significant with slenderness.
Dynamic response should also be considered more
carefully in slender structures, as periodic
accelerations will affect human comfort and worse
still, may lead to structural damage where oscillations
become significantly large. Guidance on the stability
systems associated with tall buildings is given in Tall
building structures: analysis and design5.4.
Response
Flexural
Shear
Figure 5.5 Deflection of multi-storey and tall buildings
Stability, robustness and serviceability 5.3
5.3.2 Examples found in different forms of construction
The stability systems explored in the previous
subsection, although commonly associated with
traditional materials such as steel for braced frames
or concrete for shear walls, also apply to other
materials extensively. There are certain characteristics
which need to be considered for particular materials
and forms of construction. For example, masonry
walls can be utilised to form shear walls. Figure 5.6
illustrates how the arrangement of masonry walls can
provide stability.
Similarly in timber construction, loadbearing wall and
floor panels can be positioned to accommodate
vertical and horizontal load transfer. This particular
configuration is utilised in timber platform frame
construction (Figure 5.7) and is made from a
combination of engineered wood products and
sawn timber. The wall panels act as vertical bracing
components providing what is referred to as
‘racking resistance’. This, together with the
diaphragm action of floors, facilitates the transfer of
lateral forces to the ground (Figure 5.8)5.5. In this
type of construction the design should incorporate
effective fixing between wall and floor panels to
ensure continuity in the load path, particularly under
accidental load cases.
Of course, this is just one type of timber construction.
Stability can be incorporated into timber frames by
using moment resisting connections between posts
and beams, by triangulation of members with pin
joints together with bracing systems, diaphragms by
mass timber construction (CLT or glulam), or by a
combination of these forms. As timber is a natural
material, due regard should be given to connections
to ensure adequate load transfer in light of the
properties of the timber product being used.
Further guidance on timber construction can be
found in various documents produced by relevant
bodies such as the Timber Research and
Failure mode

Tensile failure   Compressive
(cracks yielding)   failure
  (crushing)
 Soft storey
 collapse

The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 21
5.3 Stability, robustness and serviceability

1
1

5
2
1
1
4

Notes
(1) The bonding or tying together of all intersecting walls
(2) The provision of returns where practicable at ends of loadbearing walls
(3) The provision of bracing walls to external walls
(4) The provision of internal bracing walls
(5) Provision of strapping of floors and roof at their bearings to loadbearing walls

Figure 5.6 Stability features in masonry wall layout

Development Association (TRADA)5.6 and the
Structural Timber Association (STA)5.7.
It should be noted that structures may be of hybrid
construction consisting of several types of material.
Examples include reinforced concrete cores used
in conjunction with steel frames, and steel braced
bays incorporated into timber structures. The
fixings between different materials should be
designed with careful consideration towards detail,
and differing levels of stiffness analysed for global
compatibility.

Action derived from Floor diaphragm action

wind

Racking resistance
provided by walls

Figure 5.8 Racking and diaphragm action in timber platform

Figure 5.7 Timber platform frame construction frame construction

22 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

 Stability, robustness and serviceability 5.4

5.4 Stability during construction

It is equally important to ensure stability of the

structure during erection as it is during service.
Collapse during the construction process has
occurred far too often in the past, where vulnerability
in the incomplete structure has been neglected.

In the case of the FC Twente stadium roof collapse,

failure was due to a number of factors arising from
insufficient consideration towards the sequence of
operations5.8. With some bracing not in place the
structure could not carry the temporary loads from
stored materials and it collapsed with fatal
consequences. The sequence of construction must
therefore be considered carefully and provision made
for appropriate methods of working and temporary
works (Section 8.3) to take forces to the ground.
Temporary works may include shoring to provide
temporary support in place of columns or loadbearing
walls, or props to support the weight of wet concrete
forming floor slabs. Box 5.1 gives an example of how
design can ensure stability during construction.

Box 5.1 Celtic Park Stadium roof

The structural design may include additional permanent load
paths in the completed structure in order to increase
robustness and to provide adequate stability during
construction. The roof of Celtic Park Stadium in Glasgow uses
secondary trusses to tie adjacent primary trusses together. In
addition to providing a failsafe in-service, the additional load
paths contributed to ease of construction.

Figure 5.9 Props onto concrete floor to allow removal of loadbearing wall

the structural engineer will need be aware of critical

elements which affect stability.

For any structural alterations, careful consideration

should be given towards the stability of the structure
and to temporary states of weakness arising from the
construction sequence. Temporary works may be
needed such as props for the removal of a
loadbearing wall (Figure 5.9).

Similarly for change of use, an increase in the

magnitude of actions may cause structural failure
where critical elements are overloaded. Any change
to the pattern and magnitude of actions may
introduce unacceptable vibrations or even dynamic
effects that are detrimental and may lead to instability.
To assess the effects of change of use or alterations,
it is highly desirable to have access to the original
structural design documents, as well as to carry out a
thorough site investigation. It may be possible to
obtain the original design documents from the
building owner, the original designer or from local
authority record archives.

Flexibility for future alteration and change of use

5.5 Stability during alteration
Design for alteration, retrofitting or change of use of
an existing structure is often undertaken, for which
should be considered, together with the client’s brief,
at the early stages of the project. There is a strong
case for this from both a sustainability standpoint and
the client’s business case in reducing costs,
embodied energy, wastage and the impact of
construction on the local community and wider
environment.

The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 23

5.6 Stability, robustness and serviceability

5.6 Robustness damage, harm to occupants and from being out of

The ability of a structure to perform sufficiently after
the removal of an element as a result of accidental,
excessive, unknown or catastrophic actions is
known as ‘robustness’. Robustness is defined in
BS EN 1991-1-75.9 as ‘‘the ability of a structure to
withstand events like fire, explosions, impact or
consequences of human error without being
damaged to an extent disproportionate to the
cause’’. Box 5.2 gives examples of disproportionate
collapse.
A robust structure will prevent significant spread of
damage from a local incident such as vehicular
impact or blast impact, which would otherwise lead
to partial or complete collapse, e.g. rapid propagation
of fire or progressive collapse resulting from debris
bearing onto elements not designed for such forces.
The hazards which need to be considered are
dependent on the magnitude of their potential
consequences. In BS EN 1991-1-7 buildings are
categorised into consequence classes. In the UK
these are also defined in Approved Document A of
the Building Regulations (England) 5.11 and the
corresponding documents for Scotland5.12, Wales5.13
and Northern Ireland5.14. These categories depend
on the building type and risk, and range from
agricultural buildings to hospitals, tall buildings,
buildings of large occupancy and facilities for
processing hazardous substances. The latter group
has greater potential consequences for environmental
service, and would therefore need to be assessed
against a wider range of actions, including those of
very low probability. This takes the form of a
systematic risk assessment which is then used to
decide on appropriate measures for mitigating the
risks. Further guidance can be found in the Manual
for the systematic risk assessment of high-risk
structures against disproportionate collapse5.15.
Redundancy is a feature which plays an important
role in robust structural systems. A basic tenet for
stability is to provide at least one path for the actions
to be transmitted to the ground. However, multiple
load paths offer additional resistance against
accidental and less foreseeable actions in service.
While the designer should be aware of the cost
implications, an additional braced bay can be
relatively inexpensive. The designer should also be
aware of any benefit that additional load paths can
bring to the construction process, e.g. the amount of
temporary support needed may be reduced thus
simplifying the construction process (Section 5.4).
There is also a case for strengthening members using
other techniques, e.g. using stockier members.
Although adding to redundancy, this can also be
advantageous for a structure in the sense that it can
be fairly readily adaptable during its life so as to
perform another function, e.g. the design actions may
increase in magnitude. Strengthening is usually
applied to primary structural elements or critical load
paths, and changes in the route for services might

Box 5.2 Ronan Point, London, 1968 and Oklahoma City bombing, 1995
The collapse of the Ronan Point multi-storey tower block in 1968 demonstrates how failure can propagate beyond what would be
considered acceptable5.10. A gas explosion on the 18th floor caused the floor to collapse onto the one immediately below, which
triggered a progressive failure. Partial collapse of this nature is clearly out of scale to the cause and is therefore termed as
‘disproportionate collapse’. Similarly, partial collapse of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building (pictured) was seen in 1995, again
caused by blast damage, but this time as a result of deliberate action. A series of such incidents have acted as a catalyst for the
development of procedures to prevent such occurrences, reinforcing the need to consider robustness more carefully.

