W O R KS B Y T HE SA ME A UT H O R

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, .

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Vo l . II . 8 v o xiv + 3 33 pag e s 209 fi g u r e s

, , .

C l o th ,
net ,

E n g in e e r in g A pplicati o n s o f H i g h e r M ath e
m atic e
Pa rt I . M CH I NE DE S I G N S m all 8 vo
A .
,

xi v + 69 p a g e s C l o th. net ,

Publi shed b y FER DI NA ND ENKE, ST UT T G A R T

Ue b e r M e h rpha s i g e S t ro m s y s te m e b e i
Un g leic hm as s ig e r B ela s tun g P ape r .
 T HE

MA G NET I C C I R C UI T

V . KA R A PE T O FF

B OOK C O M P A NY
2 39 W E ST 39 T U ST R E E T , N E W Y O R K
6 B O UVE R I E ST R EET , L O N DO N , E C .

19 1 1
 C opy righ t
, 1911

B Y

M O G R A W -HI L L B OOK C OM PA N Y
 PR E FA CE

T HI S b o o k t o gethe r with the c o mpani o n b o o k entitled The

,
”
E lectric C ircuit is intended t o give a student in electrical
,

engineering the theo retical elements necessary fo r the c o rrect

understanding o f the perfo rm ance o f dyn am o electric m achinery -
,

transfo rmers transmissi o n lines etc The b oo k also c o ntains

, ,
.

the essenti al num erical relati o ns used in the predeterminati o n o f

the pe rfo rmance and in the design o f electrical m achinery and
apparatus The wh o le treatment is based up o n a very few funda
.

mental facts and assumpti o ns The student must be taught t o

.

treat eve r y electric machine as a pa rticular c o mbinati o n o f electric

and magnetic circuits and t o base its perfo rm ance up o n the
,

fundam ental electro magnetic relati o ns r athe r than up o n a sepa

r ate theo ry established fo r each kind o f machinery as is s o me ,

tim es d o ne .

The b o o k is not intended fo r a beginn e r b it fo r a student ,

who has had an elementary descriptive c o u rse in electrical engi

neering and s o me simple lab o r at o ry experiments The treat .

ment is so mewhat di ff erent fr o m that given in m o st o ther b o o ks

de a ling with m agnetic phen o mena I t is b a sed di rectly up o n
.

the ci r cuital r elati o n o r inte rlink age between an electric cu rrent

, ,

and the m agnetic fl ux p ro duced by it This relati o n and .

,

the law o f induced electro m o tive fo rce ar e taken t o be t he ,

fundamental phen o mena o f elect ro m agnetism N o use what —

.

eve r is m ade o f the usual a rtificial c o ncepts o f unit p o le m agnetic ,

cha rge m agnetic shell etc These c o ncepts o f m athematical

, ,
.

physics to gethe r with the law o f inve rse squa res emb o dy the
, ,

theo ry o f acti o n at a distance and a re b o th supe rflu o us and

,

m isle a d ing f ro m the m o de rn po int o f view o f a c o ntinu o us acti o n

in the m edium itself .

The ampere o hm syste m o f units is used th ro ugh o ut in

-
,

acc o rd an c e with Pro fesso r G i o rgi s ideas as is explained in t he

’
,
vi PRE FAC E

appendices Th ose familiar with O live r Hea viside s writings

.
’

will n o tice his influence up o n the auth o r in particular with ,

regard t o a unifo rm an d r ati o nal n o menclature The auth o r trusts .

that his c o lleagues will j udge his treatment and n o menclature

up o n their o wn merits and not c o ndemn them simply because
,

they are di ff erent fr o m the cust o mary treatment .

I n the first fo ur chapters the student is intr o duced int o the

fundamental electr o magnetic relati o ns an d is m ade fa miliar with ,

them by means Of num er o us illustrati o ns taken fr o m engineering

practice C hapters V t o I X treat o f the flux and m agnet o
.

m o tive fo rce r elati o ns in electrical machinery first at no l o ad and , ,

then under l o ad when the r e is an armature reacti o n The remain .

ing fo u r chapters are dev o ted t o the phen o mena o f sto red m agnetic
energy namely inductance and tractive effo rt The subj ect is
,
.

treated entirely fr o m the p o int o f View o f an electrical engineer ,

and the imp o rtant relati o ns and meth o ds a r e illustrated by

practical numerical pr o blems o f which there are several hundred
,

in the text A ll matter o f purely hist o rical o r the o retical interest

.

has been left o ut as well as special t o pics which are o f interest

,

t o a p r o fessi o nal designer o nly A n ambiti o us student will find

.

a m o re exhaustive treatment in the numer o us refe r ences given in

the text .

M any thanks are due t o the auth o r s friend and c o lleague

’
,

M r Jo hn F H D o uglas instruct o r in electrical engineering in

. . .
,

S ibley C o llege who read the m anuscript and the p ro o fs checked

, ,

the answers t o the pr o blems and made many excellent sugges ,

ti o ns fo r the text M o st o f the sketches are o riginal and are the

.
,

w o rk Of M r Jo hn T W illiams Of the D epa rtment o f M achine

. .

D esign o f Sibley C o llege t o wh o m I a m greatly indebted

, .

C ORNE L L U NI VE RS I TY I T HACA N Y , , .

Septe mbe r 19 1 1 , .
 CO NT E N T S

S UGG E S TI ONS T o TE ACHE RS

C HAPTE R I . F UNDAM E NT AL RE L ATI ON B E TW E E N FL UX AND M A G
T HE
N E T O M O T I VE FORCE

A si mple magnetic circuit M agn eto mo tive force M agnetic flux . . .

The reluctance O f a magnetic path The pe rmeance o f a magnetic .

path Relucti vity a nd pe rmeability M agnetic inten sity Flux

. . .

density Reluctances a nd permeances in series and in parallel

. .

C HAPTE R II . TI C C I RCUI T W I TH IRON

T HE M AGNE
The diff erence between iro n a nd n o n magnetic materials M a g -
.

net iz a t io n curv es Permeability a nd satur ati on Pro blems invo lv

. .

ing the use o f m agnetiz ati o n curves .

C HAPTE R III H YS TE RE S I S AND E DDY CURR E NTS I N IRON

.

The hys te resis l oo p A n explanati o n O f saturatio n and hysteresis

.

in i ro n The lo ss O f ene rgy pe r cycle O f magneti z ati o n E ddy cur

. .

rent in iro n The significance O f iro n lo ss in electrical machinery

s . .

The to tal co re l oss Practical data o n hysteres is loss E d dy cur

. .

re nt loss in iro n The separatio n o f hysteresis fro m eddy curre nts

. .

C HAP TE R I V IND UCE D . I N E L E C T R I CAL M AC HI N E R Y

M eth o ds O f inducing e m f The formul e for in duced e m f

. . . a . . .

The induced e m f in a t ran former The induced m f in a n

. . . s . e . . .
'

alte rnato r and in a n inductio n mo to r T he b read th facto r T he .

.

sl o t facto r k The windin g pitch fac to r kw No n s inuso idal vo l

. .
-
.
-
 CO N TE N TS
P A GE

C HAPTE R V I E X CI TI NG A M PE RE T URNS I N E L E CTR I CAL M ACHI NE RY

.
-

( Co ntinued )
The am per e t urn required for atu rated teeth The ampere - s s .

tur n for the armatur e c ore and for the field fr ame M agnetic
s .

leakage between field p o le The perm eance and reluctance O f i reg s . r

ular paths The law O f fl ux refracti o n. .

C HAPTE R V II M AGNE TO M O TI VE FORCE O F D I S TR I B UTE D W I NDI NGS

. .

The m m f o f a dir ect cu rr ent or sin gle pha e di tributed w in d

. . .
- -
s s

ing . The m m f o f p o lypha e windin gs The m m f in a l o aded

. . . s . . . s .

inductio n machine The higher harmo nics o f the m m f . . . s .

C HAPTE R V I I I A RM ATURE RE ACTI ON I N S Y N C I I R O N O US M ACH I NE S

.
—
. .

Armature reacti o n and ar matu r e reactance in a synchro n ou s

machine The performance diagr am O f a ynchro n ou s machine

. s

with n o n alient p o le The dir ect and tran sver e arm atur e
-s s . s rea c

ti o n in a ynchro n ou s m achin e with salient p o le

s The B l o ndel s .

performance diagr am O f a synchro n o us machine with alient p o le s s .

The calculati o n f the value f the c o efficient o f di ect reactio n The

O O r .

calculati o n o f the value f the c o efficient o f transver e reacti o n O s .

C HAPTE R I X A RM ATURE RE ACTI ON I N D I RE CT C URRE NT M ACH I NE S

.
-
.

The direct and tran sver e armatu re reacti o n The calculati o n s s .

o f the field ampere turn in a di rect current machine under l oad -

s -
.

Co mmutatin g p o le and c ompen satin g windin g Armature rea s s . c

ti o n in a ro tary c o nverter .

C HAPTE R X TRO M AGNE TI C E NE RG Y AND INDUCTANCE

. E LE C .

The energy t ored in an electro magnetic field E lectro magnetic s .

energy expr e ed th ou gh the lin kages o f cu rrent and flux Induc

ss r .

tance as the c o efficient o f stored energy or the electrical inertia o f a ,

circ uit .

C H A PTE R X I . T HE IND UCTANCE OF CAB L E S AND OF TRANS M I SS I ON

L I NE S .

inductance O f a sin gle phase c o ncent ric cable The ma g

T he - .

netic field created by a Ioo p o f two parallel wires The inductance .

of a sin gle pha se line The inductance of a three phase line with
-
.
-

sym met rical and semi sym met rical s pacin g The equivalent reao -
.

tance and resi stance O f a three phase line with an unequal spacing o f -

the wires .

C HAPTE R XII . T HE INDUCTANCE OF T HE W I ND I NG S OF E LE C TRI CAL

ACHI NE R Y
M .

The inductance o f tran sformer windin gs The equivalent leak .

a ge permean ce O f arm atu re windin gs The leakage reactance in .

in ducti o n m achines The leakage reactance in syn ch ro n o u s machines . .

The reactance v o ltage O f c o ils un dergo in g co mmutation

 CO N TE N TS ix

PA
GI

T HE M E C HANI CAL FORCE A ND TOR Q UE DUE TO EL E C

The density o f energy in a magnetic fiel d The lo n gitudinal

.

te nsi o n a nd the late ral co mpressi o n in a magnetic field .The deter

minatio n o f the m ec hanical forces by mea ns o f the p rinciple O f vir tual
displacements The to rque in gener ato rs a nd mo to rs
. .
 SUG G EST I O N S T O T E A CHE R S

( 1) T HI S boo k is intended t o be used as a text in a c o u rse

which c o m p rises lectu res recitati o ns c o mputing pe ri o ds and
, , ,

h o me wo rk Pur ely descriptive matter has been o mitted o r o nly

.

suggested in o rde r t o all o w the teache r m o r e fr eed o m in his

'

lectur es a nd t o pe rmit hi m t o establish his o wn p o int Of View .

So me pa r ts Of the b o o k are m o r e suitable fo r r ecitati o ns o thers ,

as r eference in the c o mputing roo m o the r s again as a basis fo r

, , ,

discussi o n in lectur es o r fo r brief theses .

(2 ) D i ffe rent parts Of the b oo k a r e made as m uch as p o ssible

independent o f one an o the r so that the teache r can schedule
,

them as it suits hi m best M o re o ve r m o st Of the chapte r s a r e

.
,

w r itten acc o rding t o the c o ncentric meth o d S O that it is no t ,

nece ssa ry t o finish o ne chapte r befo re sta rting o n the next O ne

.
.

can th us c o ve r the subj ect in an ab r idged m anne r o mitting the ,

las t pa rts Of the chapte rs .

(3 ) The p ro ble m s given at the end Of nea rly eve ry a rticle a re

an integr al pa rt Of the b oo k and S h o uld unde r no ci rc um st anc es
, , ,

be o mitted The re is no ro yal way o f Obtaining a clea r unde r

.

standing O f the unde rlying physical p rinciples and Of a cqui ring ,

an as su rance in their p ractical applicati o n except by the so luti o n ,

Of n um e rical examples I t is c o nvenient t o assign ea c h student

.

the c o mplete s pecificati o ns Of a m achine Of each kind and as k ,

him to so lve the vari o us p ro ble m s in the t ext in a pplicati o n t o

these m achin es in p ro p o rti o n as the b oo k is c o ve red N u m e r
, .

o us specificati o ns and d r awings Of elec t rical m ac hines will be

fo und in the sta nda rd w o rk o f E A rn o ld H M Ho ba r t

s .
, . .
,

P ic helma y er and o the rs m enti o ned in the foo tn o tes in t he

,

text A first hand acquaint a nce wi t h these cl a ss ical wo rks o n

.
-

the par t Of the student is ve ry desi rable h o weve r supe rfici a l this
,

ac q uaintan c e m ay be .
X11 SUGG E STI O N S T O TE ACH E RS

(4 ) The b o o k c ontains c o mparatively few S ketches ; this gives

the student an o pp o rtunity t o illustrate the imp o rt a nt relati o ns
by S ketches Of his o wn M aking S ketches and drawings Of electric
.

machines t o sc a le with t heir mechanical features sh o uld be o ne

, ,

o f the imp o rt a nt features Of an advanced c o urse even th o ugh it ,

may no t be p o pula r with s o me an a lyt ically inclined students -

.

M echanical drawing devel o ps p r ecisi o n Of j udgment and gives ,

the student a kn o wledge Of m achinery and apparatus that is

tangible and c o ncrete .

( )
5 The auth o r ha s av o ided giving defi nite numerical data ,

c o efficients and standards except in pr o blems where they are

, ,

indispensable and where no general significance is ascribed t o

such data His r eas o ns are (a ) N umerical c o efficients Obscure
.

the general exp o siti o n (b) S ufficient numerical c o efficients and

.

design data will be fo und in g o o d electrical hand b o o ks and p o cket -

b o o ks one O f which o ught t o be used in c o nj uncti o n with this

,

text (0 ) The student is liable t o ascribe t oo much auth o rity t o

.

a numerical value given in a text b o o k while in reality many -

,

c o efficients vary within wide limits acc o rding t o the c o nditi o ns,

Of a practi cal pr o ble m and with the pr o gr ess Of the a rt (d) .

M o st numerical c o e fficients are Obtained in practice by assuming

that the phen o men o n in questi o n o ccurs acc o rding t o a definite law ,

and by substituting the available experim ental data int o the c o rre
spo nding f o rmula This p o int Of view is emphasized thr o ugh o ut
.

the b o o k and gives the student the c o mfo rting feeling that he
,

will be able t o o btain the necessary numerical c o nstants when

c o nfr o nted by a definite practical situati o n .

