Gibson School Systems

BIOLOGY HANDOUT-1 FOR GRADE 12

Making Young People Strong People
Aerobic Respiration Making Strong People Stronger
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Aerobic Respiration: It is the process of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of
oxygen gas to produce energy from food. This type of respiration is common in most of the plants and
animals, birds, humans, and other mammals. In this process, water and carbon dioxide are produced as
end products.

Steps of Aerobic Respiration

Overall Equation
The equation for aerobic respiration describes the reactants and products of all of its steps, including
glycolysis. That equation is:
1 glucose + 6 O2  → 6 CO2+ 6 H2O + 38 ATP
In summary, 1 molecule of six-carbon glucose and 6 molecules of oxygen are converted into 6 molecules
of carbon dioxide, 6 molecules of water, and 38 molecules of ATP. The reactions of aerobic respiration
can be broken down into four stages, described below.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first stage of aerobic respiration and occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. It involves
the splitting of 1 six-carbon sugar molecule into 2 three-carbon pyruvate molecules. This process
creates two ATP molecules.
The overall equation is as follows:
C6H12O6  +   2 ADP + 2 PI + 2 NAD+  → 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+  + 2 H2O
This process reduces the co-factor NAD+ to NADH. This is important, as later in the process of cellular
respiration, NADH will power the formation of much more ATP through the mitochondria’s electron
transport chain.
In the next stage, pyruvate is processed to turn it into fuel for the citric acid cycle, using the process
of oxidative decarboxylation.
Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
2 (Pyruvate–  +  Coenzyme  A + NAD+  → Acetyl CoA + CO2  + NADH)
Oxidative decarboxylation, sometimes referred to as the link reaction or the transition reaction, is the
link between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Pyruvate is transfered into the mitochondrial matrix
via a protein known as pyruvate translocase. Here, the pyruvate is combined with Coenzyme A to release
a carbon dioxide molecule and form acetyl-CoA.
This transition reaction is important because acetyl-CoA is an ideal fuel for the citric acid cycle, which
can in turn power the process of oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria, which produces huge
amounts of ATP.
More NADH is also created in this reaction. This means more fuel to create more ATP later in the
process of cellular respiration.
The citric acid cycle, also called the tricarboxylic acid cycle or the Krebs cycle, is a series of redox
reactions that begins with Acetyl CoA. These reactions take place in the matrix of the mitochondria of
eukaryotic cells. In prokaryotic cells, it takes place in the cytoplasm. The overall reaction is as follows:
2 (ACETYL COA + 3 NAD+  + FAD + ADP + PI → CO2  + 3 NADH +  FADH2  + ATP + H+  + COENZYME A)
The reaction occurs twice for each molecule of glucose, as there are two pyruvates and hence two
molecules of Acetyl CoA generated to enter the citric acid cycle.
Both NADH and FADH2 – another carrier of electrons for the electron transport chain – are created.
All the NADH and FADH2 created in the preceding steps now come into play in the process of oxidative
phosphorylation.
In summary, for each round of the cycle, two carbons enter the reaction in the form of Acetyl CoA.
These produce two molecules of carbon dioxide. The reactions generate three molecules of NADH and
one molecule of FADH. One molecule of ATP is produced.
Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is the primary energy providing stage of aerobic respiration. It uses the
folded membranes within the cell’s mitochondria to produce huge amounts of ATP.
34 (ADP + PI+ NADH + 1/2 O2  + 2H+  → ATP + NAD+  + 2 H2O)
In this process, NADH and FADH2 donate the electrons they obtained from glucose during the previous
steps of cellular respiration to the electron transport chain in the mitochondria’s membrane.
The electron transport chain consists of a number of protein complexes that are embedded in the
mitochondrial membrane, including complex I, Q, complex III, cytochrome C, and complex IV.
All of these ultimately serve to pass electrons from higher to lower energy levels, harvesting the
energy released in the process. This energy is used to power proton pumps, which power ATP formation.
Just like the sodium-potassium pump of the cell membrane, the proton pumps of the mitochondrial
membrane are used to generate a concentration gradient which can be used to power other processes.
The protons that are transported across the membrane using the energy harvested from NADH and
FADH2 “want” to pass through channel proteins from their area of high concentration to their area of
low concentration.
Specifically, the channel proteins are ATP syntheses, which are enzymes that make ATP. When protons
pass through ATP synthase, they drive the formation of ATP.
This process is why mitochondria are referred to as “the powerhouses of the cell.” The mitochondria’s
electron transport chain makes nearly 90% of all the ATP produced by the cell from breaking down
food.
This is also the step that requires oxygen. Without oxygen molecules to accept the depleted electrons
at the end of the electron transport chain, the electrons would back up, and the process of ATP
creation would not be able to continue.
Anaerobic Respiration
Both anaerobic and aerobic respiration pathways begin with the anaerobic breakdown of glucose in the
cytosol by glycolysis
Glycolysis breaks down glucose (6-C) into two molecules of pyruvate (3C), and also produces:
 Hydrogen carriers (NADH) from an oxidised precursor (NAD +)
 A small yield of ATP (net gain of 2 molecules)

Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration proceeds in the absence of oxygen and does not result in the production of any
further ATP molecules
 In animals, the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid (or lactate)
 In plants and yeasts, the pyruvate is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide 
The purpose of anaerobic respiration is to restore stocks of NAD + – as this molecule is needed for
glycolysis
 By restoring stocks of NAD+ via anaerobic pathways, the organism can continue to produce ATP via
glycolysis
The conversion of pyruvate into lactic acid (animals) or ethanol and CO 2 (plants / yeasts) is reversible
 Hence, pyruvate levels can be restored once oxygen is present and a greater yield of ATP may be
produced aerobically
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some bacteria, and some protistans use the energy from
sunlight to produce sugar, which cellular respiration converts into ATP, the "fuel" used by all living
things. The conversion of unusable sunlight energy into usable chemical energy, is associated with the
actions of the green pigment chlorophyll. Most of the time, the photosynthetic process uses water and
releases the oxygen that we absolutely must have to stay alive. Oh yes, we need the food as well!
We can write the overall reaction of this process as:
6H2O + 6CO2 ----------> C6H12O6+ 6O2

Diagram of a typical plant, showing the inputs and outputs of the photosynthetic process. 
Leaves and Leaf Structure
Plants are the only photosynthetic organisms to have leaves (and not all plants have leaves). A leaf may
be viewed as a solar collector crammed full of photosynthetic cells. The raw materials of
photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide, enter the cells of the leaf, and the products of
photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen, leave the leaf.

Cross section of a leaf, showing the anatomical features important to the study
of photosynthesis: stoma, guard cell, mesophyll cells, and vein. 

Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

A pigment is any substance that absorbs light. The color of the pigment comes from the wavelengths of
light reflected (in other words, those not absorbed). Chlorophyll, the green pigment common to all
photosynthetic cells, absorbs all wavelengths of visible light except green, which it reflects to be
detected by our eyes. Black pigments absorb all of the wavelengths that strike them. White
pigments/lighter colors reflect all or almost all of the energy striking them. Pigments have their own
characteristic absorption spectra, the absorption pattern of a given pigment.
Chlorophyll is a complex molecule. Several modifications of chlorophyll occur among plants and other
photosynthetic organisms. All photosynthetic organisms (plants, certain protistans, prochlorobacteria,
and cyanobacteria) have chlorophyll a. Accessory pigments absorb energy that chlorophyll a does not
absorb. Accessory pigments include chlorophyll b (also c, d, and e in algae and protistans), xanthophylls,
and carotenoids (such as beta-carotene). Chlorophyll a absorbs its energy from the Violet-Blue and
Reddish orange-Red wavelengths, and little from the intermediate (Green-Yellow-Orange) wavelengths.

The molecular structure of chlorophylls.

Absorption spectrum of several plant pigments (left) and action spectrum of elodea (right), a common aquarium plant used in lab experiments about photosynthesis. 

The structure of the chloroplast and photosynthetic membranes

The thylakoid is the structural unit of photosynthesis. Thylakoids are stacked like pancakes in stacks
known collectively as grana. The areas between grana are referred to as stroma. While the
mitochondrion has two membrane systems, the chloroplast has three, forming three compartments.

Structure of a chloroplast. 
Stages of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a two stage process. The first process is the Light Dependent Process (Light
Reactions), requires the direct energy of light to make energy carrier molecules that are used in the
second process. The Light Reactions occur in the grana and the Dark Reactions take place in
the stroma of the chloroplasts.
 Overview of the two steps in the photosynthesis process. 

Light Reactions
In the Light Dependent Processes (Light Reactions) light strikes chlorophyll a in such a way as to excite
electrons to a higher energy state. In a series of reactions the energy is converted (along an electron
transport process) into ATP and NADPH. Water is split in the process, releasing oxygen as a by-product
of the reaction. The ATP and NADPH are used to make C-C bonds in the Light Independent Process
(Dark Reactions).
In the Light Independent Process, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or water for aquatic/marine
organisms) is captured and modified by the addition of Hydrogen to form carbohydrates (general
formula of carbohydrates is [CH2O]n).
Photosystems are arrangements of chlorophyll and other pigments packed into thylakoids.

Action of a photosystem. 
Photophosphorylation is the process of converting energy from a light-excited electron into the pyrophosphate
bond of an ADP molecule. This occurs when the electrons from water are excited by the light in the presence of
P680.