24 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

 Stability, robustness and serviceability 5.7

require new penetrations through the structure. As 5.7 Dynamics

such, the inclusion of all the structural elements in the
primary stability structure, while possibly seen as
being efficient, might not (in the long-term) be
prudent.
For multi-storey buildings a key measure to
preventing disproportionate progressive collapse may
depend largely on the ability of floor slabs to deform
significantly, such that they can carry significant
vertical forces through membrane action rather than
conventional bending strength. These membrane (or
catenary) actions are vital for preventing collapse
when adverse loading is introduced; e.g. an
unexpected increase in load (due to the partial
collapse of higher floors), increase in actual span (e.g.
due to the loss of intermediate supporting elements
such as beams or columns) or reduction in the
strength in material properties (e.g. due to elevated
temperature). All of these effects may take place
under different, or a combination of, accidental
loading scenarios. Where loss of a critical element is
concerned, consideration should be given to the
redistribution of forces.
It is important to identify in what circumstances and
in which parts of a structure, high levels of stiffness
may not be appropriate. There are some actions
such as seismic, explosions or fire for which the
design techniques rely on deformation to absorb and
limit the damage. For these it is important to think
about the types of connections that might perform
better for the various imposed conditions. Similarly
there may be a need to incorporate sacrificial
elements as a means for dissipating the pressure
from blasts.
Dynamic response should be considered –
particularly for structures that are slender, tall and/or
subjected to repetitive actions or vibrations. The two
main points to consider are:
– serviceability performance requirements e.g.
comfort to occupants and machine functionality
(where vibrations or perturbations become
significant)
– dynamic excitation (where the safety of the
structure is concerned)
A commonly encountered serviceability issue is seen
in the design of large floor plates in open plan offices,
which can generate unacceptable vibrations. Careful
choices of materials and connections are therefore
necessary. In some buildings there is the addition of
forces from plant and machinery, which can have
severe effects if not properly damped by tuned
bearings. Others have particularly high criteria of
acceptance, such as hospital surgery units, which
may use laser treatment. In such cases, a sufficiently
stiff floor plate with discontinuity joints is needed to
ensure separation from other parts of the building.
For bridges, motion resulting from traffic, footfall or
wind should be assessed more closely. The human
body is particularly sensitive to movement, and slight
changes in frequency can be very disturbing for some
people. There are learning outcomes to be gained
from case studies, whether it is the lesson learnt from
structural failure (Box 5.3) or in understanding an
unforeseen phenomenon and how it was resolved
(Box 5.4).

When considering accidental actions or hazards,

there may be a need to incorporate control
measures. This may include monitoring of the
structure to reduce the spread of damage (e.g.
sprinklers) or external features which protect the
structure (e.g. bollards as a barrier against vehicle
impact).
Table 5.1 outlines some of the key strategies for
incorporating robustness. Reference should also be
made to the Institution report, Practical guide to
structural robustness and disproportionate collapse in
buildings5.16.
Box 5.3 Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse
An example of wind induced effects which had severe
consequences, is the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapse
(1940). A lack of established understanding was inherent in
the design of the lightweight slender deck, which underwent
large oscillations before failing. This design suffered from the
assumption that the bridge would behave as precedent would
suggest5.17. It is therefore necessary in design to interrogate
any assumptions made and to analyse the design as a whole
more carefully, particularly when close to or beyond the limits
of current technical knowledge.

Table 5.1 Strategies for increasing robustness

Method Description
Enhancement of continuity Linking elements using sufficiently strong connections or by introducing elements which tie floors to
and tying walls or that link floors together. This strategy enhances continuity and can be used to provide
catenary action.
Provision of alternative load A practical way of checking whether multiple load paths are present is to assess whether the
paths structure will remain stable following the notional removal of individual elements in turn. Where
single load paths are found, the structural form should be re-examined. If the situation cannot be
avoided, strengthening of the key element(s) will be the next option.
Strengthening of structure The use of stronger structural members to increase their resistance above the accidental action
or key elements being considered. This will not necessarily alter any brittle characteristics of the structure or the
nature of its final failure.
Other components such as floors may be strengthened to limit progressive collapse.
Load shedding This approach includes the introduction of load shedding devices such as venting for explosions or
the introduction of weak joints in walls and floors to dissipate excessive stresses or pressures.
Control measures This strategy consists of the use of environmental and performance monitoring and control systems.
Examples include bollards and sprinklers, or monitoring systems to detect either where maintenance
or repair is needed and/or where misuse by occupants occurs – resulting in adverse loading.

The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 25

5.8 Stability, robustness and serviceability
Box 5.4 Millenium Footbridge, London
Not long after its opening in 2000, the Millennium Footbridge in London exhibited large
oscillations as a result of synchronous lateral excitation. The event had arisen from the
development of footfall adjusting in step with the smaller movements of the bridge. To
resolve the issue, an arrangement of viscous dampers, tuned mass dampers and
steelwork was applied under the deck5.18. Lessons can be learnt from this example
with respect to both the solution in rectifying the problem and informing the design of
future bridges which might otherwise have been susceptible to dynamic excitation from
a similar cause.
Dampers and steel bracing under deck
24 25
Tuned
Viscous damper ‘Chevron’
mass
bracing
dampers
Typical plan showing dampers with deck removed
Wind effects can also trigger dynamic response in
slender structures extending vertically. Factory
chimneys demonstrate an example of where an
effective countermeasure is needed. In the face of a
wind current, vortices are formed on the leeward
side. These vortices shed alternately on each side
and impose corresponding pressures perpendicular
to the wind direction. Ribs (or fins) spiralling down the
length of chimneys are used to disrupt the
establishment of vortices thus preventing cyclic forces
from developing.
Structures located in an offshore environment may
also require dynamic analysis. In-service design
conditions typically account for wave loading,
earthquakes, fatigue and ship impact, although
fatigue and earthquakes may not be critical in many
geographic areas. In deeper water, requiring taller
structures, dynamics may also be a consideration. It
26 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
should also be noted that sea currents act in a similar
way to wind where shedding of vortices on the
downstream side of a caisson may develop.
For structures vulnerable to earthquakes, reference
should be made to relevant seismic design codes
such as Eurocode 85.19 and ASCE 415.20. General
design principles include the need to dissipate energy
introduced to the structure by strong ground shaking
(e.g. through the use of ductile connections, which
act as ‘structural fuses’ or ‘load shedding devices’)
and structural plans that ensure the centre of stiffness
and centre of mass are aligned. It should be noted
that the effects as well as the related consequences
are not limited to the superstructure. Soil liquefaction
was observed during the Niigata earthquake in Japan
(1964), undermining the foundations of many
structures (Figure 5.10).
Figure 5.10 Consequences of liquefaction during Niigata
26 earthquake
Cables
5.8 Serviceability
5.8.1 General
Deck
edge As mentioned in Section 4.4, serviceability
tube requirements are concerned with the functionality,
comfort and appearance of a structure, and their
importance throughout the duration of a structure’s
design life should be considered. Progressive
changes in the condition of structural elements and
Cables the accumulation of local damage or irreversible
movement should be addressed in design, so that
they do not escalate to the point that they cause
critical second order effects influencing stability. Table
5.2 lists serviceability issues together with aspects of
design used to control them.
Regardless of how good a design is, inspection and
maintenance are critical in the management of
structures in service. This allows potential problems
to be spotted and resolved before they become
serious. The maintenance strategy should be
developed in preliminary discussions between the
client and the design team. The maintenance strategy
is a fundamental part of the structural design, which
ensures that maintenance and inspection is both
practical and economic. The following should be
considered:
– Functional requirements of the structure
– Requirements relating to future alterations or
change of use
– Practicality of inspection and maintenance
– Financial commitment (options may include
offsetting high initial costs with inexpensive
maintenance)

Table 5.2 Examples of serviceability issues
Category Relevant actions
Deterioration Solar radiation, frost, moisture, biological attack
and chemical changes
Corrosion Oxidation, electrolytic action, contaminants, loss of
passivity and protection
Abrasion Traffic, chemicals
Fatigue Stress cycles
Weathering Atmospheric pollution, driving rain, surface
deterioration
Deflection Loads, differential settlement, temperature
Cracking Restrained movements, brittle materials
Integrity Leakage of groundwater or retained liquids or rain
penetration
Condensation Humidity of atmosphere
Transmission Excessive noise, heat or cold
Vibration Wind gusts, building use (e.g. machinery)
5.8.2 Movement effects
All structures are subject to movements and
deformations, which occur both during construction
and in service. When movements are restrained or
non-uniform, actions may arise within the structure or
its building elements which could affect their local or
global stability. The consequences of excessive
deflections may lead to non-structural issues such as
damage to finishes or structural damage; common at
connections between structural elements. For
example, the bodily displacement of a wall or beam
on its seating, or rotational movements at bearings
could cause progressive spalling and ultimately failure
of the supports.
Collapse of a structure as a result of such
movements is rare, but serviceability failures such as
cracking in concrete or warping of timber could, if
unchecked or neglected, eventually threaten the
stability of the structure or its components. Examples
of how this can be dealt with in design include
provision of movement joints or the utilisation of
appropriate tension reinforcement across concrete
members and connections to control crack widths.
Neglecting such details can result in the need for
costly works to be carried out (Box 5.5).
Box 5.5 Inadequate bearings in car park,
Bournemouth, 2005
In the case of a car park in Bournemouth, UK, omitting
adequate bearings between the concrete floor slab and
supporting beams resulted in connection failure at their
interface. A confidential report explained how provision of
appropriate bearings would have accommodated the
temperature induced hogging of the slab, and concluded that
a complete rebuild of the structure was needed. An article
published in New Civil Engineer the following year provides
some detail5.21.
The structural engineer should also be aware of
construction tolerances (i.e. the allowance for
deviations between measurement in the design and
that of the built structure) which are often considered
and reported in conjunction with movement effects.
This can then be communicated in the design
Stability, robustness and serviceability 5.8
Relevant aspects of design
Surface protection, materials specification
As above
Surface hardness
Reduce stress range
Minimise staining by detailing and choice of
materials
Limit deflection
Crack control, movement joints
Crack control, weather-resistant materials, consider
design of joints
Vapour barrier and insulation, humidity control
Insulation
Limit amplitude or acceleration; isolate source
specification to ensure it is accounted for in the
procurement and construction phases.
Thermal effects and moisture
The ingress and egress of moisture into and out of
structural members and soil can cause
movements which have the potential to give rise
to instability. An indication of the magnitude of
such moisture movements can be derived from
the moisture-movement properties of the materials
and the relevant environmental conditions to be
expected in the location of the structure, or its
components. Temperature can also have
deleterious effects. Cyclic variations in temperature
cause expansion and contraction of material and,
particularly where moisture ingress is significant,
the effects of freezing and thawing should be
considered.
Creep and shrinkage
Creep and shrinkage are associated with a material’s
deformation over time as a result of a steady
application of stress or drying respectively.
Shrinkage applies to any material with water content,
such as concrete or timber. This water evaporates
over time causing a reduction in volume and a
corresponding deformation. In situ concrete may
experience significant shrinkage, causing tensile
stresses to develop and therefore cracks to appear.
Any cracks should be checked against serviceability
requirements for their maximum widths.
Creep is defined as the inelastic deformation of a
material over time due to the sustained application
of stress, and has a rate dependent on the level of
exposure of structural materials to moisture,
changes in temperature and applied forces. An
estimate of the likely magnitude of the deformation
can be made from the time-dependent properties of
the materials and the duration and incidence of the
applied forces.
Care is needed for structural forms that change
shape in service, e.g. timber framed construction
where drying out of the frame in service can produce
noticeable reduction in member dimensions, which
can impact fixed components such as lifts. The
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 27
5.9 Stability, robustness and serviceability

