SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2007, 35(5), 693-706

© Society for Personality Research (Inc.)

A COMPARISON OF PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS

IN CHILDREN OF WORKING AND NONWORKING MOTHERS

Figen Gürsoy and Müdriye Yildiz Biçakçi

Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey

The differences between the perceptions of parental attitudes in children of working and
nonworking mothers and whether gender influences parental attitude perceptions were
investigated. A General Information Form and the Bronfrenner Parents’ Attitude Scale (in
Turkish; Güneysu, 1982) were used. The data obtained were evaluated with t tests and Pearson
correlation tests. Results indicate that the work status of mothers has a significant impact
on the parental perception of their children, in particular how loving or punishing children
perceive their parents to be (p < .001). Children of working mothers view their parents as
more loving and less punishing compared to children of nonworking mothers. It was also
found that gender impacts on perceptions of parents as punishing (p < .05). Girls scored higher
than boys in perceiving both their mothers and fathers as punishing (p < .05). Moreover, a
positive and significant relationship between the perceptions of mothers and fathers was
observed (p < .001). In other words, children who perceive their mothers as loving perceive
their fathers as loving, and children who perceive their mothers as punishing view their fathers
the same way.

Keywords: working mother, father-child relationship, mother-child relationship, perception of

parental attitudes, work status.

Within the family environment, children acquire cultural values and basic
habits (Başar, 1996; Gürsoy & Yıldız Bıçakçı, 2003). Parents have a major
influence, since they will interact with their children intimately for a longer time
than will any other individuals.
The family environment becomes even more important with the onset of
adolescence. During this period, children experience huge physical, mental, and

Figen Gürsoy, PhD, Associate Professor, and Müdriye Yıldız Bıçakçı, Research Assistant, Ankara
University, Ankara, Turkey.
Appreciation is due to anonymous reviewers.
Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Figen Gürsoy, PhD, Associate Professor,
Ankara Üniversitesi, Ev Ekonomisi Yüjekokulu, Çocuk Gelisimi Egitimi Bölümü, Içaydinlik/Ankara,
Turkey. Phone: +90 312 596 1383; Fax: +90 312 318 1154; Email: Fgngursoy@yahoo.com or
gursoy.f@gmail.com