( )
6 The treat m ent Of the m agnetic circuit is m ade as m uch
as p o ssible anal o go us t o that o f the elec t ro dy a mic and electr o
static circuits treated in the c o mpani o n b o o k The teacher will .

find it advisable t o make his students perfectly fluent in the use

o f O hm s law fo r o r dina r y elect ric circuits befo r e starting o n the
’

magnetic circuit The student S h o uld s o lve several numerical

.

examples inv o lving v o ltages and v o ltage gradients currents and ,

current densities r esistances r esistivities c o nductances and

, , , ,

c o nductivities He will then find very little difficulty in maste r

.

ing the electr o static circuit and with these t wo the transiti o n
,

t o the m agnetic circuit is ve r y simple indeed The fo ll o wing .

table S h o ws the anal o go us quantities in the th r ee kinds of ci r

cuits .
 S UGG E S TI O N S T O TE ACHE R S

Vo ltage or e m f
. . . Vo ltage or e m f
. . . o
M agneto m ti ve f or ce
Vo ltage gradient (or Vo ltage gradient (or M mf
. . r
g adient
.
(or
elec t ric intensity ) electric inte nsity ) magnetic inte nsity )

E lectric cu rrent Dielectric flux M agnetic fl ux

C urrent density Di elect ric fl ux density M agnetic flux

P ermit t o r ( c o ndenser)
Permittan c e (capacity) Permeanc e
Permittivity (dielec Permea b ility
tric co ns tant )
 t “ “
CL TY
.
OF A P PL ' E D
S C IE
UHA
NCE
'

L - fZ 1913

L IST O F P R I N CI PA L SY M B O L S

The fo llo win g lis t c omp ri ses mos t O f the symb o ls us ed in the text Th ose .

n o t o ccurr ing here ar e explained whe re they appea r W hen als o a symbo l
.
, ,

has a use d iff e rent f rom that s tated bel o w the c orr ect meanin g is given
,

where the symbo l o ccurs .

S y mb o l M ea ning
P a g e w here d e fi ned
or fi rs t us ed
. .

a A ir ga p
-

a W i dth Of c ommutat or segment

A
A c A ea o f flux per t oo th pitch in the air
r

A "

, Ar ea o f flux per too th pitch in the iro n

(A C ) N umber of a mpera c o nduc t o rs pe r centimete r
6 Thickness o f transfo rmer c o il
b W i dth O f b rus h
b
'
Thic kness O f mica .

B Flux dens ity

Em M axim um value O f the fl ux dens ity
C: N umber O f seco ndary c o nductors
C pp Co nducto rs pe r po le per phase
d Duct width
e, E E lect romo tive f orce
Freq uency .

M echanical for ce
Tens i o n pe r square centimete r
Co m press io n per squar e c entimeter
M agnetic intens ity .

M aximum v a lue O f the m agnetic in t en sity

E lect ric curr ent
M agneti z in g curren t
C urrent pe r armature b ranch
A ir ga p fac tor
- .

B read th fac t or
S l o t fa ctor .

W in din g-pitc h factor

L e ngt h
xvi L I ST O F PR I NC I PAL S YM B OLS
S y mb o l M ea ning
P a ge w here d efined
firs t us ed
. .

or .

la , la Gro ar mature len gth

ss 90 10 2
I; S e mi net ar matu e len gth
-
r 22 0
in N et ar mature len gth . 10 2
L Inductan ce . 18 4
m N umber of phas es 69 .

M M agnet o mo tive f orce 7

M a M m f o f ar m atur e
. . . 14 4
M 4 M m f o f dir ect reacti o n
. . . 153 .

M, M m f O f field
. . . . 14 4
M” N et m m f . . . 144
M, M m f O f tr ans ve rs e r eacti o n
. . . 153 .

M D emagnetiz in g m m f . 16 5 .

M 2 D is tortin g m m f . . . 16 6
n N umber O f tur n s 12 7 2 11 ,

m , N 1 N umber O f turn s in pr im ary O f a tran sformer 62 8 1 ,

N2 N um ber O f tur n s in seco ndary of a tran sformer 62

To t a l turn s in series 65
M ean len gth o f tu r n 2 11
p N umber of p o les 13 3
P Power 48
0 )
Permeance . 9
Gt , Permeance O f a ir ga p -
89
Wa E quivalent perm eance aro und c o nduct ors in the duct s per c m
'
220 .

We Permeance of the path O f the c o mplete linkages 18 2

E quiva lent pe rmeance aro und the end c o nnecti o n s per c m 220 -
. .

G ’
eq E quivalent pe rm eance 18 4 .

0 E qui valent pe rm eance aro und e mbedded c o nduct ors per c m

’
5 2 20 .

d ’
p Perm eance o f the path o f the parti al link ages 182 .

G )
, Permeance of si mplified a ir ga p 90 -

0 2 Z ig z a g per meance
- 2 23 .

9 N u mber O f secti o n s in a tran sformer 2 13 .

q N umber O f turn s per c ommutator segment 235

r ,
R Resistance . .
5 1 177 ,

S peed in revo luti o n s per m inute 260

02 Reluctance 7
8 D istance 244
8 N umber o f c o il s sh ort circuited by a b rush 236 -

8 S l o t width .
93
S N umber O f sl o ts per po le per ph a e 68 s

S S urface area .
24 4
t Thic kness o f laminati o n s 51
t Tim e 9
t Too th width 93
t
’
Too th width c orrected 93
T T ime of o ne cycle 64
.

T Torque .
25 3
 L IS T O F PR I NC I PAL S Y M B O LS xvi i
d efined
S y mb o l . M e a ning .
Page v
or gh
gtr
e

Vel oc ity
Vo lts pe r ampe re tu rn
Po le width
E ner gy .

D ensity o f ene rgy

M ec hanical work d o ne
E nergy s t ored in the m agnetic fiel d

W inding pitch .

H ys teres is c oefficient
A n gle.

T oo th pitch .

M axim um value O f the fl ux

Flux in the path O f the partial linkages
Primary leakage flux
Sec o ndary lea kage flux
Form factor .

Amplitude factor .

An gle between c urrent and n o lo ad e m f - . .

An gle
 T HE M A G N E T I C C I R C UI T

C HA P T E R I

T HE F U N D A M E N TA L R ELA TIO N B E TW E E N FL UX
A ND MA G N E T O M O T I VE FO R CE

1 . A S i m pl e M a gn etic The o nly kn o wn cause O fC i r c uit .

magnetic phen o mena is an electric current o r m o re generally , , ,

elect ricity in m o ti o n 1
The fundamental relati o n be t ween an
.

elect ric current and magnetism can be best studied with the simple
a rran gement sh o wn in Fig 1 A c o il C C of very thin wi re is uni
. .
, ,

f o r mly w o und in o ne layer o n a S p o o l made in the Shape O f a c irc u

la r rin g (t o r o id ) The tubula r space inside O f the ring is filled wi t h
.

so me non magnetic material S O called ; fo r instance air wo o d

—
, , , ,

etc _W hen a direct current is sent thr o ugh the c o il the sp a ce

.
,

inside the c o il is f o und t o be in a peculia r state called the mag netic ,

sta te This magnetic state can be expe rimentally pro ved by

.

va ri o us mean s such as a c o mpass needle iron fil ings etc A

, , ,
.

regi o n in which a magnetic state is manifested is called a ma gnetic

fi e ld .Thu s in Fig 1 the
,
tubular space inside
.
,
the c o il is the m ag
netic field excited by the cu rrent in the c o il C C .

N o magnetic field is f o und in the space o utside the c o il up o n

expl o rin g it with a magnetic needle o r with i ron filings Fo r .

rea so ns Of symmet ry the field inside the ring is the sa me at all

,

t he c ro ss secti o ns -
Thus a unifo rmly wo und r ing c on sti t ute s
.
,

W emer v Vo l 24
S iem en s , W iedc ma nn s A p 04 ; L a r nnula r,
'
' . . .
.

mo r, E ther a nd M atter p 10 8 The m a gne t is m o f a permanent ma gnet

. .

is p ro ba bly due t o mo lecula r cu rren ts prod uced by so me orbi t al mo ti o n O f

elec t rons within t he ato ms O f i ro n The o lde r c o ncep t s o f magnetic cha rges
.

a nd f ree po les a re s u mma rily di s mi ssa l in th is boo k a s inad equa te a nd

a rtifici a l .
2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU I T [A RT . 1

the simplest magneti c c ir c uit because the field is unif o rm and is ,

entirely c o nfined within the winding .

I ro n filings o rient themselves within the c o il in directi o ns indi

c a t ed in Fig 1 by the c o n c entric lines with arr o w heads These -
. .

lines S h o w that the medium is magnetized al ong circles c o n

c entri c with the ring L ines which S h o w the directi o ns in which a
.

medium is magnetized are generally called ma gnetic lines of forc e 1

.

They are anal o g o us t o the lines O f electro static displacement

th o ugh their directi o ns and physical nature are entirely different ;

S upp y l

SE CT ION A '
A

FI G . 1 .
—
A S imple m a gnetic ci rcuit .

see the chapter on the elect ro static circuit ,

in the auth o r s ’

E lec tric C irc uit .

The p o sitive directi o n o f the lines O f f o rce is purely c o nven

t io na l and is defin ed as that in which the n o rth seeking end o f a
,
-

c o mpass m o ves I t s relati o n t o the current is by e x periment that

.
, ,

given by the right hand screw rule N amely if the directi on o f

-
.
,

the fl o w o f a current is that O f the r o t ati o n Of a right hand screw -

,

the lines o f f o rce p o int in the directi o n o f the pr o gressive m o ve

ment O f the screw R eversing the current r everses the directi o n
.

F or actual ph o t o graph s Sh o win g i ro n fil in gs which ma p out the ma gnetic

,

field inside o f c o il s of va ri ous S hapes see Dr B enisc hke Die W is sensc haf t , .
,

lic hen G rundla gen der E lektrotec hnik p 126 ; also his T ra nsfo rma to ren .

pp 4 6 and 57
.
, , .
C HAP I ].
FL UX AND M AGNE TO M O TI VE F O RC E 3

of the field ; this fact can be dem o nst rated by a sma ll c o mpass
needle The p o sitive directi o n Of the l ines o f fo r ce is indicated
.

in Fig 1 by a rro w heads The directi o n o f the cu rrent is sh o wn

. .

in the c o nventi o nal way b y d o ts and cro sses ; namely a do t ,

indicates that the cu rrent is app ro aching the o bse rve r while a ,

c ro ss in dicates that the current is receding .

The magnetic state within the c o il can also be expl o red by a

sm all test c o il in se rted in to the field and c o nn ected t o a galva no m
—

e t e r W hen this c o il is p ro perly placed with respect t o the field

.

and then tu rned ab o ut its axis by s o me an gle the galvan o meter ,

sh o ws a deflecti on because a current is induced in the c o il by the

,

magnetic field There are als o o the r means fo r detecting a mag

.

netic field fo r which the reade r is refe rr ed t o b o o ks on physics

, .

The to tal magnetic field p ro duced by a cu rrent is called a

ma gnetic cir c uit by anal o gy with the elect ric and the electro static
,

ci r cuits E xperiment S h o ws that the magnetic lines Of fo rce a re

.

always cl o sed curves like the stream lines Of an electric c urrent o r ,

like the lines Of electro static displacement (when these a re c o m

p le t ed th ro ugh the c o nduct o rs ) .

Fig 1 exemplifies a fundamental law Of elect ro magnetism ;

.

namely an electric c ur rent creates a ma gnetic field in such direc

,

ti o n s that the lines Of fo rce are linked with the lines o f flo w o f the
current in the same mann e r that the c o nsecutive links Of a chain
,

a re linked t o gether This law admits Of no the o retical p ro o f and

.
,

must be accepted as a fundamental experimental fact W he rever .

there is an electric ci rcuit the re is also a m agnetic field lin king

with it The t wo a re in sepa rable and inc rease and dec rea se
.
,

t o gether E ach f o r m o f an electric circuit with a ce r tain st reng t h

.

o f cu rrent in it c o rresp o nds t o a definite fo r m Of magnetic field .

I t is p o ss ible that the elect ric cu rre nt and the magnetic field
a re but t wo d iff e ren t ways Of l o o king up o n o ne a nd the sa me
phen o men on .

The linkages o f m agnetic lines wi t h a cu rrent a re seen m o re

clea rly in Fig 11 which sho ws the magnetic field p ro duced by a
.
,

l o o p Of wire c c I t will be seen that the a rrangement in Fig 1

, . .

is m o re suitable fo r an elemen ta ry s t udy be c ause t he field is much ,

m o re unifor m espe c ially if t he radial thickness Of t he rin g is

,

small as c o mpa red t o it s mean diame t e r so that all the lines Of ,

f o rce a re o f p ractica lly the same length .

The sa m e righ t hand sc rew r ule applies in the case Of Fig 1 1

- .
4 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 2

as in Fig 1 W hen the current in the l oo p O f wire circulates in

. .

the directi o n Of r o tati o n Of a right hand screw (to ward t he reader -

o n the left ) the lines Of f o rce within the loop p o int in the dirc e
,

t i o n o f the pro gressive m o vement of the screw (upward) The .

rule can be reversed by saying that when the directi o n o f the

lines Of fo rce ar o und a wire is that o f the r o tati o n Of a right hand -

sc rew the current in the wire fl o ws in the directi o n Of the pro

,

g re ss ive m o vement O f the screw The first statement is c o n .

venient in the case Of a ring winding the sec o nd in the case o f a ,

l o ng straight c o nduct o r B o th rules can be c o mb ined int o o ne

.

by c o nsidering the exciting electric circuit and the resulting mag

netic circuit as t wo c onsecutive links o f a chain W hen the arr o w .

head in o ne o f the links (no matter which) p o ints in the directi o n

O f ro tati o n Of a right hand screw the arr o w head in the o ther lin k
-
,
-
,

as it passes thr o ugh the first must p o int in the directi o n o f the
,

pro gressive m o vement O f the screw .

. 2 M a gn eto m o tive F o rce E xperiment sh o ws that the mag

.

netic field within the ring (Fig 1) d o es no t change if the cur rent
.

a nd the number of turns o f the exciting winding vary so that

their p ro duct remains the same That is t o say 5 00 turns O f .
,

wire with a current Of 2 amperes fl o wing thr o ugh each will pro
duce the same field as 10 00 turns with 1 ampere o r 200 turns with ,

5 ampe res b ecause the pr o duct is equal t o 1000 a mpere turns in

,
-

all cases E ven o ne turn with 10 00 amperes fl o wing thr o ugh it

.

will pro duce the same effect p ro vided that the turn is made O f
,

a wide sheet of metal spread o ver the wh o le surface Of the r ing ,

so as t o make its acti o n unif o rm thr o ugh o ut .

T he rea son fo r the ab o ve can be seen by c o nsidering 10 00

separate turns with a current O f 1 ampere fl o wing thr o ugh each
turn and each tu rn supplied with c urrent fr o m an independent
,

elect rical s o urce say a dry cell C o nnecting all the cells and all
,
.

the turns in series gives 10 00 turns with o ne ampere fl o wing

thr o ugh each Co nnecting the cells and the turns in parallel
.

results in o ne wide turn with 1000 amperes Of current in it .

S uch changes in the electrical c o nnecti o ns cann o t a ffect the acti o n

O f each current o utside the wire because the value Of the cu r rent ,
.

and the p o siti on of the tu rn is the same in b o th cases Hence .

,

the magnetic acti o n depends only up on the number Of turns ea c h

carrying 1 ampere in o the r wo rds it depends up on the num
, ,

be r Of ampere tu rns -
.
CR A P . I] FL UX AND M AGN E T O M OTI VE F O RC E 5

The numbe r Of ampe re tu rns of the exciting wind ing is called

-

the ma gnetomo tive for c e Of the magnetic circuit because these ,

ampe re turn s are t he cause o f the magnetic field O ne ampere

—
.

tu rn is the l o gical un it o f magneto m o tive fo rce I n the example .

ab o ve the magneto m o tive fo rce is equal t o 100 0 ampere turns

,
-
.