strength and serviceability requirements of the
material should also be checked.
Foundation movements
Movement in the ground can cause changes to the
boundary conditions of a structure and the resulting
stresses in its elements. Soil, as an accumulation of
rock mineral particles with a degree of voids and water
content, will gradually consolidate over time under the
bearing pressure exerted by the structure. The rate and
extent of compaction will depend on the soil
properties. Rock may experience creep (a time-
dependent strain dependant on the material properties
of the rock and the applied stresses) and also undergo
settlement where there are low strength properties, or
a susceptibility for cavities to form from weathering,
scour or solution5.22. The magnitude of the foundation
movements that can cause destabilising actions (i.e.
differential settlement, heave or sliding) may be
estimated from geotechnical factors. The effects of
these movements on the structure should be restricted
to values that will not cause critical redistribution of
internal forces. Where there are varying ground
conditions across a site, particular care should be
taken to reduce the effects of differential movement.
5.11 HM Government. The Building Regulations 2010.
Approved Document A – Structure (2004 edition,
incorporating 2010 and 2013 amendments). Available
at: http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/
buildingregulations/approveddocuments/parta/
documenta [Accessed: 9 February 2015]
5.12 The Scottish Government. Technical handbooks.
Available at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Built-
Environment/Building/Building-standards/publications/
pubtech [Accessed: 9 February 2015]
5.13 Welsh Government. Building Regulations. Available at:
http://wales.gov.uk/topics/planning/buildingregs/
?lang ¼ en [Accessed: 9 February 2015]
5.14 Department of Finance and Personnel. Building
Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2012 guidance.
Technical booklet D: Structure. Available at: http://
www.dfpni.gov.uk/tbd_online_version.pdf [Accessed:
9 February 2015]
5.15 Institution of Structural Engineers. Manual for the
systematic risk assessment of high-risk structures
against disproportionate collapse. London: IStructE,
2013

5.16 Institution of Structural Engineers. Practical guide to

5.9 References structural robustness and disproportionate collapse in
buildings. London: IStructE, 2010

5.1 Institution of Structural Engineers. Stability of buildings 5.17 Brady, S. ‘The 30 year failure cycle’. The Structural
Parts 1 and 2: General philosophy and framed bracing. Engineer, 91(5), May 2013, pp14–15
London: IStructE, 2014
5.18 Arup. The Millennium Bridge. Available at: http://www.
5.2 Institution of Structural Engineers. Stability of buildings londonmillenniumbridge.com [Accessed: 10 February
Part 3: Shear walls. London: IStructE, 2015 2015]

5.3 BS EN1993-1-1:2005. Eurocode 3: Design of steel 5.19 BS EN 1998: Eurocode 8: Design of structures for
structures. Part 1-1: General rules and rules for earthquake resistance [in 6 parts]. London: BSI, 2004
buildings. London: BSI, 2005
5.20 ASCE/SEI 41-13: Seismic evaluation and retrofit of
5.4 Smith, B.S. and Coull, A. Tall Building Structures: existing buildings. Reston, VA: ASCE, 2013
Analysis and Design. New York: Wiley, 1999
5.21 Young, J. ‘Doomed Bournemouth car park lacked vital
5.5 Structural Timber Association. ‘Timber Engineering elastomeric bearings’. New Civil Engineer, 18 May
Notebook (No. 4): Timber frame structures – platform 2006, p6
frame construction (part 2)’. The Structural Engineer,
91(6), June 2013, pp30–36 5.22 Wyllie, D. C. Foundations on rock. 2nd ed. London:
Spon, 1999
5.6 The Timber Research and Development Association
(TRADA). Available at: http://www.trada.co.uk/
[Accessed: 9 February 2015]
5.10 Bibliography
5.7 Structural Timber Association. Advice notes. Available
at: http://www.structuraltimber.co.uk/information-
centre/information-centre/technical-library/advice- Bull, J.W. ed. ICE Manual of structural design: buildings.
notes/ [Accessed: 9 February 2015] London: ICE Publishing, 2012

5.8 Structural-Safety. FC Twente stadium roof collapse – Zalka, K.A. and Armer, G.S.T. Stability of Large Structures.
learning from the fatal consequences. SCOSS Topic Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992
Paper. 2012 (updated 2014). Available at: http://www.
structural-safety.org/media/363023/fc-twente-stadium-
roof-collapse-final-1-oct-12-revised-july-2014.pdf
[Accessed: 9 February 2015]

5.9 BS EN 1991-1-7: 2006: Eurocode 1 – Actions on

structures – Part 1-7: General actions – Accidental
actions. London: BSI, 2010

5.10 Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Report of

the Inquiry into the collapse of flats at Ronan Point,
Canning Town. London: HMSO, 1968