693
694 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS

social changes (Bulut Pedük, 2004). Additionally, they may desperately seek
their parents’ support and guidance while simultaneously resenting the presence
of their parents (Erwin, 2000). Therefore, the relationship between children and
parents becomes even more important during adolescence. Several factors shape
this relationship, such as the attitudes of parents towards children, the work status
of mothers, the physical characteristics of children and their gender.
Parental attitudes play a critical role in the way children perceive their parents
(Baumrind, 1994; Twenge & Campbell, 2001; Walker, 1996). These attitudes
change from parent to parent. Authoritarian parents expect their children to un-
conditionally obey the rules established by their parents. Parents with a tolerant
attitude give their children more freedom, which at an extreme could lead to
total loss of parental control. On the other hand, protective parents may exert
too much control and seem to be prying into the lives of their children. Rather,
the most helpful parental attitude is a warm and interested attitude with which
parents listen to their children patiently and sensitively, asking for children’s
opinions regarding family issues (Barber & Delfabbro, 2000; Gazeloğlu, 2000;
Varlinskaya & Spear, 2006; Yıldız Bıçakçı & Gürsoy, 2004). Those children who
have ongoing conflicts with their parents and who do not receive enough love
and support eventually lack confidence and feel inadequate, often submitting
to the power of more active and capable peers. In contrast, children who have
a loving relationship with their families also have a positive relationship with
peers and display healthy behavior (Baumrind, 1993; Döğücü, 2004). Many
studies have shown a close relationship between parental attitudes and children’s
behavior (Aral, 1997; Öğretir, 1999). These studies revealed that oppressive,
strict, punishing and conditionally loving parents instill negative feelings in
their children such as anxiety and fear. On the other hand, parents who give
their children love, care and respect instill positive feelings and behavior such
as success, creativity, responsibility and self-confidence (Haaposala & Pokela,
1999; Ketsztsiz, Ryan, & Adams, 1998).
Another factor influential in the relationship between parents and children is
the work status of the mother. Having a working mother in the family affects
all family members, especially children. Intercultural studies have also shown
that children are affected by the work status of their mothers (Baumrind, 1998).
It is important that mothers spend quality time with their children. Working
mothers tend to develop a new way of looking at life, but feel guilty about not
being able to spend enough time with their children. As a result, the time they
do spend together becomes quality time (Aral, Baran, Bulut, & Çimen, 2000;
Yıldız Bıçakçı & Gürsoy, 2004). Likewise, Tait, Culp, and Miller (2002), in their
study about the effects of the work status of a mother on children, found that the
quality of the time mothers spend with their children is important, and a loving
relationship affects the development of the child positively.
 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS 695
The parents’ own upbringing, their past family structure, and the relations
between the parents under traditionalism all have an effect on the attitudes of
parents. The childhood experiences of the parents are important in terms of the
relations in the family. Bad childhood experiences, such as the lack of a sound
relation with their own parents in their youth, not receiving efficient care and
affection from their families, or growing up under extreme pressure, can affect the
parents’ attitudes towards children in an adverse manner (Aral, 1997; Gazeloğlu,
2000; Güneysu, 1982; Vatansever, 1999). These attitudes gained from life in the
past can change only as a result of a learning process (Freedman & Sears, 1989).
A family’s structure may affect parental attitudes toward their children. Within
extended families, parents may not be able to establish close interaction with their
children to the extent that is possible in nuclear families. They do not have much
chance to supervise and pay attention to their children. Moreover, the presence of
a grandparent in the family may also affect the attitude of the parents toward the
children. Families with a low level of education, tied closely to their traditions
cannot establish efficient and close communication with their children, because
communication is developed within the framework of respect with a low level
of affection being displayed in said families (Berns, 1993). While the marks of
traditional attitudes are seen less in the relations between the couple in the family,
this is seen more in others. Families where traditional attitudes are observed at
a lower level are the nuclear ones in which the women participates in work life.
Democratic, respecting and affectionate ambiance is seen more commonly in the
nuclear family structure where the mother works. Parents who have a happy and
satisfied relationship with their spouse can display a happy, friendly and balanced
attitude towards their children (Aral, 1997; Walker, 1996).
In Turkey, the gender of the child similarly plays an important role in
determining parental attitudes. Parents may treat girls and boys differently for
various reasons. While boys are given more freedom for self-expression, girls
are raised in expectation of traditional roles. This inevitably means that boys
are treated too tolerantly and democratically while girls are oppressed. As a
result, girls may perceive parental attitudes to be more authoritative than do boys
(Baumrind, 1996; Berns, 1993; Helwig, Louise, Tan, & Boyd, 2003).
The well-being of societies depends on healthy individuals. Therefore, it
is crucial for the future of a society that children and adolescents, its future
productive individuals, are raised and educated to be healthy adults, through
establishing positive familial relationships and positive parental attitudes. In this
study, it was hypothesized that the education level of working women may be
higher than that of women who are not working, and thus that working women
may have a broader perspective on society; also, it was predicted that working
women would take care to spend higher quality time and establish a healthy
relationship with their children. Moreover, it is considered that girls may perceive
696 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS

the mother’s attitude positively as a result of the positive approach of the mother
towards the daughter, appreciating that girls often undertake the role of their
absent mothers and are responsible for the housekeeping chores. The present
study aimed to determine whether there are differences between the perceptions
of parental attitudes in children of working and nonworking mothers, whether the
gender of children creates a difference in their perceptions of parental attitudes
and whether there is a relationship between the attitudes of fathers and mothers.
Additionally, recommendations are made concerning the provision of support for
early adolescents and their parents.

METHOD

Participants
This study was conducted with 280 volunteer children aged 10 to 12 who
had either working or nonworking mothers (children aged 10: 23.22%; aged
11: 40.7%; aged 12: 36.1%; n = 280 and M = 11.13, SD = .7605). Children
included in the study were fourth and fifth graders from a middle socioeconomic
level and did not have any disabilities. The families included in the study are
not separated and are not living with grandparents. It is interesting to note that
working mothers are giving more pocket money to their children and providing
greater opportunities for their children to participate in social activities despite
the fact that all children have a medium socioeconomic level. The schools in
the neighborhoods within the scope of the study were chosen by the random
sampling method. Data were collected during the spring semester of 2006. Every
participant was living in a family with his/her parents and his/her mother, if
working, had been doing so for a minimum of six months. The participants were
divided into two groups according to the work status of their mothers.