Noncyclic photophosphorylation (left) and cyclic photophosphorylation (right). These processes are better known as the light reactions. 
Dark Reaction
Carbon-Fixing Reactions are also known as the Dark Reactions (or Light Independent Reactions). Carbon
dioxide enters single-celled and aquatic autotrophs through no specialized structures, diffusing into the
cells. Land plants must guard against drying out (desiccation) and so have evolved specialized structures
known as stomata to allow gas to enter and leave the leaf. The Calvin Cycle occurs in the stroma of
chloroplasts (where would it occur in a prokaryote?). Carbon dioxide is captured by the
chemical ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). RuBP is a 5-C chemical. Six molecules of carbon dioxide enter the
Calvin Cycle, eventually producing one molecule of glucose. The reactions in this process were worked
out by Melvin Calvin.

The light-dependent reactions harness energy from the sun to produce

ATP and NADPH. These energy-carrying molecules
travel into the stroma where the Calvin cycle reactions take place.

The first steps in the Calvin cycle. 

The first stable product of the Calvin Cycle is phosphoglycerate (PGA), a 3-C chemical. The energy
from ATP and NADPH energy carriers generated by the photosystems is used to attach phosphates to
(phosphorylate) the PGA. Eventually there are 12 molecules of glyceraldehyde phosphate (also known
as phosphoglyceraldehyde or PGAL, a 3-C), two of which are removed from the cycle to make a glucose.
C-4 Pathway 
Some plants have developed a preliminary step to the Calvin Cycle (which is also referred to as a C-3
pathway), this preamble step is known as C-4. While most C-fixation begins with RuBP, C-4 begins with a
new molecule, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a 3-C chemical that is converted into oxaloacetic acid (OAA, a
4-C chemical) when carbon dioxide is combined with PEP.

C-4 photosynthsis involves the separation of carbon

fixation and carbohydrate systhesis in space and time.

 
 Photorespiration. 

We can see anatomical differences between C3 and C4 leaves.

Leaf anatomy of a C3 (top) and C4 (bottom) plant. 

Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
a) Light intensity
At low light intensities, as light intensity increases, the rate of the light-dependent
reaction, and therefore photosynthesis generally, increases proportionately

Fig. Effect of light on photosynthesis

b) Carbon dioxide
An increase in the carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate at which carbon is
incorporated into carbohydrate in the light-independent reaction, and so the rate of
photosynthesis generally increases until limited by another factor.
 Fig. Effect of carbon dioxide on photosynthesis

c) Temperature
Although the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis are not affected by changes in
temperature, the light independent reactions of photosynthesis are dependent on
temperature.

Fig. Effect of temperature on photosynthesis

Difference Between C3, C4 and CAM pathway

BASIS FOR C3 PATHWAY C4 PATHWAY CAM
COMPARISON

Definition Such plants whose first
product after the carbon
assimilation from sunlight is
3-carbon molecule or 3-
phosphoglyceric acid for the
production of energy is called
C3 plants, and the pathway is
called as the C3 pathway. It
is most commonly used by
plants.
Plants in the tropical area,
convert the sunlight energy into
C4 carbon molecule or
oxaloacetice acid, which takes
place before the C3 cycle
and then it further convert into
the energy, is called C4 plants
and pathway is called as the C4
pathway. This is more efficient
than the C3 pathway.
The plants which store the
energy from the sun and
then convert it into energy
during night follows the CAM
or crassulacean acid
metabolism.

Cells involved Mesophyll cells. Mesophyll cell, bundle sheath Both C3 and C4 in same
cells. mesophyll cells.
Example Sunflower, Spinach, Beans, Sugarcane, Sorghum and Maize. Cacti, orchids.
Rice, Cotton.
Can be seen in All photosynthetic plants. In tropical plants Semi-arid condition.
Types of plants Mesophytic, hydrophytic, Mesophytic. Xerophytic.
using this cycle xerophytic.
Photorespiration Present in high rate. Not easily detectable. Detectable in the afternoon.
For the 12 NADPH and 18 ATPs are 12 NADPH and 30 ATPs are 12 NADPH and 39 ATPs are
production of required. required. required.
glucose
First stable 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA). Oxaloacetate (OAA). Oxaloacetate (OAA) at
product night, 3 PGA at daytime.
Calvin cycle Alone. Along with the Hatch and Slack C3 and Hatch and Slack
operative cycle. cycle.
Optimum temperature 15-25 °C 30-40 °C > 40 degrees °C
for photosynthesis
Carboxylating RuBP carboxylase. In mesophyll: PEP carboxylase. In the dark: PEP carboxylase.
Enzyme In bundle sheath: RuBP In light: RUBP carboxylase.
carboxylase.
CO2: ATP: 1:3:2 1:5:2 1:6.5:2
NADPH2 ratio
Initial CO2 Ribulose-1,5- Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
acceptor biphophate(RuBP).
Kranz Anatomy Absent. Present. Absent.
CO2 30-70. 6-10. 0-5 in dark.
compensation
point (ppm)