28 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

6 Demonstrating structural adequacy
6.1 Overview
Irrespective of the way in which structural adequacy
is established, it needs to be demonstrated in a set of
calculations. This document is more than a record of
the arithmetic or computer analyses used to show
that the strength exceeds that required to resist the
specified stresses. Good calculations are as much
about communication as they are about numbers:
– They set out the arguments which show that the
proposed design is adequate
– They explain why the analysis method chosen is
appropriate for the particular circumstance
– They show how close values are to limits, which
can indicate how tightly the structure has been
designed. This gives some indication of how
economically the materials are used. Overall
economy does not wholly depend on the economic
use of materials, but it is one component. Other
metrics may include values relating to embodied
energy, recycled content, programme resources or
any other quantifiable variable that is associated
with the construction
– They may explain why the designer has not taken
the design to the code limits e.g. there were
circumstances which were outside the code’s
range of coverage
– The recorded data can demonstrate adequacy to
any current parties that need to approve the design
and also to future generations who will inherit the
responsibility for maintaining the structure, possibly
modifying it, and eventually demolishing it
Some of these discussions and explanations will be
set out in the calculation plan or basis of design
document. The actual calculations then take these to
the next level, reporting on outcomes of the analyses,
which are not always as anticipated, but must always
be understood and justifiable.
6.2 Analysis
6.2.1 General
Codes of practice exist to provide guidelines for
strength and serviceability, but before conducting any
thorough checks to these guidelines the structural
engineer should first analyse the structure and any
actions imposed to it. This is done by means of
mathematical and physical representation (or
modelling). Fundamental to the process of modelling
is the need to understand how to simplify the
structure and any loading such that analysis can be
performed more effectively. This concept is commonly
referred to as ‘structural idealisation’. The extent to
which a structure is simplified will vary depending on
the intended purpose of the model. Boundary
conditions may be applied in many cases to simplify
the external conditions applied to the structure.
Examples include the restraint applied by adjacent
members not included in the model or the interaction
between the substructure and soil.
Typical idealisations to the structure include the
simplification of complex connections and
assumptions applied to material properties.
Similarly, idealisations may be applied to any
external actions. Examples include the use of a
uniformly distributed load to model gravity loads
from occupants in a commercial building, or a linear
variation of hydrostatic pressure on bridge peers.
More complex algorithms may be needed to
investigate actions such as waves on offshore
structures, which exhibit both spatial and temporal
variations.
There are many ways to plot a structure’s geometry,
be it drawing ‘by hand’ or through an interactive
computer visualisation. Computuational analysis
packages facilitate the manipulation of a greater
amount of data, and therefore provide the scope to
more closely simulate the real structure.
Computational methods however, should not be
viewed differently to traditional methods; the same
principles of engineering apply and it is up to the
structural engineer to ensure the model is carefully
built and verified.
Essentially, the structural engineer will need to
consider the analysis of the structure’s geometry,
material strength and loading; each of which may be
described using algorithms to provide a greater level
of detail. The outputs can then be extracted and
checks made against ultimate and serviceability limit
states. When carrying out analysis, it is important to
review how design iterations impact the load paths
through the structure as a whole, as instability may
result.
6.2.2 Superstructure
The superstructure can take many forms and utilise
many different materials. While much work has been
carried out to verify the performance of
standardised materials like steel, concrete and
masonry, structural engineers also use other
materials in their designs. Timber has significant
variability but there are machines which can
determine stress grades accurately, setting limits to
individual members. There are other less traditional
materials which structural engineers work with such
as glass and composites (fibre reinforced concrete
and polymers). As with tried and tested materials,
the structural engineer should understand their
properties against the intended function. Glass, for
example, can be used for structural purposes
where natural light is being encouraged as part of
the building’s lighting design. Considerations for
design of structural glass elements are discussed in
the Institution’s guide, Structural use of glass in
buildings (2nd edition)6.1.
Once the material choice has been made, the
structural engineer can carry out simple analysis for
initial element sizing. A simple way to analyse a
structure is to distinguish and model its separate
elements, e.g. beams, slabs, columns, walls and
foundations. While this allows for simple checking,
the interactions between the elements must also be
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 29
6.2 Demonstrating structural adequacy
analysed. There must be an understanding of how
the separate elements transfer loads from one to the
other and how they will deform locally. Assumptions
can be made, but these need be recorded with
reasoning. An extension to the individual component
design is to group some together into subframes as
parts of the total frame. Subsequently a more
detailed analysis can be established, modelling all the
interactions and second order effects of the complete
structural frame.
In addition to analysing for adequate strength, failure
due to buckling, fatigue and fracture may need to be
checked. As design becomes more refined, complex
or novel, a focus must be given to the modes of
failure and serviceability requirements which were
inherently addressed in the rule of thumb analysis.
Accelerations resulting from dynamic response of a
lightweight or slender structure can have significant
effect on the users’ comfort and on the functionality
of the structure.
Another aspect which should be understood and
utilised is ductility, i.e. a member’s ability to deform
plastically under applied forces. Ductility can help to
accommodate variations in stress distribution which
would otherwise result in local failures. This is often
critical in connection design where variations in
stiffness can be overcome through the redistribution
of concentrated stresses. The repeated application of
stresses can, over time, reduce the integrity of a
material, and it is therefore essential to ensure that
failure resulting from this effect, i.e. fatigue, does not
occur within the foreseeable design life of the
structure6.2. However, in some extreme situations
such as earthquakes, a ductile element may be
expected to fail, thus acting as a ‘structural fuse’.
Care should be taken in selecting appropriate
materials which exhibit the required ductility. Metals
produced to national standards are often selected for
their compliance with specific criteria regarding
ductility. It should be noted that ductility can change
with material temperature and so, for external
structures, the correct grade of steel should be
specified to overcome this.
6.2.3 Substructure
The structural engineer should have a good
understanding of the site’s soil conditions. There can
be significant variability and, as a consequence, an
extensive range of methods exist for providing
support to the superstructure. It is not possible to
know exactly what is belowground. Assumptions are
therefore made, but the degree of uncertainty should
be minimised by carrying out a desk study and
reconnaissance survey before deciding the scope for
any intrusive site investigation.
A desk study is an effective way to gather information
relating to the site, such as routes for existing
electrical distribution, sewers and mine records. A
reconnaissance survey involves a further study of the
site by direct measurement and observation. These
non-intrusive methods of research can then help to
establish the specification for a site investigation. The
site investigation may involve direct sampling and
testing to establish ground conditions more reliably.
Where there is variability across a site it is important
to ensure that the investigation is sufficiently detailed
to minimise the risk of significant variation between
sample points.
30 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
Once adequate data on the soil conditions has been
collected, it is then possible to evaluate the potential
methods for supporting the structure. As with
aboveground design, the structural engineer should
consider strength and serviceability.
For sites with soils, i.e. weakly cemented mineral
particles, it is important to understand and gauge the
potential settlement and ensure that its
consequences are acceptable to the structure above.
Differential settlement e.g. due to high variability in
poorly compacted made ground or clay subject to
seasonal moisture changes, should be avoided since
it will induce additional stresses in the structure.
Interaction between soil and substructure should also
be considered carefully. While for some cases it may
be sufficient to idealise the soil as a single
homogeneous strata, others may include several
strata each perhaps with significantly varying
densities or water content. Variability between the
stiffness of substructure elements and the adjacent
soil should therefore be analysed appropriately to
assess the resulting forces which arise. For some
structures, a high degree of stiffness will be adequate
in their foundations, while for others the additional
provision of ductility may be required to prevent brittle
failure.
For foundations on ground made of rock,
consideration should be given to the characteristics
of rock which distinguish it from soil. While rock has a
generally higher bearing capacity, the presence of
discontinuities and defects (e.g. faulting, bedding
planes, joints, fissures and cavities) present zones of
weakness which may result in sliding or settlement6.3.
Seasonal moisture and temperature changes may
also increase the extent of these defects over time.
6.2.4 Reliability and risk
A design for a typical structure made in accordance
with a code of practice should be safe provided it
interpolates rather than extrapolates the assumptions
of the code. In the latter case, assessment into the
reliability of the structure may be required to evaluate
the integrity of the design. To define ‘safe’ it is
necessary to introduce the concept of reliability,
which is the probability that the structure does not
fail. A zero probability of failure is never possible, and
so it is practical to set minimum acceptable
probabilities of failure, for which the residual risks may
be controlled. The determination of whether a
structure is reliable is an extensive and rigorous
theory which has been written about in many books
including Introduction to safety and reliability of
structures6.4. The strength models in the codes are
calibrated against test data and are therefore largely
empirically based. The steps of this chain from test to
code are fully recorded and there may be occasions
when they can be reworked for a particular situation
falling outside the accepted range of the code.
The direct use of statistical data within a risk
assessment can often be used when quantifying the
actions to be applied to the structure. In particular,
accidental actions are often calculated in this way. For
a structure to withstand such actions, a strategy
needs to be adopted to increase robustness. This is
discussed in more detail in Section 5.6, and further
reading on risk assessments in relation to actions on
high risk buildings can be sought from the Institution’s
Manual for the systematic risk assessment of high-
risk structures against disproportionate collapse6.5.