Measures
The General Information Form was used in the study to collect certain
information on the children and the families of children who had working and
nonworking mothers, and the Bronfrenner Parents’ Attitude Scale (Güneysu,
1982) was used to measure the perception of the parents’ attitudes by children.
General Information Form (Yıldız Bıçakçı & Gürsoy, 2004) This consists of
questions about the age and gender of children, parents’ education levels, the
reasons for mothers to work and the duration of their work life. The General
Information Form was administered to children in both groups.
Bronfrenner Parents’ Attitudes Scale (Güneysu, 1982) This scale consists of
45 statements regarding parental behaviors. The children are asked to read the
statements and mark their opinions on the behavior of their parents on a scale of
1-5. The first 25 statements are scored as always (5 points), very often (4 points),
 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS 697
occasionally (3 points), rarely (2 points), and never (1 point) while others are
graded as almost every day (5 points), nearly once a week (4 points), nearly once
a month (3 points), once or twice a year (2 points), and never (1 point). These
45 statements measure 15 different variables related to parental attitudes. Each
variable is determined by three statements. These variables are care, emotional
rewards, good friendship, close friendship, tolerance, strict rules, social isolation,
meaningful refusal, physical punishment, deprival of privileges, protectiveness,
domination, success insistence, emotional punishment and discipline as a
principle. The variables were evaluated and three separate attitudes were
determined as “Loving”, “Punishing” and “Excessively Demanding”. Loving
attitude defines the supportive and assisting parent who is open to counsel and
information. These parents take pleasure in being with the child, they love, care
for, support, and trust the child. Punishing attitude characterizes parents who do
not pay attention to the emotions and needs of the child and who apply physical
or nonphysical punishments. The penalties applied by the parents may not stem
from a particular misdemeanor. The study dealt with loving and punishing
parental attitudes as previous studies conducted in Turkey made use of these two
dimensions of the scale, and as validity and reliability studies focused on these
two dimensions. The score for each child was calculated by adding up the points
obtained from the responses given to each item. When the points obtained in the
Loving section were high, the researchers concluded that these children perceive
their parents as loving, whereas when the points obtained in the Punishing
section were high, they concluded that these children perceive their parents as
figures of punishment.

Data Collection Method

The study was conducted with children attending primary schools identified
by the State Statistics Institution as middle socioeconomic class schools, and
also involved the students’ mothers. After the schools were selected, consent
was gained from the Turkish National Education Ministry. Following this,
schools were visited to discuss the study with mothers of participants, and the
aims of the study were made explicit. Consent was received from participants’
mothers. Prior to the study, the school management and class teachers were also
informed about the aims and details of the study, and appointments were made
for administering the questionnaires in the classrooms. Then, children whose
mothers were working were identified with the help of counselors and the school
management. For each child with a working mother, one of the same gender with
a nonworking mother was selected from each class and these children were put
into a different classroom. They were given the option of remaining anonymous
so that honest responses would be obtained. They were also instructed that the
study would be used to give recommendations to their parents. Children of
698 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS

working mothers answered the questions with the help of their class teacher.
The children had 20 minutes on average to complete the questionnaire. Since
all the children admitted in the study were chosen from schools at the middle
socioeconomic level, there are no socioeconomic differences between children
with working and nonworking mothers. Additionally, although there were not
significant differences between the parental education level of students with
working and nonworking mothers, it was found that children of working mothers
participated more in social activities.

Data Analysis
Scores for perception of parental attitudes by the children were recorded on the
information registration form along with information about the children and their
families. T tests were used in order to determine whether there was a significant
difference between the perceived parental attitudes and the variables in the two
subgroups (the work status of mother and children’s gender), and the Pearson
Correlation Test was used to determine whether there was a relationship between
perceived mother and father attitudes (Büyüköztürk, 2002).