I n elect ric machines the field excitati o n Often r eaches seve ral
th o usand ampe r e tu rns and the m agneto m o tive f o r ce is fo r c on
-
,

venienc e s o metimes measured in kil o ampe re turns one kilo -

,

ampe re t um being equal t o 1000 ampere turns

- -
.

3 M a gn etic Flux
. The magnetic disturbance at each p o int
.

with in the rin g has no t only a directi o n but also a magnitude The ,
.

disturbance is said t o be in the f o r m Of a flux fo r the f o ll o w ing ,

reas o n : O ne may think Of the magnetic state as being due t o the

actual displacement Of so me hyp o thetical inc o mpressible sub
stance al o ng the lines of f o rce ; in this case the flux represents the
am o un t Of this substance displaced thro ugh each c ro ss secti o n Of -

the ring and is anal o g o us t o t o tal elect ro static displacement O r

,
.
,

as so me m o de rn wr ite r s think there is an actual fl o w Of an inc o m

,

pressible ether al o ng the lines Of f o rce I n that case the flux may .

be th o ught o f as the rate o f fl o w Of the ethe r thro ugh a c ro ss sec -

ti o n The viewp o int c o mm o n t o these t wo explanati o ns gave

.

rise t o the name flux which means fl o w .

So m e physicists c o nside r the magnetic circuit as c o nsisting

o f infin itely subdivided (th o ugh cl o sed ) whirls o r v o rtices in the

ethe r the ro tati o n being in planes perpendicula r t o the lines O f

,

f o r c e E ach line O f fo r ce is c o nsidered then as the ge o metri c

.
, ,

axis O f an in fini t ely thin fiber o r tube o f fo rce and the ethe r within ,

each tube in a state Of transverse vo rtex m o ti o n The line O f .

fo rce rep resents the directi o n o f the axis Of ro tati o n and the flux ,

may be th o ught Of as the m o mentu m Of the ro t ating substance

pe r unit length o f the tubes Of f o r ce A cc o rding t o any o f these .

th ree views the ene rgy o f a curren t is actually c o n t ained in t he

,

m agnetic ci r cuit linked with the cu rrent .

W hicheve r view is ad o p t ed the magnetic flux can be defined as

,

the sum to tal o f m agnetic distu rb a nce th ro ugh a c ro ss sectio n pe r -

p e n d ic ula r t o the l ines o f f o r ce E xperiment sh o ws that

. the t o tal
flux is the same th ro ugh a ll c o mple t e c ro ss secti o n s o f a m agnetic -

ci rc ui t This c o uld have been expected f ro m t he p o int o f view

.

o f a di splacement o r fl o w al o ng the l ine s o f f o rc e ; each tube o f

fo rce being like a channel within whi c h the displace m en t o r the

6 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [AR T . 3

flo w an inc o mpressible substan ce takes place Fo r this reaso n

of .

the magneti c flux is said t o be solenoida l channel shaped ) -

.

The familiar law o f electro magnetic inducti o n disc o vered by

Faraday is used fo r the definiti o n O f the unit O f flux N amely when .
,

the t o tal magnetic disturbance o r flux within a turn O f wire

changes an electro m o tive f o rce is induced in the turn B y experi
,
.

ments in a unif o rm field the f act is established that the value o f

,

the induced electro m o tive f o rce is exactly pr o p o rti o nal t o the rate
O f change o f the flux linking with the test l o o p This fact is .

used in the definiti on of the unit O f flux .

W ith the v o lt and the sec o nd as the units o f e m f and o f . . .

time respectively the c o rresp o nding unit Of flux is called the

,

weber and is defin ed as f o ll o ws : A fl ux thro ugh a turn of wi r e

,

c ha nges a t a uniform ra te of o ne weber per s eco nd when the a m f . .

induced in the turn rema ins c ons ta n t a n d equa l to o ne vo lt S uch .

a unit flux c an be also pr o perly called the volt sec ond th o ugh as -
,

yet neither name has been rec o gnized by the I nternati o nal E lectr o
techn ical C o mmissi o n The weber o r the v o lt sec o nd is t o o large
.
-

a unit fo r m o st practical purp o ses There f o re a much smaller .

unit called the ma xwell} is used which is equal t o one one hun
, ,
—

d red milli o nth part Of the weber o r

-
,

“8
o ne maxwell o ne weber X 10 .

The l ines Of f o rce in Figs 1 and 1 1 can be made t o represent

.

no t o nly the directi o n o f the field but its magnitude as well i f they
, ,

be drawn at suitable distances f r o m each o ther That is such .

,

that the t o tal number O f lines passing th ro ugh any part o f a

cr o ss secti on O f the ring is equal numerically t o the number o f
-

maxwells in the flu x thr o ugh the same part W ith this c onven .

ti o n each line stands symb o lically fo r one maxwell ; so me engi

,

neers and physicists speak Of the number Of lines Of f o r ce in a flux

when they mean maxwells .

W hile the weber is t o o large a unit the maxwell is t o o small fo r ,

many practical purp o ses Theref o re t wo o ther intermediate units

.

The ori gin of the m axwell bec om es clear when o ne rem em bers that the
v o lt w a s ori ginally e stabli shed a s 10 elect roma gnetic C G S unit O f elect ro
8
. . .

motive force The m axwel l is related t o the C G S uni t O f e m f or the s o

. . . . . . .

called abvo lt in the same way in which the webe r is related t o the ordinary
v olt In other word s when the fl ux within a c o il var ie s at the rate of ne
.
,

m axw ell pe r sec o nd o ne abv olt is induced in eac h tu r n o f the windin g

,
.
 CHAP I ] .
F L UX AND M AGN E TO M O TIVE F O RC E 7

are used namely the kilo maxwell equal t o o ne th o us and max

,
-
,

wells and the mega maxwell equal t o o ne milli o n maxwell s

,
-
, .

These t wo units are s o me t imes c alled the kil o lin e and the m ega
“
-

”
l ine the wo rd line
,
being used fo r the wo rd maxwell as ,

expla ined ab o ve l .

Pro b 1 The flux withi n the c o il ( Fi g l ) is equal t o 6 3 kil o m a xwel ls

. . .
-
.

A test c o il o f five tu rn s is wo un d o n th e exciting c o il so as t o b e linked

with th e to tal fl ux W h at vo lta ge is ind uc ed in t hi s t es t c o il wh en t he
.

c urre nt in t h e m a i n ( exciti ng) c o il is red uc ed t o z e ro at a unifo rm rate

in sev en se c o n ds ?
Ans m illi v o lt . .

Pro b 2 A t wha t rat e mus t th e fl ux be vari ed in the preceding

. .

p ro blem in o rder t o ind uce o ne v o lt in t he tes t c o il ?

A m 3 l5 M 4 5 Ans weber ( 20 mega lines) p er se c ond
, . .

Pro b 3 W hen th e fl ux va ri es at a no n unifo rm r ate Sho w that the

. .
-

v o lta ge ind uc ed in th e tes t c o il at a ny i ns tant is e q ual t o (d0 / dt) X 10 “

,

whe re t is tim e in s ec o nds and 0 is th e flux in maxwell s Show that , .

th e expo nen t Of 10 mus t be 2 i nst ea d Of 8 if th e flux is expressed in — —

4 T he R
. lucta n c e of a M a gnetic Path E xpe riment sh o ws that
e .

the t o tal flux within the c o il ( Fig l ) is p ro p o rti o nal t o the applied .

m agnet o m o tive f o rce when the space in side is filled with ai r , .

The refo re a relati on simila r t o O hm s law h o lds namely

,
’
, ,

M = 0i 0 , ( 1)
whe re M is the m agneto m o tive f o rce in ampe re tu rns 09 is the flux -
,

in maxwells and a: is the c o efficient Of p ro p o rti o nality between

,

the t wo called the reluc ta nc e Of the m agne t ic circuit Sc ript 0? is

,
.

used t o distinguish reluc t a nce f ro m elect ric resistance The mag .

ne t o mo t ive f o r ce M is t he cause Of the flux ; o r with refe ren ce t o ,

a n electric circuit M is anal o go us t o the applied elect ro m o tive

,

fo rce or is anal o g o us t o the res ulting cu rrent and the reluctance

.
,

0? takes place O f the elect ric resistan ce The refo re eq ( 1) is .

,
.

kn o wn as O hm s law fo r t he m agnetic ci rcuit O f c o u rse the

’
.
,

‘
This po ssibili t y o f c rea tin g new uni t s o f c o nvenient si ze is a great
ad van ta ge of the m et ric o r dec imal sy ste m o f uni t s N ew units a re gene r .

a lly unde rst oo d b y the use o f La tin a nd G reek p re fixes si gnifyin g thei r
, ,

nu me rica l relati on to t he fu nda men t al unit F or in s ta nce it is pe rfec tly .

,

le giti ma te to use such units a s dec i a mpe re and hec t O -vo lt in spite o f the -
,

fac t that they a re n o t in gene ral use Anyo ne familia r with t he agreed .

p re fixes will kn o w tha t the units spo ken O f a re equa l to o ne te nth o f o ne -

ampe re and to o ne hund red v o lts See A ppendix I on the Ampe re O hm

,
.
-

S ys te m .
8 T HE M AGN E TI C C I R CU IT (A m . 4

anal o gy is purely f o r mal the t wo sets o f phen o mena bein g entirely ,

d iff erent A n equati o n similar t o ( 1) can be written fo r the fl o w

.

o f heat o f water etc ,

I t merely expresses the e x perimental f act ,
.

that fo r a certain class of phen o mena the effect is pr op o rti onal

, ,

t o t he cause .

I f the space within the c o il be filled with p ractically any kn o wn

substan ce s o lid liquid o r gase o us the reluctance CR remains
, , , ,

within less than i i per cent of the value which o btains with ai r .

The n o table e x cepti ons are iro n c o balt n ickel manganese c hro , , , ,

mium and s o me of their o xides and all o ys 1

W hen the circuit
“
.
,

in c ludes one o f these so called f err o magnetic substances a — -

much large r flux is pr o duced with the same that is the ,

reluctan ce of the circuit is apparently reduced t o a c o nside rable

extent M o re o ver this reluctance is no l onger c onstant but
.
, ,

depends up on the value o f the flux The behavi o r of ir on and .

steel in a magneti c circuit is of great p ractical im p o rtance and is ,

treated in detail in C hapters I I and I I I .

The definiti o n of the unit o f reluctance f o l lo ws directly fr o m

eq . A magnetic circuit has a unit r eluctan ce when a magnet o
m o tive f o rce o f o ne ampere t um pr o duces in it a flux of o ne -

maxwell N o name has been given t o this unit so f ar The auth o r

2
. .

ventures t o suggest the name rel and he uses it pr o visi onally in this ,

b o o k G ranting that relu c tance is a use f ul quantity in magnetic

.

calculati o n s o ne must admit that it S h o uld be measured in s o me

,

un its o f its o wn ; unless one ch o o ses t o use the cumbers o me n o ta

”
ti o n ampere turn s per ma x well The name rel is S imply the
-
.

beginn ing o f the w o rd reluctance Thus a ma gnetic circuit has .

,

a reluctance o f o ne rel when o ne ampere turn pr o duces o ne -

ma x well o f flux in it The unit rel is anal o go us t o the o hm in the .

electric circuit and t o the daraf in the electr o static circuit

,
.

Pro b . 4 . W h at i s t he
reluc tance of the m agnetic ci rc uit in Fi g . 1
if ampe r e tu rns p ro d uce a flux o f
-
kil o m axwell s ? -

A ns . 2 300 rel s .

Pro b
5 m any am p ere t u rns a r e r equi red t o establish a fl ux
. . Ho w -

of mega lines t hro u gh a reluctance o f rel ? A ns 9 18 0 . .

P r o b 6 A w o o den rin g i s tem p ora rily w oun d wit h 330 t u rn s o f

. .

wir e ; wh en a cu rr ent o f 2 5 am pe re s i s fl owin g thro ugh the wind in g the

1
Dr C P S tein met z M a gnetic Prope rtie s of
See . . .
,
M ate ri al s, E lec tric a l
Wo rld Vol 5 5
,
p 1 20 9 . . .

3
S e A ppendix I at the end of the book
e .
CM . 1] FL UX AND M AGNE TO M O TI VE FO R C E 9

fl ux is fo und
be equal to 2 1 kilo maxwells The permanent winding
to - .

o n t he sa me ring must p rod u ce a fl ux of kilolines at a c urren t o f

amm res Ho w many turns wi ll be required ?
. A ns 2 750 . .

6 T he Perm ea nc e
. calc ulations pe r
of a M a gneti c Pa th . In
ta ining t o the elect ric ci r cuit it is c onvenient t o deal with t he recip
meals o f resistan ces when c onduc t o rs a re c onn ected in pa rallel .

T he recip ro cal of a resistan ce is called a c o nductan ce and is meas

ured in mho s if res istan ce is m ea su r ed in o hm s S i mila rly a die .
,

lec t ric is c ha racte ri z ed so m eti m es by its elas t an ce a t o the r ti m es ,

by the recip ro cal o f its elastan ce which is called pe rmitta nce , .

W hen pe rm ittan ce is m ea su red in fa rads elastan ce is m easured in ,

da rafs ( see the cha pte r on the E lect ro stati c Circui t in the auth o r s ’

E lec tric C ir c uit) .

A n alo go usly when t wo o r m o re ma gnetic paths a re in p

,
a rallel
it is c o nvenient t o use the recip ro cals o f the relu c tan ces The .

recip ro cal o f the reluctan ce o f a magnetic path is call ed it s per

mea nc e; eq ( 1) bec o mes then .

L/
here C ‘M
W

(3 )
A sc ript 0 is used fo r pe rmeance in o rde r t o avo id c o nfusing it
’

with p o we r Fo r the unit o f pe r meance c o rr es p o nding t o the

.

rel the auth o r p ro p o s es the na m e pm

,
A ma gnetic path has a .

pe rm ean ce o f o ne pe rm when one m axwell of flux is p roduced fo r

each ampe re t um o f m agneto m o tive fo rce applied al ong the path
-
.

The un it pe rm has been in use a mo ng elect rical designe rs

.

fo r so m e time alth o ugh no name ha s been given t o it

,
N o ta bl y .

M r H M Ho ba rt has used it extensively in his w ritings

. . .
,

in the calc ulati o n o f the inductance o f wind ings He spea ks o f

“mag ne t ic lines per a m pe re t urn pe r unit lengt h (of the
.

embedd ed pa rt o f a c o il) T his is eq uivalen t t o pe rms pe r unit .

length .

I n the a m pe re o hm sy s te m the inte rnati on a lly accepted unit

-

o f pe rm ea n ce is the henry The refo re if in eq (2) M is meas u red

‘ . .
,

in ampe re tu rns and c in webe rs (P is in hen rys a nd no new u nit

-
, ,

fo r pe rm ea nce is nece ssa ry I n thi s ca se the relu c t ance 0? in eq s . .