6.2.5 Assessment of existing structures
There are many occasions where it is necessary to
check the structural performance of an existing
structure. For example: there may be a need to
increase the magnitude of actions on the structure:
– inspections may have shown that deterioration has
reduced the local capacity of a section
– significant modifications to the structure are to be
carried out as part of a refurbishment
– there may be reason to question the original
capacity assessed in the design calculations
Whatever the reason, assessment of an existing
structure raises different issues from those met during
design. An example of strengthening works to an
existing structure is given in Box 6.1.
Box 6.1 West Gate Bridge strengthening project,
Melbourne
In the case of the West Gate Bridge strengthening project,
it was recognised that the structure would need to be
enhanced to accommodate the increased traffic demands
predicted for the future. Further objectives were to include
additional traffic lanes and improved public and traffic safety.
A combination of investigation, modelling, analysis, design
and constructability assessments were used to meet the
objectives and all within a timescale significantly shorter than
originally planned6.6.
The existing form of construction encountered often
dates back to an earlier age. There may not be
obvious strength models that can be used, and the
structural engineer will have to make judgements
based on first principles together with a sound
understanding of how historical buildings were
constructed. Even if the construction follows current
practice it may not be appropriate to use current
strength models. The strength models used in codes
exist to assist the structural engineer to design
structures efficiently and safely. However, if the
structure fails by such analysis then the cost of repair
or replacement can possibly be much greater than
the cost of applying a more sophisticated strength
model that demonstrates compliance. Many
alternative strength models are available in the
literature.
Further guidance on the discussion points in this
section can be found in the Institution’s report,
Appraisal of existing structures6.7.
6.3 Calculations
Calculations carried out by hand are an effective
starting point for structural engineers in terms of
demonstrating adequacy, whether they are rule of
thumb checks, checks from first principles for initial
member sizing, or checks on outputs from computer
analysis. Most structural engineers have a grasp of
standard formulae, or tables, which they can chose
to help determine member choice for strength and
serviceability. Reference and guidance documents for
this purpose, as relevant to Eurocode design, include
Reynolds’s Reinforced Concrete Designer’s
Handbook6.8, the Steel Construction Institute’s ‘Blue
Book’6.9, Concrete Buildings Scheme Design Manual
to Eurocode 26.10, Eurocode 5 span tables: for solid
Demonstrating structural adequacy 6.3
timber members in floors, ceilings and roofs for
dwellings6.11 and the Eurocode manuals published by
the Institution6.12.
Hand calculations can also be extended, depending
on the complexity of the project, into the complete
calculations set or into specific parts, such as
connection design.
6.4 Computer modelling
Simple calculations – whether by hand or through the
use of computational tools – are essential to an initial
understanding of structural behavior. These typically
lead into more complex analysis often undertaken
using computational methods, which can take a
variety of formats. Some formats provide simple
proformas to guide the structural engineer through
the necessary steps, while others are intended to
allow more bespoke models of the structure to be
built. The actions a structure is subjected to and the
interactions which result can often demand that
modelling apply a greater level of definition to material
properties and actions, and computational methods
are able to facilitate this. Figure 6.1 is a visualisation
of the dynamic response pattern arising on a section
of floor due to specified footfall. Areas where dynamic
response may be excessive are highlighted, thus
prompting further analysis and consideration for
re-design.
Irrespective of the modelling complexity, the structural
engineer must always:
– Ensure the model representation is suitable for the
intended purpose of the analysis (e.g. well defined
boundary conditions may be required to accurately
simulate structural behavior of an isolated element)
– Ensure that the input data is correct
– Ensure that the software is verified
– Ensure that the output is verified
– Ensure that information passed from one analysis
package to another does so seamlessly without
loss or corruption
– Have an overview from experience of the expected
final outputs
– Ensure that the model corresponds to something
that can be constructed with the technology
available
The computational tools available to structural
engineers enable, within economic means, the
Figure 6.1 Software highlighting areas where dynamic response exceeds design limit
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 31
6.5 Demonstrating structural adequacy
rigorous analysis of both individual elements and the
global structure. This allows a much clearer
understanding of the structure’s performance in
construction, service and decommissioning. When
models are built to analyse the structure, care must
be taken to ensure that the model reflects how the
structure will work in service (e.g. node stiffness) and
how the components are later designed to match the
model. For example, the option to stiffen joints for
frame stability may be pursued, however the load
attracted by that stiffness may cause challenges for
the connections between the members.
The task of analysis typically consists of modelling the
structure, its boundary conditions and the design
actions it is subjected to. When commencing
analysis, the structural engineer should have a clear
idea of what the boundary conditions are. Information
including actions, support conditions and
environmental conditions should be established. The
structural model is created by defining its geometry,
assigning its material properties, adopting appropriate
connection fixity and applying the boundary
conditions as intended, to best represent interaction
between the structure and its external environment.
The outputs will include support reactions, stresses
and displacements. The outputs are then reviewed
against relevant codes of practice or physical models
to verify compliance with factors of safety against
failure.
There are a number of different ways to analyse a
structural model whether in two or three dimensions.
The simplest format is two dimensions where one
can, for example, model plane frames or grid frames.
There is a multitude of software packages available
for such analysis to assist the structural engineer and
the simplest models are easier to verify using rule of
thumb checks.
As analysis is developed further, more complex
descriptions of material properties and actions may
need to be prescribed, e.g. adoption of non-linear
behaviour. Finite element analysis is often used to
provide a more detailed description of structural
geometry and behaviour by approximating a structure
to a number of elements with differing connections
between them. For example, a continuous structure,
such as a dome, is modelled using a quantity of
discrete elements, of defined stiffness, with a finite
number of nodes, solved by partial differential
equations.
Computational methods of analysis are powerful
tools, which bring significant benefits to the
construction industry. However, there remains a need
to understand the computer model and the structural
behaviour simulated and to verify outputs so as not
to rely on computational analysis beyond one’s
theoretical understanding. Failing to do so may result
in critical errors being undetected.
6.5 Testing and monitoring
Despite the array of advanced forms of analyses
available, it is not always possible to be certain of the
outputs. This is often the case when verifying the
behavior of unusual or novel structural forms, where
the structure is outside the scope of codes of
practice, or where the actual structural behavior of an
32 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
element is to be examined or verified. Consequently it
is often sensible to physically test a material
specimen, structural component, prototype or scale
model6.13. For example sports stadia, tall or long
span structures exhibit particular wind responses,
which can be examined through wind tunnel testing.
Mass manufactured products such as metal purlins
and precast concrete units can have their strength
and serviceability responses verified by testing to
failure.
Testing is sometimes appropriate to prove the
strength of an existing structure. A realistic
expectation of how the structure will behave is
advantageous, so as to avoid unintended damage
being inflicted during intrusive testing. Again, it is not
sufficient simply to show that the design actions can
be resisted. Structural engineers may assess the
integrity of existing structures by monitoring a specific
measurement such as displacement over time. When
monitoring is to be undertaken, it is important to
define the purpose of the work and any limitations of
the adopted scheme. The Institution’s report,
Appraisal of existing structures6.7 gives further
guidance on testing and monitoring of structures, as
well as some of the methods and techniques
involved.
6.6 Codes of practice
Design codes of practice are guidelines, which
provide ways of confirming that the outputs will
meet the required performances of the materials.
These documents have been formulated over many
years and are constantly being reviewed as
knowledge is extended or methods changed. The
suite of Eurocodes6.14 cover all major materials and
set a standard of compliance being used in many
places throughout the world. The International
Building Code6.15 is another widely adopted
example. There are many similar standards in other
countries and some specialist codes which are
used internationally, such as the seismic design
standards which are contained in New Zealand’s
standards6.16 and the National Building Code of
Canada (NBCC)6.17.
With the changes to codes there are always those left
behind such as the superseded British Standards,
which have been updated in the form of Eurocodes.
It should be noted that these superseded codes will
no longer be reviewed and updated and so their
relevance may diminish over time. Many practices
may continue to use superceded codes, where their
application remains valid.
While the design codes of practice set verification
levels, there are many guidance documents (often
from trade organisations) which can help lead the
structural engineer to an optimum design. In the UK,
bodies or institutions such as The Steel Construction
Institute, The Concrete Society, The Concrete Centre,
The Brick Development Association and The Timber
Research and Development Association have a wide
range of such documents6.10, 6.18–6.21.
A structural engineer is of course able to use
engineering judgement on their design, and so while
the design codes of practice and other such
standards set a standard for the materials and

actions, it is possible to depart from the guidance.
The legal status of national codes of practice should
be checked in-country, as some may require
compliance or other specific procedures for approval.
Departing from the standards cannot be undertaken
lightly however, and there must be an appreciation of
the issues and risks. It may be that the structure is
abnormal and does not fit into the code’s range of
coverage or it may be that the structural engineer has
particular experience gained from earlier work.
Similarly, design may sometimes be supplemented
with guidance contained in codes from other
countries. This may be the case when a particular
approach to design is deemed to produce improved
performance within national constraints, or where a
lack of guidance is provided in the national code of
practice.
Whichever approach is adopted, the structural
engineer must be satisfied that their design will not be
unsafe or unserviceable, and they must be able to
justify this to others and ensure regulatory
compliance.
6.7 Checks
Although structural engineers endeavor to achieve
the highest standards of accuracy and correctness,
mistakes can still be made. With the various
processes involved in structural design it can be
simple to transpose numbers or incorrectly model a
joint. It is therefore in the interests of safety, cost
and quality assurance, that measures are taken to
ensure thorough checking of all design outputs and
documentation at each stage of design. This
checking is part of a business’s natural quality
system where initial self-checking is followed by
independent checking. The level of independence
will vary depending on the complexity and potential
risks. Some projects can be checked by other
members of the structrual engineering design team,
while some need another group within the business
or sometimes full independent checking.
Independent peer reviewers with experience of
investigating failures can bring valuable insight to
the designer who wishes to avoid seeing those
failures repeated. SCOSS deliberated on this and
produced a topic paper to highlight the benefits and
potential methodology of incorporation into
projects6.22, 6.23. Some bodies, such as the UK
Highways Agency, have checking procedures
depending on the perceived risks involved.
Occasionally, these have been adopted more widely
in other countries or by other sectors of the
industry, creating unofficial ‘industry norms’6.24.
There is also the need to ensure regulatory
compliance. Building or ‘technical’ standards are
used worldwide to ensure public safety. This covers a
number of areas, from material strength to material
properties under fire conditions to structural stability.
Verification of compliance can take a number forms;
through third party checking by other structural
engineers working for the regulators or through
certification schemes where approved structural
engineers are able to confirm compliance. These
checks on the process provide a safer stock of
structures for the benefit of the wider community.
Demonstrating structural adequacy 6.7
6.8 References
6.1 Institution of Structural Engineers. Structural use of
glass in buildings (second edition). London: IStructE,
2014
6.2 Institution of Structural Engineers. ‘Technical Guidance
Note 25, Level 1: Introduction to fatigue’, The
Structural Engineer, 91(4), April 2013, pp36–37
6.3 Wyllie, D. C. Foundations on rock. 2nd ed. London:
Spon, 1999
6.4 Schneider, J. Introduction to safety and reliability of
structures. Structural Engineering Document 5. Zurich:
IABSE-AIPC-IVBH, 2006
6.5 Institution of Structural Engineers. Manual for the
systematic risk assessment of high-risk structures
against disproportionate collapse. London: IStructE,
2013
6.6 West Gate Bridge strengthening project. Available at:
http://acaa.net.au/pdf/2012_TP_PP/WEST-GATE-
BRIDGE-STRENGTHENING.pdf [Accessed: 18 February
2015]
6.7 Institution of Structural Engineers. Appraisal of existing
structures. 3rd ed. London: IStructE, 2010
6.8 Reynolds, C.E. et al. Reynolds’s reinforced concrete
designer’s handbook. 11th ed. Abingdon: Taylor &
Francis, 2007
6.9 Steel Construction Institute. SCI P363 Steel building
design: design data. In accordance with Eurocodes
and the UK National Annexes. Ascot: SCI, 2013
6.10 Brooker, O. Concrete Buildings Scheme Design
Manual: A handbook for the IStructE chartered
membership examination, based on Eurocode 2.
Camberley: MPA – The Concrete Centre, 2009
6.11 TRADA. Eurocode 5 span tables: for solid timber
members in floors, ceilings and roofs for dwellings.
4th ed. High Wycombe: TRADA Technology Ltd., 2014
6.12 The Institution of Structural Engineers. Suite of
Eurocode Manuals. Available at: http://shop.istructe.
org/eurocode-suite.html [Accessed: 18 February
2015]
6.13 Addis, W. ‘Toys that save millions’ – a history of using
physical models in structural design’. The Structural
Engineer, 91(4), April 2013, pp12–27
6.14 Eurocodes: building the future. Available at:
http://eurocodes.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ [Accessed:
19 February 2015]
6.15 International Code Council. 2015 International Building
Code. Country Club Hills, Illinois, International Code
Council, 2014
6.16 NZS 4219: 2009: Seismic performance of engineering
systems in buildings. Wellington: Standards
New Zealand, 2009
6.17 Canadian Commission on Building and Fire Codes and
National Research Council of Canada. National building
code of Canada 2010. 13th ed. 2 vols. Ottawa:
National Research Council of Canada, 2010
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 33
6.8 Demonstrating structural adequacy