RESULTS

This study was conducted with an even number of girls and boys (N = 280
and M = 11.13, SD = .7605) who volunteered to take part in the research. It was
found that 11.5% of the working mothers were primary school graduates, 31.7%
were secondary and high school graduates, and 56.8% were university graduates.
Of nonworking mothers, 48.9% were primary school graduates, 30.5% were
secondary and high school graduates, and 20.6% were university graduates.
When the father’s education level was examined, 7.2% of the fathers of children
with working mothers were primary school graduates, 31.6% were secondary
and high school graduates and 61.2% were university graduates. Of the fathers
of children with nonworking mothers, 39.7% were primary school graduates,
36.2% were secondary and high school graduates and 24.1% were university
graduates. Forty-seven percent of working mothers did so in order to live a better
life, 22% worked to provide sustenance for their family and 31% worked for
personal satisfaction. In terms of duration of work, 12% of the working mothers
had done so for 1-2 years, 36% for 3-7 years and 52% for a period of 8 years
or more.
The breakdown number of children of working mothers was 59.7% single
child, 8.62% two children and 31.7% three children; this breakdown was
48.2% single child, 17.7% two children and 34% three children for nonworking
mothers. In line with information received from the teachers, it was determined
that children of working mothers had greater levels of academic responsibility
 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS 699
and thus displayed greater success compared to children of nonworking mothers.
It was observed that 44.1% of children of working mothers were engaged in
sports activities in their spare time when they were not studying, while 40.6%
preferred to read books and 15.3% preferred talking with friends. Twenty percent
of children of nonworking mothers preferred to play sports, 38.4% liked reading
and 41.6% liked talking with friends.
As can be seen in Table 1, the mean points for both the perceived loving
mother (M = 67.22) and the perceived loving father attitude (M = 62.43) are
higher for children with working mothers than for children with nonworking
mothers. However, the mean points for both the perceived punishing mother
(M = 32.66) and the punishing father attitude (M = 31.33) is lower for those
children with working mothers in comparison to children with nonworking
mothers. The t test showed that the working status of the mother was important
(t(278) = 2.77, p < .001) in terms of scores for both the perceived loving mother
(t(278) = 2.77, p < .001) and father (t(278) = 6.54, p < .001) attitudes and the
perceived punishing mother (t(278) = 5.27, p < .001) and father (t(278) = 3.34,
p < .001).

Table 1
Perception of Parental Attitudes Means, Standard Deviations and T-Test
Results by Mother’s Work Status

Work Status of Mother Perception of Parental Attitudes

MOTHER FATHER
Loving Punishing Loving Punishing
N M SD M SD M SD M SD

Working 140 67.22 9.21 32.66 9.91 62.43 11.09 31.33 8.55
Nonworking 140 64.34 8.12 40.51 14.50 52.78 14.50 35.31 11.16
Results of T Test t df p t df p t df p t df p
2.77 278 .000 -5.27 278 .000 6.54 278 .000 -3.34 278 .000

According to t test results of gender, boys scored higher than girls in both
perceived punishing mother (M = 38.00) and perceived punishing father (M =
34.60) averages, and t test results of gender show that attitude points for both the
perceived punishing mother (M = 67.22) and the punishing father (M = 62.43)
are higher in girls compared to boys. It has been determined from the results of
the t test that the gender of the child created a significant difference in terms
of the scores given for both the perceived punishing mother (t(278) = 1.847, p <
.05) and punishing father (t(278) = 2.185, p < .05) while the attitude points for
perceived loving mother (t(278) = .778, p > .05) and loving father (t(278) = .541, p >
.05) did not differ based on gender.
 700

Table 2
Perception of Parental Attitudes, Means, Standard Deviations & Variance Analysis Results
of Subjects by Mothers’ Work Status and Gender

Work Status of Mother Perception of Parental Attitudes

MOTHER FATHER
Loving Punishing Loving Punishing
Gender N M SD M SD M SD M SD

Working Male 70 67.04 10.43 31.47 8.88 61.88 9.95 31.51 8.06
Female 70 67.39 7.93 33.81 10.74 62.97 12.1 31.15 9.05
Nonworking Male 70 63.81 8.08 38.76 13.91 52.59 13.96 32.47 10.17
Female 70 64.88 8.18 42.28 14.97 52.98 13.02 38.18 11.45
GENERAL Male 140 65.39 9.41 35.19 12.24 57.13 12.99 32.00 9.18
Female 140 66.14 8.12 38.02 13.64 58.01 13.50 34.84 10.87