A lthough t he hen ry is defined as the u nit of induct n e it is h o wn in

‘
a c , s

Art 58 be l ow that pe rmeance and ind ucta nce re phy ica lly o f t he sa me
. a s
’ ‘
dimen ions nd hence m urea b l in the sa me u nit s /
s a 0 6 I ea s e .
10 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU I T [A R T . 6

( )
1 and (3) is in hen rys ; o r spelling the w o rd hen ry backwa rds
“
1
,

as in the case o f mho an d dara f the natural unit o f reluctan ce in ,

t he ampere o hm system gets the euph o ni o us name o f yrneh (t o be

-

pro n o un c ed earney) .

S in ce h o wever the maxwell is used alm o st e x clusively as the

, ,

unit o f flux it seems advisable t o intro duce the rel and the perm
,

as un its directly related t o it S h o uld engineers gradually feel .

in c lined t o use the weber and its submultiples as the units o f flux ,

then the hen ry the yrneh and their multiples and submultiples
, ,

w o uld natu rally be used as the c o rresp o nding units of permeance

and reluctance .

W e have theref o re the t wo f o ll o win g systems o f units fo r

, ,

reluctance and permeance acc o rding t o whether the maxwell o r ,

the weber is used fo r the unit o f flux (one ampere turn bein g the -

unit o f m m f in b oth cases). . .

a eh

O ne pe rm = hen ry ; one rel 10

= 8 yrnehs .

Pr o b . 7 . W h at is th e pe rmea nc e o f t he
m a gnetic ci r cuit in p rob 4 ? .

Ans pe rm henry . .
- 10
.

Pro b 8 W h at is the pe rm eance o f the rin g in p ro b 6 ?

. . .

A ns pe rm mic rohen ry . . .

Pro b 9 Ho w m any ampe r e tu rn s a re requi red t o m aintain a flux

. .
-

of mega lin es t hro ugh a pe rmeanc e o f 75 0 p erms ? A ns 36 00 . .

6 . luctivity a nd Permea b ility The reluctance o f a magnetic

R e .

path varies with the dimensi o ns o f the path acc o rding t o the same
law as the resistance o f an ele c tric c o nduct o r o r the elastance o f a
dielectric That is t o say the reluctance is directly pro p o rti o nal
.
,

t o the average length o f the lines o f f o rce and is inversely pr o p o r

t io n a l t o the c r o ss secti o n o f the path This relati o nship can be
-
.

ve rified by measurements on rings o f di fferent dimensi ons (Fig .

W hen the diameter o f the r ing is in creased twice keeping the same ,

cro ss secti on the length o f the path o f the flux is also increased
-
,

twice E xperiment sh o ws that the new ring requires twice as

.

many ampere turn s as the first one fo r the same flux o r o nly one
-
,

half of the flux is pro duced with the same numbe r o f ampere
Cw . l] F L UX AN D M AGN E T O M OTIV E F O RCE 11

turns I f the diamete r o f the ring is kept the same but the c ro ss
.

se cti o n o f the pa t h is inc reased twice the flux is d o ubled with the ,

same magneto m o tive fo rce These and similar expe riments sh o w .

that the reluctan ce and the permeance o f a un ifo rm magnetic path

o bey the same law as the resistan ce and the c o nductance o f a c o n

ducto r o r the elastance and the pe rm ittan ce of a p ris matic slab

,

o f a dielect ric .

W e can the ref o re put

m= vl/ A r (4)
where l i s the m ean length the path is its c ro ss sectio n and
of ,
A -
,

v is a physical c o nstan t B y anal o gy with resistivity and ela st iv

.

it y v is called the reluc tivity o f a magnetic medium

,
I f 02 is in rels .
,

and the dimensi o ns o f the cir cuit a re in centimeters v is in rels pe r ,

centim e t er cube I n o ther w o rds the reluctivity o f a ma gnetic

.
,

med ium is the reluctance o f a unit cube of this medium when the
lines of f o r ce a re pa rallel t o o ne o f the edges F o r ai r and a ll o the r .

no n magnetic subs t an ces the expe rimental value o f v is

-
rel per
centi m ete r cube o r1
rel per inch cube
,
.

The exp ressi o n fo r pe rm eance c o r resp o nding t o eq (4) is .

G)
l‘A /l r (5)
whe re the c o efficient p is called the permea bility o f the magnetic
m ed ium I t c o rresp o nds t o the electric c onductivity r and the
.

dielect ric permi t tivity x Since the pe rmeance o f a path is the

.

re c ip ro c al o f it s reluctance the pe rmeab ility o f a m edium is the

,

recip ro cal of its reluctivity o r ,

=1 v
p / .
( 6)
W hen the pe rm and the centime t e r a re used fo r the units o f pe r
m eance and len gth pe rm eab ility is exp ressed in pe rms pe r cen t i
,

m eter cube F o r all no n m agnetic m ate rials p = 1 25 pe r ms per

.
-
.

centi m ete r cube ( m o re accu rately W ith the hen ry and the
centimete r a s units hen ries pe r centimete r cube .

I n the E n t =
gl sh sys e m p 3 19 pe rm s pe r inch cube fo r no n
i .

‘M o ne ac c urately rel pe r centi mete r cube A s a rule ma gnetic .

,

c alculati ons a re m uch less ac cu rate than elect rica l ca lculati o ns becau se the re ,

is n o magnetic in sulat or kn o wn s that the r is always so me ma gnetic

”
, o e

lea ka ge present which is difficult t o t ke into c on ide ra ti o n F or thi s rea s o n

,
a s .

t he value is sufficiently a cc u rate fo r most p rac tical pu rposes .

12 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A im 7

magnetic materials Fo r magnetic mate rials {1 is c o nsiderably

.

larger than fo r non magnetic and va ries with the field strength
-
, .

I n calculati o ns either reluctivity o r pe r meability is used acc o rding ,

t o the c onditi o ns o f the case and the p r efe r ence of the eng ineer .

The student has p ro bably hea rd bef o re that the permeab ility of
ai r is assumed equal t o unity The discrepancy between this c o m
.

m only accepted value and the value given ab o ve is due t o a ,

diff erent unit of magnet o m o tive f o rce called the gilbert which is , ,

so metimes empl o yed The auth o r c o nsiders the gilbert t o be

.

o f d o ubtful utility fo r r eas o ns stated in A ppendix I I ; hence no

,

use is m ade o f it in this b o o k .

Pro b . 10 A ss uming the valu e o f p = l 25 7 t o be giv en, c h ec k th e

. .

value o f p = 3 19 in th e E n gli sh system , an d al so t h e val ue s o f v in th e

.

m et ric an d th e E n glish systems, a s given ab o ve .

Pr o b 1 1 I n p rob 4 t h e r elucta nc e o f a ri n g w a s
. . . r el s I f the .

c ro ss sect io n o f the ri n g i s 120 sq m , wh at i s t he ave rage d iam ete r o f

-
. .

th e ri ng ? Ans cm . .

Pro b .1 2 Ho w m a ny am pe re tu rns a r e r equir ed t o e stabli s h a fl ux

.
-

o f 4 7 kilo lines in a rin g o f r ec t an gula r c ross s ecti o n m ad e o f no n m a gnetic -

,
—

m ate rial ; th e r ad ial thic kness o f the rin g i s 8 c m the axial wi dt h 1 1 c m .

, .

an d th e av erage radiu s 16 c m ? A ns Abo ut 4 3 kil o ampe re turns .

—
.

Pro b 1 3 Ho w m any ampe re tu rns wo ul d b e r equi red in the p rec ed

. .
-

ing p ro ble m fo r th e s am e flux if t he rin g we r e m ade o f i ro n t h e rela tive ,

pe rm eability o f whic h (with re sp e c t t o ai r) is 5 00 ?

A ns 8 6 a mpe re turns .
-
.

7 M agn eti c I nten sity

. de r that the student may better
. In or

appreciate the significance of the c o ncept of magnetic intensity ,

it is advisable t o re f resh in his mind the c o rresp o nding quantity

used in the electric circuit via the electric intensity N amely in
, ,
.
,

pr oblems on the electric and the electr o static circuit it is s o me

times desi r able t o c onsider no t o nly the t o tal v o ltage but als o ,

the v o ltage used up o r b alan ced per unit length o f the path al o ng
which the electricity fl o ws o r is displaced This quantity the .
,

rate o f change o f v o ltage al o ng the circuit is kn o wn as the electric ,

intensity o r the v oltage gradient I t is den o ted by F (see the

, .

E lec tric Circ uit) and is measured in v o lts per linear centimeter
,
.

W hen the v o ltage dr o p is uni f o rm al o ng a c onduct o r o r a dielectric ,

F E / l where E is the v o ltage between the ends o f the part o f the

,

circuit under c onsiderati on and l is the c o rresp o nding length

,
.

W hen the v o ltage dr o p is n o t unif o rm F is di ff erent fo r diff erent ,

p o ints al ong the path and fo r each p o int F = dE / dl

,
.
Cw . I] FL UX AND M AGN E T O M O TIV E FO RC E 13

In a si m ila r way the magneto m o tive fo rce o f a magnetic c ir cuit

,

is used up bit by bit in the c o nsecutive pa rts o f the circuit O ne .

can speak no t o nly o f the t o tal m agneto m o tive f o rce of a cl o sed

cir cuit but also o f the magneto m o tive fo r ce acting up o n a ce rtain
,

pa rt o f the circuit an d o f m agneto m o tive fo rce per unit length o f

,
'

the lines o f f o rce Thus fo r insta nce if 100 0 ampere tu rns is c on

.
, ,
-

s um ed in a unif o r m m agne t ic circuit 4 cm l o ng the ma gnet o mo .

,

tive fo rce pe r unit length o f path is 2 50 a m pe re turns -

.

T he ma gnetomo tive forc e per unit length of pa th is ca lled the ma g

netic intensity a t a point or the m m f gradient and is den o ted by ,
. .
,

H Thus if the ci r cuit is unifo rm the m agnetic intensity at any

.
, ,

p o in t is
H= M n . ( 7)
whe re M is the m a gnet o m o tive fo rce acting up o n the length l o f
t he ci r cuit I f the magnetic circuit is no n un if o rm fo r instance if
.
-
, ,

the c ro ss secti o n o f the ring is diff erent at diff e rent places o r if the
-
,

pe rmeability i s di ff e rent at so me pa rts of the circuit due t o the

p resence o f i ro n the m m f gradient is different at d iff e rent p o ints
,
. . .
,

and at each p o int it is expressed by the equati on

(8 )

whe re dM is the m m f necessa ry fo r establishing the flux in the

. . .

len gth dl o f the ci r cuit I f M is in ampere tu rns and l is in centi

.
-
,

meters H is in ampe re turn s pe r centimete r

,
-
.

E q s (7) and (8) can be also w ritten in the f o rm

.

M = Hl,

These fo rm ul ae exp ressed in wo rds si m ply m ean that the magneto

, ,

m o t ive fo rce acting up o n a ce rtain pa rt o f a ma g netic circuit is the

line integr a l o f the magnetic intensity al o ng the pa t h o r the sum o f ,

t he m m fs used up in the elementa ry pa rts o f the path The rela

. . . .

ti on between M and H will bec o m e clea re r t o the studen t in the

va ri o us applica t i on s tha t fo ll o w .

P ro b 1 4 . . W hat is the m a gne ti c int ensity in pro b 12? .

A na A bo u t 4 25 am pe re t u r ns pe r c m
.
- . of
pa t h .
14 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCUI T [AR T . 8

8 . F l ux Density is o ften o f imp o rtance t o c o nsider the fl ux

. It
density o r the value o f a flux per unit o f cr o ss secti o n perpendicular
,,
-

t o the directi o n o f the lines o f f o rce Flux density is usually .

den o t ed by B and is measured in maxwells (o r its m ultiples) per

,

square cent imeter 1

W hen the flux is distributed unif o rmly o ver
.

t he cr o ss secti o n o f a path the flux density

-
,

B a) A

where A is the area o f the cr o ss secti o n of the path I f the flux is

-
.

distributed non unifo r mly an infinitesimal flux dd passing thr o ugh

-
,

a cr o ss se c ti o n dA must be c o nsidered I n the limit the flux den

-
.
,

sit y at a p o int c o r resp o nding t o dA is

( )
12

The areas A and dA a re underst o o d t o be at all p o ints n o rmal

t o the directi o n o f the field S o lving these t wo equati o ns fo r the
.

fl ux we find
d B A
-
,

( 14 )

the integrati on being extended o ver the wh o le c ro ss secti o n o f the -

path E xpressed in w o rds these last t wo f o rm ul ae mean that

.
,

the t o tal flux passing thr o ugh a surf ace is equal t o the sum of the
fluxes passing thr o ugh the different pa rts of that surface .

M agnetic flux density is anal o g o us t o current density U and ,

t o dielectric flux density D treated in the E lec tri c C irc uit The .

student will fi n d n o di fficulty in interpr e ting eqs ( 1 1) t o ( 14 ) .

fr o m the p o int o f view o f the electric and electr o static circuits .

The relati o n between B and H is o btained f r o m eq ( 1) in which .

the value of 02 is o btained fr o m eq (4 ) N amely we have .

,

M = 0 vl/ A ,

M =
/ l
S me o w rite rs expre ss fl ux den sity in gausses o ne gau ss bein g equal t o ,

one m axwell per square centi meter The unit kil o gauss equal t o o ne kil o
.
,

m axwell pe r square centi m ete r is al s o u sed ,

W hile the te rms gau ss a nd .

k il o gau ss a re c o nvenient abb reviati o n s n o use is m ade o f the m in thi s boo k

,

in orde r t o keep the relati o n between a fl ux and the c ro ss secti o n o f it s path -

explicitly before the student .

CR A P . I] FL UX AND M AGN E TO M O TI VE F O R E 15

The last exp ressi o n acc o rding t o eqs (7) and ,

. can be w r itten
simply as
H B u,

o r, since v= l / a,
B = ,uH .

Eq s .
( 15 )state O hm s law fo r a unit m a gnetic path fo r
an d ( 16)
’
,

in stance a path o ne centime t e r l o ng and o ne square centimete r in

,

c ro ss secti o n H is the magnet o m o tive f o rce between the o pp o

-
.

site fa c es o f the cube p is the pe rmeance o f the cube and B is the , ,

fl ux pass ing th ro ugh it The reade r will remember similar equa .

ti o ns U rF and D KF fo r the unit elect r ical c o nduct o r and the :

unit p rism o f a dielect ric respectively .

I ns tead o f beginning the the o ry o f the m agnetic circuit with

eq ( 1) and devel o p ing it int o eq
. it is p o ssible t o begin it with .

e
q . N amely the kn o wn magnetic phen o mena sh o w that ,

at each p o int in the medium the re is a ma gnetic intensity H which

is the cause o f the magnetic state and that the eff ect is measu red ,

by t he flux density B ; p is the physical c o nstant whi c h sh o ws the

pro p o rti o nality between H and B The magnetic circuit is then .

assumed t o be built up o f infinitesimal tubes of flux in se ries and

in parallel and finally eq ( 1) is o btained
,
. .

P ro b 1 5 . . W ha t
is the fl ux densi ty in pro b 12 ? .

A ns 5 34 ma xwe ll s pe r sq ua r e cen ti me te r (5 3 4 g au ss es )
. .