6.18 Steel Construction Institute, Davison, B. and Owens, G.

(Eds.) Steel designers’ manual. 7th ed. Chichester:
Wiley-Blackwell, 2012

6.19 The Concrete Society. Technical Reports. Available at:

http://www.concrete.org.uk/publications_tr.asp.
[Accessed: 19 February 2015]

6.20 Brick Development Association. Masonry design for

disproportionate collapse requirements under
Regulation A3 of the Building Regulations (England &
Wales). Available at: http://www.brick.org.uk/2011/04/
masonry-design-for-disproportionate-collapse/
[Accessed: 19 February 2015]

6.21 TRADA. Timber frame construction: designing for high

performance. 5th ed. High Wycombe: TRADA
Technology Ltd., 2011

6.22 SCOSS. Topic Paper SC/09/034. Guidance Note:

Independent review through peer assist. Available at:
http://cms.structural-safety.org/assets/uploaded/
documents/119_SC09.034%20-%20WEB%20IR%
20Guidance%20Note%20Jan%202009.pdf [Accessed:
25 February 2015]

6.23 SCOSS. Topic Paper SC/09/035: Draft Form of

Agreement. Available at: http://cms.structural-safety.
org/assets/uploaded/documents/120_SC09.035%
20-%20WEB%20IR%20Draft%20form%20of%
20Agreement%20Jan%202009.pdf [Accessed:
25 February 2015]

6.24 The Highways Agency. BD 2/12: Design Manual for

Roads and Bridges. Volume 1: Highway Structures:
Approval Procedures and General Design. Section 1 –
Approval Procedures. Available at: http://www.
standardsforhighways.co.uk/ha/standards/ghost/dmrb/
vol1/section1/bd212.pdf [Accessed: 19 February
2015]

34 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

7 Communicating the design
7.1 Communication needs
7.1.1 Why, what and when to communicate
The process of developing the brief, design and
method of construction is dependent on the relay of
information between the correpsonding parties.
These components will evolve through many
iterations and should therefore be considered as
interdependent, e.g. construction details can inform
design, which in turn may require alteration to the
brief. At every stage of the design process the
outputs from the structural engineer are targeted at
different personnel.
Key stages where communication interfaces are
prevalent include:
– Concept design, where early discussions and
sketches are vital for the clarification of the
challenges and objectives in the brief and for
exploring a range of ideas for overcoming/achieving
them
– Scheme design i.e. where the structural engineer is
in discussion with other members of the design
team to integrate the structure with other non-
structural elements. The output here will include
further sketches, round table discussions and
drawings of sufficient detail and accuracy for
measurement
– Preliminary costing, when rough quantities need to
be evaluated to generate cost plans. The output
here will be outline specifications and general
arrangement drawings (GAs).
– Detailed information to allow formal tendering. The
output here will be developed specifications and
more detailed GAs, elevations and sections
– Construction details to allow the contractor to
realise the design. This includes the requirement for
accurate setting out drawings which are clearly
dimensioned with interface details to define
structural integration
It should be noted that the form of communication
used will depend to some extent on the technology
available to an organisation and the extent to which
others in the project team are able to engage with
it. For example, while 2D drawings are traditionally
used to communicate design details for
construction, there is also the facility for more
advanced forms of visual representation which lead
on from analysis, including 3D models which can be
shared and updated by the wider design team. The
philosophy of Building Information Modelling (BIM)
exploits such opportunities which are afforded by
advanced software tools in order to enhance
collaboration and subsequent coordination of
design (Section 7.2).
The nature of the outputs, when they are
communicated, in what form, to what level of detail
and to whom, will vary depending on the
requirements stated within the contract documents.
The structural engineer should identify the purpose of
a communication before determining these
parameters, as construction projects involve a large
quantity of information exchange. It is important to
ensure communications are relevant, accurate and
concise. For example, the client might not want to
know design details, but may want images to help
visualise what is being proposed or delivered. Clear
lines of communication should be established and
understood by all team members to ensure all
objectives are met within the contraints of cost, time
and standards (both statutory and quality control).
7.1.2 Needs of the client
Clients’ needs vary; some want to be fully involved in
the process while others simply want the project
completed and handed over. The design team will
learn early in the process what the client wishes and
in response, will define their output accordingly.
The design brief can be expected to evolve during a
project as the design progresses and further
information becomes available. Essential client needs,
as well as those graded as less critical, should be
discussed and possibly ranked in order of priority. As
the project progresses, any important information
affecting the project should be communicated,
whether this is from the client to the design team or
vice versa. Of concern to the structural engineer, are
considerations potentially impacting on the structural
design. This can include, but is certainly not limited
to:
– changes to spatial requirements
– changes to intended occupancy or plant
– statutory requirements and site related constraints
– a range of other factors such as those arising within
any sustainability or maintenance strategies
7.1.3 Needs of the design team
The design team consists of numerous specialists
across different organisations. It is therefore important
that each design team member understands the
information from the other members and how it
interfaces with their design.
As the design develops there will be requirements
for adjustments to suit other components of the
structure as well as its fixtures and fittings.
Pathways will be required for service routes, and
proprietary components such as cladding may
require particular fixing points and details. Such
components have to be allowed within the design
programme and should meet required dates for
incorporation into the works. The structural engineer
inevitably encounters issues where compatibility
with elements from different design disciplines
presents difficulty, e.g. service holes can prove
particularly challenging when they cut across
structural lines. Robust and timely discussion is
necessary to ensure that a solution is reached that
best meets the needs of all disciplines.
The structural engineer must interrogate the details as
they are produced to ensure that the design,
including any assumptions, has been properly
transferred. Anomalies can arise and changes to the
design to meet detail requirements may be needed.
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 35
7.2 Communicating the design
7.1.4 Needs of the drafting/detailing team
The detailing team needs clear guidance on the
products to be used as well as their location,
member types, spacing etc. so they can build and/
or refine the model. Some designers will undertake
this themselves but many form a basic skeleton for
subsequent completion by the detailing team. This
involves an iterative process to which information is
added, reviewed and often adjusted to suit the
requirements of others in the design team. If there
has been opportunity to engage with the contractor,
their methods of construction can be
advantageously used in the detail process,
particularly at interfaces between materials. It is at
interfaces that most problems arise on site, so input
from those with specialist knowledge is of great
benefit.
7.1.5 Needs of the construction team
The client may introduce the contractor early in the
project, and in such cases, communication
between designer and contractor is recommended
in order to develop the design around practical
constraints and available methods of construction.
The design team, while conscious of the need to
design with constructability in mind, can further
benefit from the contractor’s experience with
respect to value engineering and buildability.
However, transparency is needed to ensure fair
tendering. The process for tendering should be
agreed at the outset, as it may not be possible to
proceed with a competitive tender if a contractor
has had prior involvement.
Furthermore, there remains a risk that extensive value
engineering, often facilitated by contractors, can lead
to a loss of quality and departure from the ultimate
client brief. Consulting structural engineers must be
mindful of this and ensure that they best service the
interests of the party to whom they are appointed.
This party will vary depending on the procurement
model.
The contractor should receive design documentation
that is as full and complete as possible. Changes
made during construction are generally far more
costly than in design; therefore any information gaps,
ambiguities or foreseeable issues (concerning, for
example ease of construction, unrealistic tolerances
or lack of fit) should be addressed and confirmed
with the design team as early as possible.
7.1.6 Building control and statutory authorities
The final design will need to comply with the statutory
requirements such as those laid out in health and
safety legislation and building standards, and should
be referenced to codes of practice. An example of
the latter is specified in the UK within the Building
Regulations7.1, which lay out functional requirements
encompassing considerations for occupancy, health
and safety, and energy conservation. Note that similar
but separate regulations apply in Scotland7.2 and
Northern Ireland7.3.
Statutory authorities require sufficient information to
allow them to verify that the structure accords with
their technical and performance requirements. They
require calculations, or confirmation by an approved
certifier that the calculations are correct, and sufficient
drawing details to allow them to determine the form
36 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
and size of the structural members so they can
confirm, through site inspection, that the design has
been built accordingly.
7.2 Effective strategies for
communicating information
All those involved in a project should have a clear
understanding of the key stages and interfaces where
information will need to be prepared and
communicated. Construction project process models
have been developed by various bodies. These are
applicable to multidisciplinary teams across the
different work stages of a project. The RIBA Plan of
Work7.4 is an example which is adopted particularly in
the UK, and includes an outline of what is required
from early discussion of the brief to the handover
stage. It should be noted that such process models
are not in themselves contractual, but rather act as
guidelines for the workstages across a structure’s
lifecycle, and may be referenced in the contract
documents.
A communication matrix setting out the various
needs for information transfer between client, design
team, specialist consultants, statutory authorities,
main contractor, suppliers, sub-contractors and
specialist contractors can be developed and
amended as the project progresses, as an aid to
effective communication.
The structural engineer uses a variety of mediums in
communicating information depending on the
purpose and the intended recipient. During the
concept design phase it is appropriate to express
ideas through discussions and sketches, while during
the development of a final scheme design there is a
requirement for information to be communicated
more definitively, i.e. demonstrating structural
adequacy through calculations, drawings and outline
specifications. While computer modelling and
detailing is the way to formally communicate, there
will always be the need for initial layout sketches, as
the structural engineer thinks about and develops the
structural form and interfaces.
Historically, information has been passed on in 2D
hard copy drawing format, plans, sections and
elevations. However changes in technology have
seen the introduction of 2D and 3D electronic format
details, full 3D visualisation and interactive models
which contain all attributes including section and
material specification. BIM is further changing
information transfer and its implementation will have a
major impact on data control, communication and
archiving7.5.
BIM presents to the industry a way of working that
facilitates greater collaboration between disciplines
and offers benefits to both the construction and
operations management of a structure throughout its
lifecycle. This is achieved by the sharing of
information between the different workstreams of a
project. There are many associative modelling
software packages available, which are capable of
linking detail to design to allow follow-on trades to
pick up data, thus removing duplication of work and
potential data input errors. These can be used to
create a shared model, allowing greater transparency
of information between disciplines, enhancing