Results of ANOVA F MS p F MS p F MS p F MS p
PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS

Work status of mother 7.601 575.574 .006 28.288 4344.590 .000 42.403 6500.974 .000 11.689 1118.24 .000
Gender .4665 35.229 .496 3.927 603.109 .049 .251 38.509 .617 5.228 500.189 .023
Work status of mother x Gender .119 9.033 .730 .158 24.311 .691 .055 8.458 .814 6.730 643.867 .010

Error 75.723 153.583 153.316 95.669

 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS 701
Examination of Table 2 reveals that children of working mothers perceive
their parents as more loving and less punishing. It is seen that girls perceive
their parents as more loving and less punishing. It is seen that girls perceive
their parents as more loving and more punishing than do boys. The output of the
variance analysis provided a meaningful relation between the mother’s working
status and the perceived attitudes of the parents [perceived loving mother:
(F(1-279) = 7.601, p < .001), perceived punishing mother: (F(1-279) = 28.288, p < .001),
perceived loving father: (F(1-279) = 42.403, p < .001), perceived punishing father:
(F(1-279) = 11.689, p < .001)]. It is observed that the relation between gender and
the perceived punishing parent attitudes is meaningful also [perceived punishing
mother: (F(1-279) = 3.927, p < .05), perceived punishing father: (F(1-279) = 5.228,
p < .023)]. Moreover, based on perceived punishing father attitude scores, it is
seen that the interaction between mother’s work status and gender is important
[perceived punishing father: (F(1-279) = 6.730, p < .05).
Examination of Table 3 revealed that while the majority (56.8%) of working
mothers were university graduates, nonworking mothers were most likely to
have graduated from primary school only. The outputs of the Chi-square test
indicate that mother’s education is effective in mother’s working status (c2(2) =
56.195, p > .001).
Table 3
Chi-Square Analysis of the Relationship Between Mother’s Work Status and
Mother’s Education Level

Work Status of Mother Mother’s Education Level

Primary Secondary University Total

school and high Graduates
graduates school graduates

Working N 16 45 79 140
% within mother’s work 11.5 31.7 56.8 100.00
% within mother’s education level 18.8 56.6 73.1 50.0
% total 5.7 16.1 28.2 50.0
Nonworking N 69 42 29 140
% within stiuation of mother work 48.9 30.5 20.6 100.00
% within mother’s education level 81.2 49.4 26.9 50.0
% total 24.6 15 10.4 50.0
Total N 85 87 108 280
% within stiuation of mother work 30.4 31.1 38.6 100.00
% within mother’s education level 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
% total 30.4 31.1 38.6 100.00

c² = 56.195 SD = 2 p = .000

According to a correlation test, there is a positive and highly significant

relationship between the perceived loving mother attitude and the perceived
702 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS

loving father attitude (r = 0.472, p < .001), and between the perceived punishing
mother attitude and the perceived punishing father attitude (r = 0.658, p <
.001).
DISCUSSION