Pro b 1 6 Ho w ma ny am pe r e turns pe r p o l e a re req ui red t o es ta b l i sh

. .
-

a fl ux d en sity o f 7 kilo linos pe r sq ua re cen ti me te r in the ai r ga p o f a -

ma c hine th e clea ranc e being 3 mm ? So lut ion : A cc o rd in g t o eq ( 15 )

,
. .

H = 56 00 a m pe re tu rns pe r c en tim ete r o f lengt h Hen c e t h e -

.

req uired m m f is 5600 X 0 3 - l 680 ampere t urns

. . . .
-
.

9 lu c tanc es and Perm ean c es in Seri es and in Para llel I n

. R e .

practice o ne ha s t o deal m o stly with magnetic circuits o f ir regula r

,

f o rm fo r instance th o se o f elect ric m achines ( Fig 24) in which

, ,
.

the flux is established pa rtly in air and pa rtly in iro n each o f va ry ,

ing c ro ss s cti o n The circuit c o nsists in this case o f se ve ral relu e

- e
.

tan ces in series O ne may sa y fo r instan ce tha t the to tal mag

.
, ,

net o mo t ive fo r c e requi red in this ma c hine per magnetic circ uit , ,

is 8000 ampe re t u rns o f which 60 00 a re used in the ai r gap 1500

-
,
-
,

in the field f rame and 500 in the a r matu re This is an a l o go us t o

,
.

di st inguish ing between the to tal e m f o f an elect ric c ircui t a nd the . . .

,

vo l t age d ro p in the va ri o us pa rts o f the c ircuit .

16 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 9

so m e cases t wo o r m o re magnetic paths a r e in parallel fo r

In ,

in stance when the re is magnetic leakage (see bel o w) I n m o st

,
.

cases the engineer has t o c o nsider c o mplicated magnetic circuits

which c o nsist partly o f paths in series pa rtly o f paths in parallel ,
.

Thus in the same m achine the m m f o r the difl erenc e of ma g

, ,
. . .

netic potential between the p o le tips is 6 500 ampere turns This - -

.

m m f maintains a useful flu x o f say

. . .
mega lines thr o ugh the
a rm atu re and say mega line o f leakage o r stray flux between
,

the p ole tips Thus the t o tal flux in the field frame is 3 m ega
-
.

lines .

The fundamental law of the magnetic circuit as expressed by ,

eq . is anal o go us t o O hm s law fo r the simple electric circuit ’

.

The ref o re magnetic paths in series and in pa rallel are c o mb ined

acc o rding t o the same rule that el ectrical c onduct o rs are c o mbined
in series and in parallel N amely when t wo o r m o re magnetic
.
,

paths are in series their reluctances are added ; when t wo o r m o re

,

m a gnetic paths are in pa rallel thei r pe r meances a r e added O r .

,

fo r a se r ies c o mbinati o n ,

and for a pa rallel C o m binati o n

m m
=2 @ .

I t will be r emembered that similar r elati ons h old als o fo r impe

dances and admittances in the alternating cu r rent circuit and ,

fo r elastances and pe rm ittances in the electr o static circuit .

The pro o f o f f o rmul ae ( 17) and ( 18) is similar t o th at usually

given fo r the c o mbinati o n o f electric resistances in series and in
para llel N amely when reluctances are in series the to tal mag
.
,

net o mo t ive f o rce is equal t o the sum o f c o mp o nent or

M =EM .
( 17a )
Dividing b o th sides o f this equati o n by the c o mm o n flux (1) eq .

( 17) is o btained W hen permeances are in parallel the t o tal flux

.
,

is the sum of the c o mp o nent fluxes o r ,

( 18a )
Dividing b o th sides of this equati o n by the c o mm o n M ,
eq .
( 18 ) is
o btained .
CHAP . Il F L UX AN D M AGN E TO M OTI VE FO RCE 17
'

O ne the r easo ns fo r which calculati o ns a re as a rule mo re

of

invo lved and less accu rate in the magnetic than in the elect ric cir
cuit is tha t ther e is no ma gnetic insula tion known and theref o re the ,

paths o f the flux in a great maj o rity of cases cann o t be shaped and
c onfined at will The student will appreciate there f o re the reaso n
.
, ,

fo r selecting a t o r o idal r ing as the simplest magnetic ci r cuit If .

the winding is distributed un ifo r mly there is no t endenc y fo r mag

’

netic leakage except fo r a ve ry small am o un t in and ar o und each

,

wi re W ith alm o st any o ther arrangement o f a magnetic circuit

.

the re is a diff erence o f magnetic p o tential o r an m m f between ,

. . .

va r i o us pa rts o f the circuit and pa rt o f the flux passes directly

,

th ro ugh the path o f the least resistance in parallel with the useful ,

path A familiar example of this is the magnetic leakage between

.

the adj acent p o le tips of an electrical machine ( Fig 29) o r between

-
.

the c o ils of a t ransf o r me r ( Fig .

The c o nditi o ns in a magnetic cir cuit a re si m ila r t o th o se

‘

in an i m pe rfectly insulated elect ric ci r cuit when it t o gethe r with , ,

its so u r ces of is i m me rsed in a c o nducting liquid P a rt o f .

the cu rr ent fin ds its path thr o ugh the liquid instead o f thr o ugh
the c onduct o rs ; the c u rrent is d ifferent in diff e rent pa rts o f the
ci rcuit and the calc ulati o ns a r e m uch m o re inv o lved and less
,

acc urate because the paths of t he current in an unlimited m edium

,

can be estimated o nly app ro ximately .

I n o rde r t o p revent o r t o minimi z e leakage the exciting a m pe re

t urns sh o uld be distributed o ver the wh o le magnetic ci rcuit t o ,

each pa rt in p ro p o rti o n t o its reluctance Then the m m f is c o n . . . .

su m ed where it is applied and no f ree m m f is left fo r leakage

,
. . . .

U nf o rtunately such an a rrange m ent is i m p racticable in m o st

,

cases th o ugh it o ught t o be app ro ached as nea rly as p o ssible (see

,

P ro b 17 bel o w)
. .

I f there were a m agn etic insulat o r that is a substance o r a , ,

c o mbinati o n the pe rmeability o f which was m any times l o we r than

that o f the ai r it wo uld be a g reat b o o n t o the elect rical indust ry
,
.

I t w o uld then be p o ssible t o av o id magnetic leakage by insula

t ing magnetic ci rcuits as pe rfectly as elect ric circuits a re ins ulated .

The absence o f leakage wo uld a ll o w a reducti o n in the si z e of the

field f rames and exciting c o ils o f di rect and alternating c ur rent -

machines I t w o uld als o pe r mit us t o immo ve the voltage regula

.

ti o n o f gene r at o rs an d t ransfo rm e r s t o raise the p o we r fac t o r o f

,

inducti o n m o to rs and t o inc rease c o nside rably thei r o ve rl o ad

,
18 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 9

capacity ; it wo uld also largely eli minate spa rking in c o mmutating

machines .

Pro b 1 7 A long iron rod h avin g a c ross se cti o n o f

. . , sq c m I s -
.

ben t in to a c irc ula r ring so that t he e n ds al mo s t t o uc h eac h o th e r T he .

ring is wo und with 5 00 tu rn s o f wi r e th e win d in g bein g c o ncent rated ,

a ro und th e gap t o min imi z e t h e lea kage W hen a cu rre nt o f ampe re s .

is sent t hro ugh th e winding a fl ux o f kil o m axwe lls i s e stabli she d

’

in t he ci rcuit A ss umin g the reluctanc e o f the i ron t o be negli gi ble

.
,

calculate the cl ea ran c e between t he ends o f the rod .

A ns B etwe e n a nd mm . .

Pro b 1 8 W ha t is the lengt h of the ai r gap in the p recedin g p roble m

. .
-

if t he es tim at ed re luctan c e o f the i ro n p a rt o f the ci r cuit i s 2 milli r el s ? -

A ns . mm .

Pro b 1 9 A ma gnetic ci r cui t c o nsists of three pa rts t he r eluctance s

. .
,

o f w hic h a re r el (R = 0 00 5 rel an d (R = 0 0 13 rel Th e

, z .
, s . .

paths (R an d (R a re in pa rallel wi t h eac h o t he r an d a re in se ries wit h

z s

W h at i s t h e t o tal pe rmeance o f t h e ci r cuit ? pe rms

'

A ns . .

Pro b 20 I n the p rec ed in g p rob lem let (R b e the r eluc tance o f th e

. .
,

st eel f ra me of an elec tric m ac hine (R b e th at of t w o ai r gap s a nd t he , 2

-
,

a rmature an d (R th e lea kage r eluctanc e b etween t wo p o l es Th e rati o

, 3 .

o f t h e t o tal flux in the f r ame t o th e us ef ul flux t hr o u gh t he a rm atu r e

i s call ed the l eakage fac to r o f the ma c hine W h at is its valu e in t hi s .

ca se ? A ns .

Pro b 21 Referri ng t o the t wo pre c eding p rob l ems let th e ai r gap b e

. .
-

red uc ed so as t o red uce the leakage fact o r t o How many am p ere

tu r n s will be requi red t o p ro d uce a u seful flux o f mega lines in t h e
ma gnetic cir cuit un d e r c o n si de ratio n ? A ns .

Pro b 22 A n iro n ring h av ing a c ro ss se c ti on of 4 by 5 ems i s placed

. .
-
.

inside o f a ho ll o w rin g T hi s ring h a s a mean d ia mete r o f 3 2 cm an

. .
,

axial width o f 1 1 c m an d a ra di cal t hic kne ss o f 8 cm How m any

.
,

ampere t urns are requi red t o p rod uc e a t o tal flux o f 4 7 kilo lines (c o u nt
-

in g th at in th e air a s well a s t h at in t he iro n ) if t he e stim ate d r elative ,

pe rm eability o f the iro n i s 1400 ? H int : L et the ave rage flux d en sity in
the air be B a nd tha t in t h e i ron be B , W e h ave t wo sim ultane o us
a, .

e quati o n s : 20 B ; (88 , a nd B i / B = 14 00 A ns 134 a . . .

Pro b 23 W hat p er c ent of the total flux in the p rece di ng p rob lem
. .

is in t he ai r ? A ns p er cen t . .

Pro b 24 Show th at in a rin g s uc h a s is shown in Fi g 1 th e flux

. .
,
.
,

den sity st rictly speakin g i s no t uniform b ut varies inve rsely as th e

, , ,

d is tance from th e cente r So luti o n : Ta ke an elementa ry tube o f flux

.

o f a r ad ius r Th e m agnetic inte nsity at an y p o i nt w ith i n th e t ub e is

'

H = M 2 m an d th e fl ux d en sity acc ordin g t o eq

,
B p M, / 2 x . 7r .

Pro b 2 5 W hat i s the t r ue pe rm eanc e o f a ci rcular rin g o f rectangula r

. .

c ro ss sec ti o n t h e o utsid e d iam ete r o f w hic h is D t he in sid e d iamete r D

-
, 1, 2,

an d the axial wi d th h? So luti o n : The p erm eance o f an infinitesi m al

t ube of radius a: is dtP = phdx/ 2 x Th e pe rmeanc es o f all the tubes 7r .
CR AP . I] FL UX A ND M AGNE T O M O TIVE FO RC E 19

are in pa ra llel and sho uld be add ed ; hence integrat ing t h e fo rego ing
,

e xp ress io n between t he limits lD and 5D, we get : (P

,

Pro b 2 6 Show th at when th e radial thic kness 6 o f a r ing is small a s

. .
,

com pa r ed t o its m ea n dia m ete r D t he e xact e xp ress i o n fo r p erm eance

, ,

ob tain ed in t h e p rec eding p ro bl em difl ers b ut littl e f ro m t he a ppro xi

'

mate value phb / e used befo re So lution : Us ing the e xpansi on

, , .
,

} L n[( 1
1 and put t ing
—
b)
we get W hen t he
ratio o f
b t o D is sma ll a ll t he terms withi n t he brac kets exc ep t t he fi rs t o ne
, ,

can be negl e c ted .

Pro b 2 7 Sho w t h at the answe r t o p ro b 1 1 is

. .
pe r cent
. h i gh o n
acc o un t o f t he den s ity b eing ass um ed there as unifo rm t hro u gho ut th e
c ro ss s ecti o n o f t he r ing
-
.
 C HA P T E R I I

T HE M A G NE TI C C I R C UI T W I TH IR O N

10 . T he Diff er enc e b etw een I r o n

a gnetic M ater ials a nd N o n-
M .

S teel and ir o n d iffer in their magnetic pr o perties f r o m m o st o ther

kn o wn materials in the f o ll o win g respects
( 1) The permeability o f steel and ir o n is several hundred and
even th o usand times greater than that of non magnetic materials —
.

(2) The pe r meability o f steel and i ron is no t c onstant but ,

dec reases as the flux density increases .

(3 ) C han ges in the magneti zati o n o f steel and ir o n are

acc o mpanied by s o me s o rt of m o lec ula r fricti o n (hysteresis) with
the result that the same magnet o m o tive f o rce pr o duces a different
flux when the exciting cu rrent is in c reasing than when it is de
creasing (Fig .

B esides ir o n the f o u r adj acent elements in the peri o dic system

, ,

viz c o balt nickel manganese and chr o mium a re slightly mag

.
, , , , ,

n etic So me all o ys and o xides o f these metals sh o w c o nsiderable

.

magnetic pr operties Heusler succeeded in pro ducing all o ys o f

.

manganese aluminum and c o ppe r which are str ongly magnetic

, ,
.

These all o ys have no t been used in p ractice so far 1 .

11 M a gn eti z ati o n C urves The magnetic pr o pe rties o f the steel

. .

and ir on used in the c o nstructi o n of electrical machinery are sh o wn

in Figs 2 and 3 These curves a re called ma gnetiza tion c urves o r
. .
,

B —
H c urves ; s o metimes als o the sa tura tion c urves of iron .

The flux density in kilolines pe r square centimeter o f c ro ss sec

,
—

ti o n is pl o tted in these curves against the ampere turns per

, , ,
-

centimeter length o f the magnetic circuit as absciss ae .

The student may c o nveniently think o f these curves as rep resent

F or the p repa rati o n and p ro pe rties o f H ensle r s all oys see G ut he and ’

A ustin B ulletins of B urea u of S ta nda rds Vo l 2

,
No 2 p 2 9 7 ; Dr C ,
. .
, . . .

P S teinm etz E lec tric a l W orld Vo l 5 5

.
,
p 120 9 ; K n owlt o n P hy sica l
, . .
,

R eview Vol 3 2 ,
p 54 . . .
Gun .
II ] M AGNE TI C C I RCU IT W IT H I RO N 21

ing the results o f tests o n samples o f i ron in ring fo rm as in Fig , .

The c u rrent in the exciting c o il is adj usted t o a ce rtain value and ,

the c o rresp o nding value o f the flux in the iro n r ing is deter mined
by any o f the kn o wn means fo r ins tance by a dis cha r ge th r o ugh
, ,

Sc a l e 8
10 20 80 S cale A
H=A M PE R E T UR NS PER C E NT I M ET E R
~

F ig . 2
—
M agnetiz ati on in s e t el a nd i ro n
—
c ast in gs a nd forgings .