compatability between the various design elements.
This model can provide time effective methods for
sharing, visualising (Figure 7.1) or extracting the
required data, but as with all computational methods,
verification is needed (Section 6.4).
It should be emphasised that the underlying factors
behind successful project completion remain
unchanged, and that BIM tools are there to facilitate
ways of working. The fundamental thinking, which
drives the process, remains key.
Irrespective of the way in which information is
communicated, there needs to be a checking regime
to ensure data transfer is wholesome and correct at
each stage of transfer. When producing design
documentation, the structural engineer should adopt
a consistent approach and format in order to reduce
the time needed by the recipient to interpret
information, check calculations, read drawings and
review areas needing clarification. All information
produced in the course of the design must be
archived in such a way that its retreival and use is a
simple process for any future stakeholder.
On large projects, information is often stored using
document management systems which automatically
update and supersede information in drawing and
document form. This is typically an electronic
database with defined levels of access for differing
personnel. Small contracts on the other hand, may
take the form of a simple archive on servers. The use
of BIM provides further opportunity for design
information to be updated and stored in a system
that allows information to be shared more readily.
Irrespective of the type of archive used, it is important
to ensure accessibility, security and completeness.
7.3 Information for construction
7.3.1 Working drawings
Drawings and sketches are produced throughout the
design process, as a means of developing and
refining the design. However, as part of the design
documentation submitted for tender and then
updated for construction, detailed and accurate
working drawings are required that clearly
communicate the required geometric arrangement
and assembly of components. In line with a strategy
for producing consistently formatted information,
standard symbols and terminology should be used in
accordance with international standards. Introductory
guidance is given in the Institution’s Technical
Guidance Note, Drawing nomenclature7.6.
While the goal is to construct exactly what appears
on the design details, construction is an art as well as
a science and often one encounters changes through
the process. It is therefore incumbent on the
contractor to record any changes reflected in the
completed structure so that accurate ‘as built’
drawings can be produced for archiving. This ensures
that any future works start from an informed
standpoint.
7.3.2 Specifications
The purpose of design specifications is to describe
the requirements for materials, components and
Communicating the design 7.3
Figure 7.1 BIM model
workmanship. It is not possible to include all of this
in the GA drawings as it would greatly reduce
clarity. Reference is therefore made to the
specifications, which communicate design
information including a description of the required
materials and standards of workmanship, which
ensure tolerances are within acceptable limits. The
specification should be clear and complete with no
ambiguities; it is helpful for those receiving the
specifications if there is a commentary. It is also
important to ensure that tolerances at interfaces
between differing materials are specified, taking
account of the construction method, supplied
products and movements. These are often covered
in the trade specifications.
There are many ways that specifications can be
prepared, be they standard form such as National
Building Specification (NBS)7.7 in the UK, or
bespoke. Whichever is used, it must communicate
the standards of strength, performance and quality
necessary to realise the design. There are many
ways to define the necessary performance
standards within the specification, including
reference to:
– National and International Standards
– Statutory requirements as specified by national
building control
– Product identification marks, e.g. Kitemarks7.8
(in the UK) or CE marking7.9 (in Europe)
– Trade standards such as those written by major
industries, e.g. the National Structural Steelwork
Specification7.10 and National Structural Concrete
Specification7.11 in the UK
Other sources of information include guidance from
the government or local authorities which supplement
statutory documents. Guidance produced by
professional and trade bodies may also be useful
points of reference.
7.3.3 Schedules
Schedules provide additional information on the
components, which in the design drawings and
specifications may be repeated throughout the
structure. A building may have many identical or
seemingly identical beams and columns. A schedule
is therefore used by the structural engineer to further
specify sections and dimensions which may not be
drawn to scale or explicitly defined, and to condense
like elements across fewer pages. As BIM develops,
models may have the data inherently built-in for
convenient reference.
The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 37
7.4 Communicating the design

7.3.4 Bill of quantities 7.2 The Scottish Government. The Building (Scotland)
Regulations 2004 (SSI 2004/406). Available at: http://
A bill of quantities is provided for the measurement of www.hmso.gov.uk/legislation/Scotland/ssi2004/
costs and quantities associated with material and 20040406.htm [Accessed: 19 February 2015]
labour, which (particularly on larger projects) may not
be readily determined from the design drawings and 7.3 UK Government. The Building Regulations (Northern
specifications alone. A quantity surveyor may be Ireland) 2012. Available at: www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/
given responsibility for this where a traditional 2012/192/contents/made [Accessed: 19 February
procurement route has been adopted, and although it 2015]
could be prepared by the contractor in the context of
other procurement routes, it may still be preferable to 7.4 RIBA. RIBA Plan of work 2013: overview. Available at:
employ a quantity surveyor such that a standard http://www.architecture.com/RIBA/Professionalsupport/
of control and accuracy is maintained over costs7.12. RIBAOutlinePlanofWork2013.aspx [Accessed:
A completed bill of quantities will give a good 19 February 2015]
approximation of the differing types of components
and their quantities, required to construct the project. 7.5 Simpson, M. ‘A definition of BIM’. The Structural
Rates applied to each quantity are extended to build Engineer, 91(11), November 2013, pp6–9
a total components cost which will be subject to
additions for contractors’ management costs and 7.6 Institution of Structural Engineers. ‘Technical Guide
potentially unforeseen and unfinished portions of the Note 31, Level 1: Drawing nomenclature’.
contract. The Structural Engineer, 91(9), September 2013,
pp30–33

7.7 National Building Specification. Products. Available at:

7.4 Design coordination and change http://www.thenbs.com/products/index.asp [Accessed:
19 February 2015]
control
7.8 BSI. BSI KitemarkTM. Available at: http://www.bsigroup.
co.uk/en-GB/our-services/product-certification/kitemark
Design is not a linear but an organic process and the [Accessed: 19 February 2015]
many inter-relationships with other components in the
structural model require modifications as the design 7.9 Construction Products Association. CE Marking.
develops. In an ideal scenario one would strive for the
Available at: http://www.constructionproducts.org.uk/
optimum solution first time. However, in reality, this is sustainability/products/ce-marking [Accessed:
rare. Instead, the team should aim to achieve a
19 February 2015]
holistic solution that is free from wholesale conflicts in
the first instance. This then gives a good platform on 7.10 BCSA, SCI and Tata Steel Europe. National Structural
which to refine details and overcome more localised Steelwork Specification for Building Construction
conflicts as the design progresses; always resolving 5th Edition (CE Marking version). London: BCSA, 2010
the most critical issues as priority.
7.11 Construct. National Structural Concrete Specification
The contractor will have an ‘Information Required for Building Construction. Fourth edition complying with
Schedule’ which will highlight the information BS EN 13670:2009. Camberley: The Concrete Centre,
necessary, together with the corresponding due 2010. Available at: http://www.construct.org.uk/media/
dates for incorporation into the works. The structural National_Structural_Concrete_Specification_for_
engineer should make the information and required Building_Construction.pdf [Accessed: 19 February
timescale for its provision clear, to ensure compliance 2015]
with the contractor’s information programme.
7.12 Tunstall, G. Managing the building design process.
Change does not only arise through design 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006
development but also through client instructions and
builders’ preferred methods of construction. Different
forms of procurement engage various team members
at different times. This leads to different opportunities
for members to enhance the design. Conversely,
7.6 Bibliography
members of the design team should carry out their
work with due diligance, such that errors, whether
Institution of Structural Engineers and The Concrete Society.
due to miscommunication, contract flaws or oversight
Standard Method of Detailing Structural Concrete: A manual for
are raised via the appropriate line of communication
best practice. 3rd ed. London: IStructE, 2006
to best resolve the issue. Therefore, as the design
progresses there must be overall coordination of the
BRE. BRE guidance on construction site communication.
process and control of changes, whether or not this
Available at: http://projects.bre.co.uk/site_communications/pdf/
brings about additional fees.
communication-guidance.pdf [Accessed: 19 February 2015]

7.5 References

7.1 UK Government. The Building Regulations 2010

(SI 2010/2214). Available at: http://www.legislation.
gov.uk/uksi/2010/2214/contents/made [Accessed:
19 February 2015]

38 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence

8 The construction stage

8.1 Role of the structural engineer
At the construction stage the structural engineer can
fulfill a number of roles as noted in Structural design –
the engineer’s role8.1.
structure and vice versa. It is therefore important that
performance specifications are clear and that
sufficient time is allowed for the incorporation of the
specialist subcontractor’s design into the main
works. It is also important that there is an overview of
the whole design to ensure that individual designs

Structural engineers may form part of the

construction team and can, in this context, be
responsible for setting out, completing design of
certain elements, management or supervision of site
works, temporary works design and coordination, Client
and preparation of a method statement.