This study was confined to fourth and fifth graders (10-12 years old) from the
middle socioeconomic level, with working and nonworking mothers (children
aged 10: 23.22%; aged 11: 40.7%; aged 12: 36.1%). Moreover, the study was
confined to children with normal development and a nuclear family.
The higher level of educational achievement of the working mothers compared
to nonworking mothers, and their selection of a marriage mate with similar char-
acteristics, seems to create a more harmonious and peaceful family environment.
Moreover, the working mothers realize better planning in order to ensure a
balance between work and home, and strive to spend a higher quality of time
with their children. This effort is seen in the more positive perception of parents
by children with working mothers compared to those with nonworking mothers.
Starrels (1992) reports that children with working mothers had a more positive
perception of parents in the study assessing the family relations of children with
working mothers and nonworking mothers. However, Harvey (1999) reports
that excessive attachment of the mother to work weakens communication
with the child, yet the negative outcome in communication is reduced with a
higher quality of care being shown to the child. Booth, Clarke-Stewart, Vandell,
McCartney, and Owen (2002) have reported that the working mother’s spending
higher quality and multioriented time with the child leads to a more positive
perception of the parents by the child.
It is seen that girls are generally more committed to their families and have
more regular relations with the family than boys do due to the effect of cultural
factors. While girls may be involved in addressing a problem encountered in the
family, boys stay more distant from the problem. Thus, communication between
the family and a girl become better established. For this reason, girls perceive
their parents more positively. In their studies, Bostan (1993, conducted with
168 girls and 170 boys, aged 14-16), Hatipoğlu (1996, with 619 adolescents),
and Vatansever (1999, with 105 boys and 105 girls) have emphasized that
girls perceived their parents more positively than did boys. Özcan (1996) has
emphasized in his study that families did not treat their sons and daughters
differently, but girls perceived their parents more positively. Barber (2000) has
emphasized that parents applied greater pressure on boys, especially in terms of
education and career, compared to girls, and that this resulted in weakening of
the family relations of boys. By visiting children (283 girls, 302 boys) at their
home environment, Criss, Pettit, Bates, Dodge, and Kapp (2002) determined that
boys had encountered more problems with their families and that they felt that
 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS 703
they were punished in the solution of these problems. Saylan (2002) has stated
that parents applied more excessive pressure on boys compared to girls.
Parents with a higher level of education have greater knowledge of child
development and education, and thus they are capable of approaching their
children more democratically. They can establish a healthier relationship with
their child, increase sharing of the child with the parents and support more
positive development of the relations (Dizman, 2003). Moreover, the attitudes
of parents towards their children are changing and becoming more tender with
the extension of mass communication. The punishment-orientated authoritarian
attitude, which is insensitive towards the child’s needs and which provides only
conditional displays of affection, inferring rejection of the child and requiring
absolute obedience to demands, is being replaced with a democratic attitude
which entails unconditional affection and which grants equal rights to the child,
supports free expression of ideas, places importance on becoming friends with
the child and sharing many things with the child.
Certain messages received from the parents are encouraging while others
are discouraging. Such messages have a constructive or destructive impact
on child development. This shows that the parents’ attitudes and messages
have an important effect on the parent-child relationship. The children have a
more positive perception of their parents if the couples have self-confidence,
tolerance, flexibility, and smooth communication between themselves and their
children. Nielsen and Methoa (1994) have stated that the behaviors of parents
are important in terms of perception of the family by the child. Gurdinali and
Alura (2001) state that family structure, and Warash and Markstrom (2001) state
that parents’ attitudes, hold an important place in the life of the child. This shows
that the attitudes of the mother and father may be affected by one another. The
results of our study support this opinion. Consistency of the parents’ attitudes
is very important in terms of child development. However, in terms of negative
attitude, the parents need to encourage one another to display a suitable attitude
towards the child. Thus, a good level of communication between the parents is
very important. Good communication between the parents leads to the display
of a positive attitude towards the children (Gfroerer, Kern, & Curlette, 2004;
Walker, 1996).

RECOMMENDATIONS

The results of the study imply that children of working mothers have better
relations with their parents. This may be because nonworking mothers do not
necessarily make the time they spend with their children of the same quality as
working mothers, even though they may have more time with their children than
working mothers do. Therefore, the following recommendations may be useful
704 PARENTAL ATTITUDE PERCEPTIONS

for parents:
• Parents should prepare children for adolescence prior to this difficult period.
To be able to do this, they should monitor the unique development of their
children and be sensitive to their unique needs.
• They should spend quality time with their children.
• They should encourage their children to participate, and participate
themselves, in social activities.
• They should trust their children, support them in all environments and leave
room for self-expression by respecting them.

Working mothers may make use of the following suggestions:

• Working mothers should not feel guilty or spoil their children as a result of
this feeling.
• Working mothers need a regular work schedule which does not change
often. Children may not cope well with changing schedules.
• Working mothers need the support of their husbands in establishing a
healthy relationship with their children.

Future researchers who wish to conduct similar studies may be advised

to work with a larger sample and do a comparative study between different
socioeconomic levels.

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