‘ F or an e xpe ri menta l study o f the ma gnetic ci rcuit with iro n and for
p ra c tica l te stin g o f the ma gnetic p ro pe rtie s o f s te e l and i ro n see Vo l 1 .
,

Chapte rs 6 and 7 o f the author s E xperimenta l E lectric a l E ngineering

,
'
.
22 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RC UIT [A m 11

a sec o ndary c o il c onnected t o a calibrated ballistic galvan o meter .

The ex c iting ampere turns divided by the average length o f the

-

path give the magne t ic intensity H The t o tal flux divided b y the .
.

cr o ss sec t i o n o f the iro n path gives the value o f the flux density B
-

which is pl o tted as an o rdinate against H fo r an a b sissa Simila r .

tests are made fo r o ther values o f H and B ; the results give the
magnetiz ati o n curve o f the material I n o ther w o rds a magneti .
,

z a t io n curve gives the relati o n between the magnet o m o tive f o rce

and the flux fo r a unit cube o f the material B y c ombining unit .

cubes in series and in par a llel a relati o nship is established

between fl ux and ampere turns fo r a circuit o f any dimensi o ns
-

made o f the same material .

The curves sh o wn in Fig 2 r efer t o the f o ll o wing materials : (a )

.
.

C ast ir o n which is used as the magnetic material in the stati o nary

,

field frames of direct current machines and in the r ev o lving field

-
,
-

spiders o f lo w speed alternat o rs I t is evident fr o m the curves .

that cast iro n is magnetically much in f eri o r t o steel ; but it is used

o n acc o unt o f its l o wer c o st and ease o f machining (5) C ast steel .
,

which is used fo r p o le pieces plungers o f electr o magnets etc , ,

.

I t is used als o fo r the field frames o f such machines in whi c h

ec o n o my o f weight o r space is desired fo r instance in railway , ,

and crane m o t o rs and in machines built fo r exp o rt (c) F o rged

,
.

steel whi ch is used fo r the rev o lving fields o f turb o alternat o rs

,
-
,

o n acc o unt o f the c o nsiderable mechanical stresses devel o ped in

su c h high speed m achines by the centri f ugal f o rce .

The curves in Fig 3 re f er t o carb o n steel laminati o ns and t o

.
-

silic o n steel laminati o ns The f o rme r is used in the armatures o f

-
.

direct and alte rnating current machines the latter mainly in trans
-

f o rmers There is n o t much di ff erence between the t wo kinds with

.

regards t o their B H curves but silic o n steel sh o ws a much l o wer

—

l o ss o f energy due t o hysteresis and eddy currents (see A rt 2 0 .

bel o w) A m ate rial o f inuc h higher permeability is used fo r

.

armature c o res when it is desired t o use very high flux densities

,

in the teeth A magneti z ati o n cu r ve fo r such steel laminati ons is

.

sh o wn in Fig 2 8 . .

F o r c o nvenience and accuracy the l o wer pa rt o f each cu r ve in

”
Fig 2 is pl o tted separately t o a larger scale A while the uppe r
.
, ,

parts are pl o tted t o a smaller scale B Thus Fig 2 c o ntains ,

.
’
,
.

o nly three c o mplete magnetizati o n c urves The curve fo r sili c o n .

s t eel la minati o ns in F ig 3 is als o pl o tted t o t wo diff e rent scales

.
,
Cm . II] M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT W IT H I RO N 23

"
3000 S cale C 40 00

"
3000 S c a le C 4000
"
100 200 800 S c ale B 400
10 20 80 S cal e A 40
=
H A M PER EJ UR NS PE R C E NT lM ET E R

F 10 . 3 .
—
M a gnetiz ati on in teel la minati o ns
s .
24 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT ( A m . 12

while th ree diff e rent scales are used fo r the ca rb o n steel cu rve -
.

The values o f H at very lo w flux densities a r e unreliable because

in reality each cu rve has a p o int o f infl exion nea r the o rigin no t ,

sh o wn in Figs 2 and 3 (see Fig . .

The cu rves given in Figs 2 and 3 rep resent the ave rages o f m any .

cu rves o btained fr o m va rio us s o urc es The i ro n used in an indi .

vidual case may differ c o nsidera b ly in its magnetic quality fro m the
average curve The value o f B o btainable with a given H depends
.

t o a large degree up o n the chemical c o nstituti o n o f the specimen ,

impu rities heat treatment etc A s a r ule the s o ft and pure grades
, ,
.
,

o f steel are magnetically better that is t o sa y they give a higher , ,

flux density fo r the same magnetizing f o r ce o r what is the same , , ,

they p o ssess a highe r permeability A nn ealing impr o ves the .

magnetic quality o f iro n while punching hammering etc l o wers , , ,

.
,

it Therefo re the lamin ati o ns used in the c onstructi on of elec

.
,

t ric a l machinery are usually annealed a f ter bein g p unched int o

their final shape This annealing also r educes hysteresis l o ss
. .

12 Per meability a nd Satu r ati o n

. P ermeability is defined in .

C hapter I as the permeance o f a unit cube o r acc o rding t o eq , ,

.

as the rati o of B t o H The t wo definiti o ns are o f c o urse .

, ,

identical There f o re the values o f permeability fo r vari o us values

.
,

of B are easily o btained fr o m the magnetizati o n curves F o r .

instance fo r cast steel at B 15 kilo lines per sq c m the magnetic

, ,
. .

intensity H is 2 6 a mpere tu rns per cm so that p = -

5 77 .
,

perms per cm cube Thi s is the value o f the a bso lute permea bil
. .

i ty in the a mpere o hm ma xwell s y s tem -

I n m o st b o o ks the relative
-
.

permeability o f iro n is empl o yed referring t o that of the air as ,

unity S ince in the ab o ve menti o ned system p =

. fo r air-
,

the relative permeab ility o f cast steel at the selected flux density
is
I n practice the calculati o ns o f magnetic circuits with ir o n are
,

arranged so as t o av o id the use o f permeability p alt o gether using ,

the B H curves directly I n s o me special investigati o ns ho w

-
.
,

ever it is c o nvenient t o use the values o f permeability and als o

, ,

an empirical equati o n between a and B F o r in stance see the .

,

S ta nda r d Ha ndbook fo r E lec trica l E ngineers ; the t o pic is indexed

” ”
perm eability curves and permeability equati o n
—

,
These —
.

p B
—
cu rves sh o w that there must be a p o int o f inflecti o n in

the B H cu rves at lo w densities because the values o f p reach

—

thei r m axi m um at a ce rta in definite density instead o f being c on

C RAP . II ] M AGNE TI C C I RCU IT WI T H I RO N 25

stant fo r the l o we r pa rt of the cu rves Such w o uld be the case if .

the l o we r pa rts o f the B H cu r ves we re st raight lines as sh o wn

—

in Figs 2 and 3 because then the rati o o f B t o H w o uld be c o n

.
,

stant Ho weve r in o rdina ry enginee ring w o rk the l o we r pa rts o f

.
,

magneti z ati o n cu r ves are usually assu m ed t o be st raight lines and ,

the pe rm eability c o nstant .

Th ree pa rts can be distin guished in a B H o r magneti zati o n —

cu rve : the l o we r st raight pa rt the middle pa rt called the knee o f ,

the cu rve and the upper pa rt which is nearly a st raight line A s

, ,
.

the m agnetic intensity H inc reases the c o rresp o nding flux density ,

B in creases m o re and m o r e sl o wly and the ir o n is said t o appr o ach ,

sa tur a tion W ith ve ry high values o f the magnetic intensity H

.
,

say seve ral th o usand ampere tu rns per centimeter the iro n is c o m-
,

p let ely Satu r ated and the r ate o f increase o f flux density with H is
the same as in ai r o r in any o ther non m agnetic material That is -
.

t o say the flux density B increases at a r ate o f

,
kilo lines fo r
each kil o ampe r e tu rn inc rease in H Such is the sl o pe o f the uppe r
- -
.

c urve in Fig 3 . .

I n view o f this phen o m en o n o f satu rati o n the t o tal fl ux density

in i ron can be c o nsidered as c o nsisting of t wo pa rts o ne due t o the ,

p resence of iro n the o the r independent o f it as if the paths o f the

, ,

lines o f fo rce were in ai r These t wo pa rts are sh o wn sepa rately

.

in Fig 4 The pa rt 0 A due t o the ir o n app r o aches a li miting

. .
, ,

value B where the iro n is satur ated The pa rt 0 0 no t due t o the

, , .
,

iro n inc reases indefin itely in acc o rdance with the st raight line
,

law B = ptH whe re

,
The c u rve 0 D o f to tal flux density
,

resembles in shape that o f 0 A but app ro aches asy m pto tically ,

a st raight line K L parallel t o 0 0 .

W hile it is cust o mary t o speak o f the satu rati o n in i ron as being

lo w high o r medium the auth o r is no t awa re o f any gene rally
, , ,

rec o gni zed meth o d o f exp ressing the deg ree o f saturati o n numeri
cally I t seems reaso nable t o define per cen t satu rati o n in i ro n wi t h
.

respect t o the fl ux density B so that fo r in stance the per cent , , , ,

satu rati o n at t he p o int N is equal t o the r ati o o f P N t o B This ’

,

meth o d o f defin ing satu rati o n w hile c o rrect theo retically p re , ,

supp o se s that the o rdinate B is kn o wn which is no t always the . ,

case .

T he pe r centage satu rati o n o f a m achine is defined in A rt 5 8 o f .

the S ta nda rdiza tion R ules o f the A me ri c an I nstitute o f E lec t rical

E ng inee rs (editi o n o f 19 10 ) as the pe rcentage rati o o f O Q t o P N ,
26 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A R T . 13

QN being a tangent t o the satu r ati o n curve at the p o int N under

c o nsiderati o n A n o bj ecti o n t o this definiti o n is that acc o rding t o it
.

the per cent saturati o n d o es no t appr o ach 100 as N increases

indefinitely ; o n the c o ntrary the per cent satu rati o n gradually ,

decreases t o z er o bey o nd a ce rtain value o f N This is o f c o urse .

, ,

absurd M o re o ver the f o reg o ing defin iti o n o f the I nstitute re f ers
.
,
”
e x plicitly t o the percentage o f saturati o n o f a ma chine and it ,

is no t clear whether magneti zati on curves of the separate materials

are included in it o r no t The practical advantage o f this definiti o n
.

as c o mpared t o that given ab o ve is that it is no t necessary t o

kn o w the value of

FI G 4
. .
—
A m a gneti z ati o n cu rve analyz ed .

13 . Pr o b l em s I nvo lving the Use of M a gn eti z ati o n C u r ves .

The f o ll o wing pr o blems have been devised t o give the reader a clear
understanding o f the meaning o f magnetizati o n curves and t o ,

devel o p fluency in their use These pro blems lead up t o the .

magnetic circ uit o f electric machines treated in C hapters V and

VI . W ith al m o st any arrangement o f a magnetic ci r cuit there
is s o me leakage o r spreading o f the lines of f o rce which is diffic ult ,

t o take int o acc o unt the o retically This leakage is neglected in .

m o st of the pro blems that f o ll o w so that the res ults a r e o nly ,

appr o xim ately c o rrect L eakage is c o nsidered m o re in detail in

.

A rt 4 0 bel o w th o ugh practical designers are usually satisfied with

.
,
C HA P I I ]. M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT W IT H I RO N 27

estimating it f ro m the results of p revi o us tests rathe r than

,
to
calculate it the o retically .

Pro b 1 Sampl es of c as t stee l are to b e tested for t he ir ma gn et i c

. .

q uality u p t o a d e ns ity o f 19 kilo lines per sq ua re c en t im ete r T hey a re .

t o be in t he f o rm o f r ings 20 em ave ra ge d iame te r a nd ,sq c m .

, . .

c ro ss secti on
- F o r ho w m any am p ere tu rns s h o ul d t h e e xciting w in d in g
.
-

be d esigned and what is the l o w es t pe rm eanc e o f the cir c uit if so m e

, ,

s pecimens are expected t o h ave a p erm ea bility 10 p er cent l owe r tha n

that acc o rding t o t he cu rve in Fi g 2 ?
10 £ kilo a mpere t urns ;
.

A ns perm . .

Pro b 2 E xplain the reaso n fo r whic h it i s no t nec es sa ry t o kn o w th e

. .

c ro ss secti on o f th e s pecim e ns in o rder t o cal culate the nec essa ry am p ere

-

t urns in the prec eding p roblem .

Pro b 3 So m e silic on s teel lamin ations are t o b e tested i n th e fo rm o f

. .

a rec tangular b unc h 20 by 2 by 1 c m in an appa ratus called a permea m .

,

ete r The ne t c ro ss secti o n o f th e ir on is 90 pe r cen t o f t hat o f the

.
-

pac ket It is fo und fo r a sam ple t hat 3 36 am pe re tu rns a re required to

.
-

p rod uc e a fl ux o f kil o m axw ells t he am p er e tu rns fo r t he air gap s a nd

-
,
- -

fo r the c onn ecting yo ke o f the app aratus bein g eli mi nated Ho w d oes .

the quality o f the s p ecim en c om pa re with the cur ve in Fi g 3 ? .

A ns Th e pe rmea bility o f the sa mp l e at B = 14 is abo ut 5 p e r c en t

.

l o we r t han t hat acc o rding t o t h e c u rv e .

Pro b 4 W h a t a re the values o f the abso lute and the rela ti v e p e r

. .

mea b ilit y and r eluctivity of t he sa m pl e in t he p rec eding pro blem ?

l v
rel a tive 66 3 (n umeri c ) (n umeri c )
abso lute 8 33 pe rms pe r c m cu be rels pe r c m cube . . .

Pro b 5 W ha t is the ma xim um pe rm eability o f cas t i ro n acc o rding t o

. .

th e curve in Fig 2 ? Ans A bo ut 6 00 pe rms per c m cube

. . . .

Pro b 6 M a rk in Fi gs 2 and 3 vertical s cales o f abso lute a nd relative

. . .

pe rm eabili ty so t ha t values o f pe rmeability c o ul d be rea d o ff d i rectly by

,

la ying a st raigh t ed ge between the o ri gin and the des i red po in t o f the
magneti z ati o n cu rve .

Pro b 7 W ha t i s the perc enta ge o f satu ratio n i n ca rbo n s teel lamina

. .

ti ons at a flux d en si ty o f 20 kil o maxwell s p er sq ua re c entim et e r -

,

acc ord ing to bo th d efiniti ons given in Art 12 ? Ans . .

Pro b 8 An el ect ro m a gnet has th e d imensions (in c m ) shown in

. . .