8.2 Contract relationships

Contractor
Design
All relevant parties must have a clear understanding team
of the proposed contract to ensure that responsibility
is allocated correctly. There are many variant forms of Contractors and
contract, but several commonly adopted types are specialist
outlined in Figures 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3. Further guidance The design team may
sub-contractors be selected (or sourced
on the effects of procurement on the design process carry out agreed
is given in Structural design – the engineer’s role. in-house) by the client
works ‘packages’ prior to the contractor’s
Regardless of the procurement method, contractors involvement, and novated
will often employ subcontractors to undertake some if to the contractor at a
not all construction works. This has resulted from a Subcontractors later stage
combination of factors including the need to employ
reliable specialists, offset risks and utilise a diverse
range of skills in order to meet the requirements of
increasingly complex projects8.2. It should be noted
that these drivers are by no means unique to the Figure 8.2 Example of design and build contract relationships
construction industry.

The subcontractor is often responsible for a part of

the design particularly where their specialism is
concerned. Their responsibility and contractual
obligation is to carry out design and construction Client
works with reasonable skill, diligence and a duty of
care. However, the overall responsibility towards
ensuring that all subcontracted works meet the
performance requirements remains with the main
contractor. Aspects of the subcontractor design will
often have an influence on the design of the primary
Contractor has
project management
role Managing
contractor
If 2 stage tendering
is adopted, the Client forms
contractor has the Client two contracts Design
opportunity to be team
involved during the
design stage
Contractor(s)
(works) The design team here is in-house, but may also be an
Design external team which forms a contract with the managing
Contractor contractor.
team
Information Here, the managing contractor takes on responsibility for
exchange between both design and construction, but the client may choose
design team and contractor to form a separate contract for design

Figure 8.1 Example of traditional contract relationships Figure 8.3 Example of construction management contract relationships

The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 39

8.3 The construction stage
work together for the completed project. Temporary
and permanent stability must be reviewed between
designers and the design coordinator throughout the
process. One designer should be very clearly
identified and recorded as having overall responsibility
for the structural stability.
8.3 Temporary works
Temporary works are used to enable construction
works, provide support and access to the incomplete
structure, and to protect those on or near the site8.3.
Examples include temporary infrastructure, transfer
structures or bracing, scaffolding and falsework. It is
often the case that members will be subjected to a
greater magnitude of actions or stresses in their
temporary state than they will in service. Due
allowance has to be made for this by the
construction team. Today, portions of a structure are
often constructed offsite/offline and lifted into position
in large pieces (Box 8.1). The temporary load paths
for such lifts can be inverse to the in-service
conditions, requiring careful analysis.
Temporary works are vital for the mitigation of health
and safety risks on site. A commensurate level of
care should therefore be given to the design of
temporary works, as that given to permanent works.
A design brief should be prepared that contains
sufficient information from the permanent works
design team, as coordination between the temporary
and permanent works design is key to ensuring
compatibility. The temporary works designer should
then develop the design – delivering a set of
calculations, drawings and sketches. These should
demonstrate how the functional requirements of the
brief will be met, as well as how the structure will be
safely erected, operated and eventually demolished
or dismantled.
Box 8.1 Haymarket Railway Station capacity works, Edinburgh
The capacity works carried out for Haymarket railway station involved constraints with
respect to limited land as well as risks associated with high voltage cables, fast moving
vehicles and working at night. The method of construction involved a temporary works
strategy to mitigate these risks where the station concourse frame was built offsite during
daylight hours and lifted into place in large modules.
40 The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence
Before work begins, the main or principal contractor
should appoint a temporary works coordinator
(TWC)8.3, in line with the requirements of the relevant
regulations and design codes, who is responsible for
the implementation of their organisation’s temporary
works procedures and those of other subcontractors
who are directly or indirectly employed by them.
Further technical and procedural guidance has been
disseminated by the Temporary Works Forum8.4.
8.4 Quality control of workmanship
An integral and crucial part of ensuring the structural
adequacy of a structure is the provision of a
specification that sets out the requirements for the
work and the minimum acceptable standards of
workmanship. It is equally important for the
contractor to subsequently ensure that the
specification is met. Appropriately skilled staff and
good communication, coupled with effective
management, motivation and supervision of the
workforce are of paramount importance during the
construction stage.
Inspection and testing play an important part in the
building process, and should involve the structural
engineer. In a contractual situation, matters set out in
the specification, drawings and general instructions
should be capable of being checked – with agreed
procedures established for action if unsatisfactory
work is identified as construction proceeds. Particular
untried methods of working may need to be trialled to
ensure standards can be practicably met.
There are an abundance of codes and trade bodies
which offer advice on quality control and tolerances.
These include certifications and certification bodies
such as:
– UK Certification Authority for Reinforcing Steels
(CARES)8.5
– Quality Assurance for Ready Mixed Concrete
(QSRMC)8.6
– CE Marking8.7
– BM TRADA8.8
However, it is often tolerances which can create
problems on site, particularly respective tolerances
between differing materials. For example, a brickwork
wall is much more forgiving than a structural glass
wall. Due care should therefore be taken, in relation
to tolerance zones between differing materials in the
design process. While the tolerances specified by the
design team need to realistic, the construction team
should also aim to employ appropriate methods and
supervision that allow a reasonable level of accuracy
to be achieved.
8.5 Site inspections and reports
A clear understanding of what is required in relation
to site inspection must be reached with the client in
terms of appointment, number of site visits per week,
number of resident site staff etc. The definition of the
level and extent of site inspections and supervision
included in the terms of appointment and commercial
terms is important. The difference between site
 The construction stage 8.6

inspection and site supervision should be made clear; sustainability/products/ce-marking [Accessed:

the latter normally being the responsibility of the 19 February 2015]
contractor.
8.8 BM TRADA. Available at: http://www.bmtrada.co.uk/
Site inspections are heaviliy reliant on knowledge and [Accessed: 20 February 2015]
experience, and junior structural engineers will require
guidance in this respect. The limitations of site
inspection staff should be clearly defined. Instructions
should not be issued concerning matters outside the 8.7 Bibliography
structural engineer’s responsibility, e.g. methods of
working, sequence of work etc., unless there is an
immediate health and safety issue. The scope of Tunstall, G. Managing the building design process. 2nd ed.
what can be achieved by inspection should also be Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006
defined. There are some aspects that an inspecting
structural engineer may need to obtain from the
contractor. With pile foundations for example, it may
not be possible to check installed lengths unless
observing the full pile driving sequence.

It is advisable to prepare, as part of the project

implementation plan, a list of items to be inspected.
Written reports that record the following should be
made on all site inspections:
– all aspects which have been inspected (whether
compliant or non-compliant)
– items being progressed but not yet brought to the
site
– the stage that work had reached
– weather conditions
– basic plant and temporary works information

The site inspection reports should be distributed to all

interested parties including the design team, the
client/client representatives and the constructor.

As the intrepretation of verbal instructions on site can

differ from person to person it is advisable to record
any instructions, in writing, at the time they were
given. This is particularly important when immediate
action is required by the contractor or
subcontractors.

8.6 References

8.1 Institution of Structural Engineers. Structural design –

the engineer’s role. London: IStructE, 2011

8.2 Hughes, W., Champion, R. and Murdoch, J.

Construction Contracts: Law and Management. 5th ed.
Abingdon: Routledge (Taylor & Francis), 2015

8.3 Institution of Structural Engineers. ‘Managing Health &

Safety Risks. No. 19: Temporary works design and
management’. The Structural Engineer, 91(8), August
2013, p36

8.4 Temporary Works Forum. Publications. Available at:

http://www.twforum.org.uk/publications [Accessed:
20 February 2015]

8.5 CARES: Certification Authority for Reinforcing Steels.

Available at: http://www.ukcares.com/ [Accessed:
20 February 2015]

8.6 QSRMC. The Quality Scheme for Ready Mixed

Concrete. Available at: http://www.qsrmc.co.uk/
[Accessed: 20 February 2015]

8.7 Construction Products Association. CE Marking.

Available at: http://www.constructionproducts.org.uk/

The Institution of Structural Engineers Structural design – achieving excellence 41