Fig 5 ; the c o re i s m ade o f ca rbon st eel lam inati ons 4 mm thic k the
. .
,

lo we r yo ke is o f c as t i ron Th e l en gth o f eac h ai rg a p is 2 mm ; ea c h

. .

exciting c o il has 45 0 tu r ns W ha t is th e exciting c urren t fo r a us eful

.

flux o f mega lines in th e lo we r y o ke ? N eglect th e ma g netic le ka ge a

between t he limbs o f th e elect ro m a g net ( th i s lea ka ge is ta ken into o n id c s

c rati on in t he n ext p ro ble m ) So luti o n : W it h la minati ons 4 mm th ic k . .

th e spac e o ccupi e d by insulati on bet w een s ta m pin gs is alto gether negligi

ble ; the refo re t he flux d en sity in th e steel i the sa m e a in the a ir ga p s s -

a nd is equa l to kl/ sq c m ; in th e ca s t iro n t h e fl u x density is

. .
28 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [AR T . 13

kl/ sq .
cm O ne h a lf o f th e average length o f the path in the st eel i s
.
-

c m an d i n the ca st i ro n
.
,
c m H ence w ith refe rence t o the .
,

m a gn eti z ati o n c urves we find fo r o ne h alf o f the magnetic ci rcuit (the

,
-

o the r h alf bein g id entical it is s ufficient t o calculat e fo r o ne h alf )

,
-

a mp turn s f or s teel c or e
- 65 X 2 4 25
a mp tur n s f or o ne ai r g ap X x 17200 2 75 2
- -

a mp tur n s fo r t h e ca s t i ro n yo ke 180 3 69 0
- -

To tal 8 867 .

A n s The excitin g cu rrent is 88 6 7 / 4 5 0

. ampe re s .

Pro b 9 I n the so luti o n o f th e p reced in g p ro blem the e ff ect o f leakage

. .

is d i srega rd ed I t i s f o u nd by expe ri m e nt s o n s i mila r elect rom agnet s

.

FI G 5 . .
—
An elect roma gnet (dimen si on s in centimete rs) .

th at t he l eakage fac tor i s equal t o abo u t th at is t o s ay t he flux in the ,

upp er y o ke is 20 per cent hi gher th an th at in the l ower o ne Thi s m ean s .

t h at o ut o f e ve ry 1200 li ne s o f fo r ce i n t h e upp er y o ke 10 00 pass t hro ugh

t h e l owe r y oke as a pa rt o f th e us eful flux a nd 20 0 fin d t hei r pat h as a ,

leakage t hro ugh t he a ir b etween th e limbs as shown by t h e do tted li nes , .

Calculat e the excitin g curr ent r equi red in th e p recedin g p roblem assu min g ,

(a ) t h at t h e to tal lea kage flux is c o ncent rated b etween t h e t w o ai r gap s -

al o n g the li ne a o ; ( b) t h at it i s c o ncent rated al o n g t h e li ne bb at o ne ,

t hi rd o f t he dis tan ce f ro m t he b o tt om o f t he e xc itin g c o il th at is ,

c m f ro m t h e ai r gaps
.
-
.

A ns (a ) am pe re s ; (b) 4 0 amp ere s

. .

Pro b 1 0 Show th at I t i s more c o rrect in the p reced in g p ro blem t o

. .

ass ume th e leakage flux c o ncent rated at o ne th i rd o f th e d i sta nce fro m -

t he b o tt o m o f the exc lt ing c o il s t h a n at the c enter o f the c oi l s , .

Cm . I ll M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT W IT H I RO N 29

Pro b 1 1 A ring of fo rged steel h as s uc h dimensions t ha t t he average

. .

length o f the lines o f fo rc e is 70 c m The ring has an ai r ga p o f mm an d .

-
.
,

is p ro vi ded with an excit in g wind ing c o ncen t rated n ea r the ai r gap so a s -

t o minimi z e t h e lea ka ge W hat is t h e flux de n s ity at an m m f o f 4 000

. . . .

am pe re tu rns ? F irs t So luti on : Ass ume va rio us values o f B calculate th e

'

-
,

c o rresp onding values o f th e ampe re tur n s un til the value o f B is fo und fo r -

, ,

whic h the re quired e xcitatio n is 4000 am pe r e turns (so l ution by t rials) -

.

Sec ond so luti on : L et t he un kno wn dens ity be B and t h e c o rres po nding

magn etic in tensity in t he s teel be H Th e req ui red e xcitatio n fo r the s teel .

is then 7011 and for the a ir gap , x0 8 x 1000 3 = 12OB amp e r e turns -
.
- .

Therefo re ,

7011 + 120 8 = 4000 .

T he valu es of B and H must sat is fy th is eq uati on o f a st rai gh t line a nd ,

bes id es th ey m us t b e relat ed t o eac h o th e r by th e ma gn eti z ati o n c u rve

fo r s teel fo rgings ( Fi g H ence B and H a re d eterm ined by th e i ntersec
.
,

ti on o f the s t raigh t lin e an d the cu rv e The st raigh t line is d ete rm ined by .

t wo o f ts i p o in t s ; for ins ta n c e whe n H = 40 B = 1 0; wh e n H = 24 B , , ,

Drawing this li ne in Fig 2 we find tha t the p o in t o f in tersectio n c o rre .

spo nds t o B = 16 3 l
.A ns
. kilo lines p er s q c m . . .

Pro b 1 2 So lve the p rec eding pro b l em ass um ing the rin g t o be mad e
. .
,

o f sil i c o n steel lamin a t i o ns : 10 p er c en t o f t he s pac e i s ta ken by t he

ins ula ti on be tween the la min ati o ns .
~

A ns Flux density in the lamin a ti ons is

. kl/ sq c m . .

Pro b 13 In a c omplex magnetic c ircuit an air gap 3 mm long and

. . ,
- .

26 sq c m in c ro ss se c ti on is sh un ted by a c as t iron rod 14 c m l ong and

. .
- -
.

10 sq c m in c ro ss secti on
. . W h a t is t h e n umber o f amp ere tu rns n ec os
-
.
-

sa ry for p rod uc ing a to tal fl ux o f 2 15 kilo lines thro ugh the t wo paths in
pa rallel and wh at is the reluctan ce o f th e rod p er c en tim ete r o f its len gt h
,

und e r thes e c onditi ons ? Ans 1 160 a mpere t urns ; m illi rel .
-
.

Pr o b 1 4 The magnetic flux in a cl o sed iron c o re m ust inc rea se and

. .

dec rease acc o rding t o a st raight line law wi th the time th en reve rs e and -
,

in c rease and d ec rease acc o rd in g to the same l aw in th e o pp osite d i recti on .

Show the genera l sh ap e o f the c urve o f the e xcit ing cu rr e nt n e glec tin g ,

the effect o f hy t eresis .

Pro b 1 5 Show th at if in the p re c eding p ro blem th e flux v aries acc or d

. .

ing to the s ine l aw th e curve o f the exciting cu rren t is a p ea ked wave .

Show ho w to de termine the sha pe o f this cu rv e f ro m a given mag ne ti z a

ti o n cu rve of the materi al Th i s p roblem ha s an ap plication in th e c a lc u .

l a ti on o f the exc i ting cu rren t in a t ransfo rm e r .

Pro b 1 6 In the magneti c ci rcui t sho w n in F ig 6 the useful flux

. .
.

passes t hro ugh the air gap betw een th e t wo steel po l es ; a pa rt o f the fl ux
-

‘The stude nt will see from the so luti o n o f this p ro blem that in the ca se
o f a se ries ma gnetic ci rcuit it is m uch ea sie r t o find the m m f re qui re d for . . .

a gi ven flux than vice versa O n t he othe r hand in t he ca se o f two mag . ,

net ic path s in pa rallel ( such a s in p ro b it is ea s ie r t o find t he flux for a .

give n m m f . . .
30 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A m 13

is shunted thro ugh th e ca st iro n pa r t o f th e ci r cuit A t low satur ati o n s a -

.

c o n sid e rable pa r t o f the t o tal fl ux is s hunted thro ugh t he cas t i ro n pa r t -

,

b ut as the flux den sity inc r ea ses th e cas t ir on bec om es saturated an d a ,

la rge r an d la rge r p o r ti o n o f t he flux i s d efl ected int o t h e ai r gap W ha t -

.

pe rcentages o f the t o tal flux in t he y o ke a re sh un ted t hro ugh the cast i ro n

when the fl ux d en sity in the a ir gap is 1 kl/ sq c m an d 7 kl/ sq c m -
. . . .

r espectively ? So luti o n : W he n the flux d en sity in th e ai r gap is 1 kil o -

line pe r sq c m th e m m f ac ro ss the gap is 1000 X 0 8 X 0 5 = 4 00 am pe re

. . . . . . .

turns T h e flux d en sity in the steel p o le s i s 2 kl/ sq c m an d the requi re d

. . .
,

m m f in them i s ab o ut 16 ampe re tu rn s Th e refo r e th e t o tal m m f

. . .
-
.
,
. . .

ac ross A C an d c o n seque ntly ac ross t he c ast iron p a r t is 4 16 amp ere turns - -

,

FI G . 6 .
-
A c o m plex magnetic ci rcuit .

or H am p ere tu rns p er centim ete r o f lengt h o f th e path in the cas t

-

i ro n Thi s value o f H c o rresp o n ds o n the m agneti z ati o n cu rve t o B 6 kl/ sq

. .

c m ; henc e th e t o tal flux in t he ca s t i ro n i s 72 kl Th e flux in th e y o ke i s

.
,
.

kl an d the pe r centage in t h e ca s t i ro n sh u nt i s
.
,
or -

ab o ut 5 5 pe r ce nt Si m ila rly it i s f o u nd th at whe n th e flux d e nsity in th e

.
, ,

air gap i s 7 / kl s q c m ab o ut 25 per ce nt o f t he flux i s sh u nted thro ugh

-
. .
,

the cast i ro n pa rt Th e f orego in g a rran gem e nt illu s t rates th e p rinciple

-
.

u sed in som e p ractical case s wh en it i s d e si red t o m odify t h e relati o n ,

between the flux an d t h e m a gnet omo tive fo rc e b y p ro vid ing a highly ,

satur ated m agnetic path in pa rallel with a feebly saturated o ne .

A ns 55 pe r cen t an d 25 pe r cent app ro xim ately

. .

Pro b 1 7 In d icate ho w th e p reced in g p ro blem can be so lved if the

. .

ca s t i ro n pa r t we re p ro vid ed with a small clea rance o f say 1 mm H int :

-
.

See t h e sec o n d so luti o n t o p ro blem 11 .

C HAP . I ll M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT W I TH IRO N 31

Pro b 1 8 . . is th e l ength o f th e yo ke in Fig 6 if the exc i ting c ur

W hat .

rent inc rea ses 12 tim es wh e n the flux d ens ity in t he air gap in c rea ses f ro m
-

1 t o 7 kl/ S q c m ?
. H in t : I f H a nd H a re the kno wn m agn etic in te nsi
.
, ,
ti es in t he yo ke c o rres p ond ing t o the t wo give n d e nsiti es a nd a: is t he
, ,

un kno wn len gt h o f the y o ke we h ave us ing th e val ues o b tained in the

, ,

so l u tio n o f p ro bl em 15 : = H r + 3090
,
.

Ans A bo ut m
. .
 CHA PT E R I I I

HY S T E R E S I S A N D E D D Y C U R R E N T S I N I R O N

14 . T he Hy ster esi s L o o p . S teel

and ir o n p o ssess a pro pe rty
o f r etaining pa r t o f their magnetism afte r the external ma gn et o m o

tive f o rce which magnetized the m has been rem o ved Theref o re .
,

the magneti zati o n o r the B H curve o f a sample depends so me

-

what up on the magnetic state o f the specimen befo re the test This .

p ro perty of i ro n is called hysteresis The curves sh o wn in Figs 2

. .

and 3 refer t o the so called virgin state o f the materials which state
-
,

is o btained by th o r o ughly demagnetizing the sample bef o re the

test A piece o f iro n can be reduced t o the virgin state by placing
.

it within a c o il thr o ugh w hich an alte rnating cur rent is sent and ,

gradually r educing the current t o z ero I nstead o f changing the .

current the sample can be re m o ved f ro m the c o il

, .

L et a sa mple o f steel o r ir o n t o be tested be made int o a ring

and pr o vided with an excit ing w inding as in Fig 1 L et it be ,
. .

th o ro ughly de magneti z ed ; in o ther w o rds let its residua l mag ,

net ism be r em o ved ; then let the r ing be magnetized gradually o r in

steps t o a ce rtain value o f the flux density L et 0 A in Fig 7 rep . .

resent the virgin magneti z ati o n curve that is t o say the relati o n ,

between the calculated values o f B and H fr o m this test and let ,

P A be the highest flux density o btained I f n ew the magnetizing .

cur rent be gradually reduced the relati o n between B and H is no

,

m o r e r epresented by the curve 0 A but by an o ther curve such as, ,

A O ; this is because o f the ab o ve menti o ned pr o perty o f ir o n t o

-

retain pa rt o f its magnetism W hen the current is reduced t o

.

zero the specimen still p o ssesses a residua l flux density 0 0 L et

,
.

the current no w be reversed and increased in the o pp o site direc

ti o n until H r eaches the negative value O F at which no magnetic
, ,

flux is left in the sample The value o f H O F is called the c o er

.

cive forc e W hen the magnetic intensity r eaches the negative value
.

o f O P = O P experiment sh o ws that the magnetic density P A in

’ ’ ’
,

the sa m ple is equal and o pp o site t o P 4 .

CR A P . 111] HY ST E R E SI S AND E DDY CURRE N TS 33

L e t no w the exciting cu rrent be again dec reased re ve rs ed and ,

inc reased t o it s f o rmer maxi mum value c o rresp o ndin g t o H = O P .

I t will be f o un d that the relati o n between B and H fo ll o ws a diff er

ent th o ugh sy mmetrical cu r ve which c o nnects with the
,

uppe r cu rve at the p o int A The c o mplete cl o sed cu r ve is call ed

.

the hy ster esis loop ; a sample o f iro n w hich has been subj ected t o a
vary ing ma gneto m o tive fo rce as described befo re is said t o have ,

unde rgone a c o m plete cycle o f magneti zati o n I f the sa m e cy cle .

FI G 7
. .
—
A hyste resis l oo p .

be repeated any number o f times the c urve b et ween B and H , .

remain s the same as l o ng as the phy sical p ro pe rties Of the sample

,

re ma in un cha n ged .

The l o we r half o f the hyste resis l o o p is identical with the

in ve rted uppe r half so that the resid ual flux density O C = OC
’
,
,

and the c o e rcive f o r ce O F O F The shape o f the l o o p fo r a

’
.

iven sample is c o mpletely deter mined by the ma ximum o rd inate

g
A P o r the max im um exci t ati o n O P
,
I f the excitati o n be car ried
.

fu rt he r fo r instan c e t o t he p o in t D o n the virg in cu rve the

, , ,

hy ste resis l o o p wo uld be large r beginning at the p o in t D and

, ,

wo uld be similar in its general sha pe t o the l o o p sh o wn in Fig 7 . .

34 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 15

A piece o f iro n c a n als o be ca r ried thro ugh a hysteresis cycle

mechanically Thus instead O f changing the excitati o n the
.
, ,

sam ple may be m o ved t o a weak field reve rsed and returned t o , ,

its o ri ginal l o cati o n The relati o n between B and H h o weve r

.
, ,

will be the same in either case .

A n imp o rtant featur e o f the hysteresis cy cle is that it r equires

a certain am o unt o f energy t o be supplied by the magnetizing
current o r by the mechanism which reverses the ir o n with
,

r espect t o the field I t is pr o ved in A rt 16 bel o w that this energy

. .

per cubic unit of ir o n is pr o p o rti o nal t o the area o f the hysteresis

l o o p This energy is c o nverted int o heat in the ir o n and therefo re
.
,

fro m the p o int o f view o f the electr o magnetic circuit rep resents
a pure l o ss I f the cycles o f magneti z ati o n are perf o rmed in
.
.

su fficiently rapid successi o n fo r in stance by using alternating

,

current in the exciting winding the temperature o f the iro n r ises ,

appreciably .

The phen o men o n o f hysteresis is irreve r sibl e ; that is t o say ,

it is imp o ssible t o make a piece of ir o n t o undergo a cycle o f mag

n et iz a t io n in the directi o n o pp o site t o that indicated by arr o w

hea ds ih Fig 7 I f it were reversible the l o ss o f energy o ccasi o ned

,
. .

by perf o rmin g the cycle in o ne directi o n c o uld be regained by

perf o r ming it in the o pp o site directi o n I n this respect the .

hysteresis cycle differs materially fro m the the o retical reversible

cycles studied in therm o dynamics and reminds o ne o f an irre ,

versib le therm o dynamic cycle in which f ricti o n o r sudden expan ,

si o n is present .

1 5 A n E xplanati o n o f Saturati o n a nd Hyster esi s in Ir o n

. .

W hile the physical nature o f magnetism is at present un kn o wn ,

there is sufficient evidence that the magnetizati on o f ir o n is

acc o mpanied by so me kind o f m o lecular change L et us assume .
,

in acc o rdance with the m o de rn electr o nic the o ry that there is an ,

electric current circ ulating within each m o lecule o f iro n due t o the ,

o rbital m o ti o n o f o ne o r m o re electr o ns within the m o lec ule E ach .

m o lecule represents therefo re a minute electr o magnet acted up o n

, ,

by o ther m o lecular electr o magnets I n the neutral state o f a piece .

o f ir o n the gr o uping o f the m o lecules is such that the currents

,

are distributed in all p o ssible planes and the external magnetic ,

acti o n is z ero Under the influence o f an e x ternal magnet o m o tive

.

fo rce the m o lec ules are o riented in the same way that small mag
netic needles are deflected by an exte rnal magnetic field W ith .
C HAP . IIIl HY STE RE S IS AN D E DDY CURRE N T S 35

small intensities o f the external field the m o lecules o f iro n return ,

int o their o riginal stable p o siti ons as so o n as the exte rnal m m f . . .

is rem o ved ; when h o wever the exte rnal magnetic intensity , ,

bec o mes c o nsiderable so me o f the m o lecules turn vi o lently and

assum e new gr o upings o f stable equilib ri um The refo re when .
,

the external m m f is rem o ved there is so me int rinsic magneti

. . .
,

za t io n left and we have the phen o men o n o f residual mag

,

net ism .

W ith an ever increasing exte rnal m o re and m o r e o f the

-

m o lec ules are o riented so that their m m fs are in the same direc . . .

ti on as the exte rnal field the iro n then appro aching satu r ati o n , .

A ny further increase in the flux density is then ma inly due t o the

flux between the m o lecules the same as in any non magnetic ,
-

medium .

A cc o rding t o the f o rego ing the o ry a n external m m f tu rns ,

. . .

the internal m m fs int o m o re o r less the same directi o n ; these

. . .

m mfs then help t o establish the flux in the interm o lec ula r spaces
. . .

which a re mu c h greater than the m o lecules t hemselves The re .

f o re the higher fl ux density in iro n is no t due t o a g rea ter permea

,

b ilit y o f the iro n itsel f but t o an increased m m f I t is never ,

. . .

t heless permissible fo r p ractical purp o ses t o speak o f a higher , ,

pe rmeability o f the iro n disregarding the internal .

and ,

c onside ring the pe rmeability acc o rding t o eq as the rati o ,

.

o f the flux density t o the exter na lly applied magnetic intensity .

The f o rego in g the o ry explains also the general characte r o f

the pe rmeability curve o f i ro n W ith ve ry small values o f H .

the m o lecules o f a piece o f iro n are o riented but very little but ,

a re rapidly o riented m o re and m o re as H is inc reased The re .

f o re fo r small values o f H a must be expected t o increase with H

, ,
.

O n the o ther hand when the sa tura t i o n is ve ry high an in c rease , ,

in H changes B but little because pra c t ically all o f the available ,

in te rnal m m fs have been utilized . . The re fo re fo r la rge values

. .
,

of H 11 dec reases
,
wi t h in c reasing C o nsequen t ly the r e is a ,

value Of H fo r whi c h [1 is a maximum This is the actual sha pe o f .

pe rmeabili ty curves (see fo r instance t he refe rence t o the S ta nda rd

Ha nd bo o k given in A rt 12 ab o ve) . .

The phen o men o n o f mag neti zati o n is i rreve rsible because the
changes f ro m o ne stable gro uping o f m o lecules t o the next a re
sudden E ach m o le c ul e in c hanging t o a ne w gro uping ac q ui res
.
, ,

kineti c ene rgy and o scill a t es abo u t it s new p o siti o n o f eq uilib

,
36 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A m . 15

riu m until the energy is dissipated by being c o nverted int o heat .

This heat represents the l o ss o f energy due t o hysteresis .

This the o ry o f saturati o n and hysteresis is due o riginally

t o W eber and has been impr o ved by E win g who has sh o wn
, ,

experimentally the p o ssibility o f vari o us stable gr o upings o f

a large number o f small magnets in a magnetic field B y varying .

the applied m m f he o btained a curve similar t o the hysteresis

. . .

l o o p of a sample o f ir o n F o r further details of this the o ry see

.

E wing M a gnetic I nduc tion in I ron a nd o ther M eta ls

,

C hapter X I .

The f o ll o wing anal o gy is also useful L et a b o dy Q ( Fig , .

rest o n a supp o rt and be held in its central p o siti o n by t wo springs

FI G 8
. .
—
A m echanical anal o gue t o hyste re si s .

S , S, which can w o rk b o th under tensi o n and under c o mpressi on .

L et this b o dy be made t o m o ve peri o dically t o the right and t o

the le f t of its central p o siti o n under the influence o f an alterna
,

ting external f o r ee H Call B the deflecti o ns of the b o dy fr o m

.

its m iddle p o siti o n The relati o n between B and H is then sim ilar
.

t o the hysteresis l o o p in Fig 7 pr o vided that there is s o me

.
,

f ricti o n between the b o dy Q and its supp o rt and pr o vided that ,

the springs off er in pr o p o rti on m o re resistance when dist o rted

greatly than when dist o rted slightly .

S ta rting with the neutral p o siti o n o f the b o dy let a grad ually

increasing f o rce H be applied which m o ves the b o dy t o the right .

This c o rresp o nds t o the virgin curve in Fig 7 e x cept that this .
,

simple anal o gy d o es no t acc o unt fo r the inflecti o n in the virgin

curve near the o rigin L et then the f o rce H be gradually reduced
.
,

all o wing the springs t o bring Q nearer the center W hen the .
C HAP III ] . HY STE R E S I S AN D E DDY CURRE N TS 37

exte rnal fo r ce is entir ely rem o ved the b o dy is still so m ewhat t o ,

the right o f its cent ral p o siti o n becaus e the f ricti o n balances pa rt ,

o f the tensi o n Of the sprin gs He re we have s o mething anal o go us .

t o residual magnetism and t o the pa rt A C o f the hyste resis l o o p .

A fi ni t e fo rce H is required in the negative di recti o n t o b ring Q

t o the cente r This fo r ce c o rresp onds t o the c o e rcive fo rce o f a
.

piece o f iro n .

B y fo ll o wing this anal o gy thr o ugh the c o mplete cycle o ne

can sh o w that a l o o p is o btained simila r t o a hysteresis l o o p .

A lso it can be sh o wn that the phen o men o n is i rreve rsible and

, ,

that t o tal wo rk d o ne by the f o rce H is equal t o the w o rk o f f ricti o n .

M o re o ve r there is a peri o dic interchange o f ene rgy between the

sp rings and the so u r ce o f the fo r ce H and the net l o ss o f m a y ,

is rep resented by the a rea o f the l o o p c o rresp o nding t o Fig 7 . .

Pro b 1 . iron r ing i s t ho ro ughly dem agn eti zed and t hen the cur
. An ,

rent in the exciting wind ing is va ri ed in th e fo ll ow ing m anner : It is

in c rea sed grad uall y f rom z e ro t o 1 a m pe re and i s then red uc ed t o zero .

A fter this t he c u rren t i s in c rea sed t o 2 am pere s in the sa me d i rection and

, ,

again red uc ed t o z e ro Then the c u rren t is inc rea sed t o 3 am peres again in
.

the sa m e dir ecti on and r ed uc ed t o zero e tc Draw ro ugh ly the general

, , .

c ha rac te r o f the B H cu rv e taking the hys teresis in to c o nsidera ti on

—

,
.

Hin t : Fi rs t st udy a s i m ila r pro c ess o n t he me c h ani cal ana l o gy shown in

Fi g.

Pro b 2 A pi ec e o f i ron is mad e t o und e rgo a magnetization proc ess

. .

f ro m the p o in t A ( Fig 7) t o a p oin t between F a nd A s uc h that when

.
’
,

subseq uently th e exciting ci rcuit is o p ened the ascending branc h o f the ,

hys te resi s cu rve c om es t o th e o ri gin Show th at s uch a p ro c ess d oes no t .

bring the iro n in to th e ne ut ral vi rgin sta te in spite o f the fac t that B - 0 ,

fo r H = 0 H i nt : C o n sider the f urther behavio r o f the i ro n fo r positi v e

.

a nd n egativ e values o f H .

Pro b 3 A milliv o ltme ter is c onnec ted to the high tensi on terminals
. .
-

o f a t rans f ormer and th e c u rre nt in th e lo w tens i on w i n

,
d ing is va ri ed in -

suc h a way as t o keep the v o l ta ge c ons ta n t : Show tha t th e cu rv e o f the

cu rre nt pl o tted agains t tim e is p ro po rt iona l to the hys te resis l oo p o f the
c o re H in t : Sin c e dO / dt is c ons ta n t O is p ropo rt iona l to th e t ime
.
, .

Pro b 4 T he ma gnetic fl ux d e nsity in an iron c o re is to va ry with t he

. .

t ime acc o rd ing t o th e sin e la w Pl o t t o t ime as a bsc issm t he i ns ta n ta ne

.

o us valu es o f t h e excit ing ampere turns pe r c en ti me te r l engt h o f t he c o re

-

f rom an avail a bl e hyste resis loo p and sho w tha t the wav e o f t he exc itin g,

c urren t is no t a sin e wave a nd is unsymm et ric a l No te : Th is p rob l em .

has an applica ti o n in t h e ca lc ula tion o f t he excit ing c urren t o f a t ra ns

fo rmer ; see Art 33 b el ow . .

A so luti on o f t his a nd o f the next p ro blem will be fo u nd in Chapte r V

o f E wing s M agnet ic I nd uc t io n in I ron a nd o the r M eta ls 18 9 2
'

, .
38 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T 16

16 . T he L o ss of E nergy
per C ycle o f M agneti z ati o n W hen a .

m agnetic flux is maintained c o nst a nt the o nly energy supplied

fr m the s urce o electric p o wer is that c onve rted int o the i r
o o f 2

heat in the exciting winding ; n o energy is necessa ry t o ma inta in

the magnetic flu x This is an e x perimental fact fundamental in .
,

the the o ry o f magnetic phen o mena W hen h o wever the flux .

, ,

is made t o vary by varying the e x citing ampere turns o r the

,
-

reluctance o f the magnetic cir c uit electro m o tive f o rces are ,

induced in the magnetizing winding by the changing flux ,

.

A transfer o f energy results between the electric and the magnetic

circuits .

B eginning fo r instance at the p o int A o f the cycle ( Fig

, , .

and go ing t o ward C the flu x is f o rced t o decrease A c co rding ha n

”
.
,

f
c
t o Faraday s law the e m f induce d by t hiS H U fi
_ '
V
m n :
E i
’
i h
'

,
t e a g
. et. z .

H
—

ing winding is such as t o resist the c ange l

‘

L e it e n d s t o main ,

tai n t he current Therefo re during the part A C o f the cycle

.
,

energy is supplied fr o m the magnetic t o the electric circuit .

This sh o ws that energy is sto red in a magnetic field During the .

pa rt C F A o f the hysteresis l o o p energy is supplied fr o m the

’

electric t o the magnetic circuit because at the p o int C the , ,

curren t is reversed and b ec o mes o pp o sed t o the e m f The . . .

o ther half o f the cycle being symmetrical with the flux and the ,

current reversed energy is returned t o the electric circuit duri ng

,

the part A C o f the cycle and is again accumulated in the

’ ’
,

magnetic circ uit during the part O F A ’ '

.

I f the pa rt A C o f the cycle were identical with C F A and the ’ '

,

part A C were identi c al with O F A the am o unts o f energy trans

’ ’ ’
,

f erred b o th ways w o uld be the same and there w o uld be no net ,

l o ss o f energy at the end o f the cycle I n reality the t wo parts .

are di fferent ; the am o unts o f energy returned f ro m the magnetic

circuit t o the electric circuit in the parts A C and A C are smaller ’ ’

than the am o unts supplied by the electric circuit in the parts

O F A and C F A This is because the last t wo parts o f the curve
’ ’ ’
.

are m o re steep than the first t wo and c o nsequently the induced ,

e m f s are larger fo r the same values o f the current The net

. . . .

result is theref o re an input o f energy fr o m the electric int o the

magnetic circuit this energy being c onverted int o heat in the ir o n
,
.

N o such e ff e c t is o bserved with n o n magnetic materials because -

,

the t wo branches o f a c o mplete B H c ycle c o incide with a straight -

line passing thr o ugh the o rigin .

C HAP III ]. HY STE RE S I S AND E DDY CURRE N TS 39

T pro ve that the energy l o st per cubic unit o f iro n per c y c le

o

o f magneti z ati o n is represented by the a rea o f the hysteresis l o o p ,

we first wr ite d o wn the expressi o n fo r the energy retu rned t o the

electric circuit during an in fini t esimal change o f flux in the
pa rt A C o f the cycle Le t the flux in the ring at the in stant unde r
.

c o nside rati o n be 4) webers and the magnet o m o tive fo rce ni amp

,

e re turns whe re i is the instantane o us val ue o f the current and n

-
, ,

is the t o tal number o f turns o n t he ex c i t ing winding The ins t an .

t a neo us induced due t o a decrease o f the flu x by ( 110 during

an infinitesimal element o f time dt sec o nds is e = a d a7 / di v o lt ,
—

,
.

The sign minus is necessa ry because e is p o sitive (in the direc t i o n

o f the cu rrent ) when d tp is negative that is t o say when the flux , ,

dec r eases The electric energy c o rresp o nding t o this v o ltage is

.

dW = ei dt
—
7
ni d a watt sec o nds (j o ules)
-
.

Hence the t o tal energy

,
returned to the elect ric circuit during the
pa rt A C o f the cycle is

f
"

o r, inte r changing the limits o f integrati o n ,

[ ni d dh

S ince all the pa rts O f the ring unde rg o the sa me p ro cess and ,

the cu rve in Fig 7 is pl o tted fo r a unit cube o f the material it is

.
,

o f inte res t t o find the l o ss o f energy per cubic centimeter o f ma t e

rial I f S is the c ro ss secti o n and l the mean length o f the lines

.
-

o f f o r ce in the ir o n we have that the v o lume

,

V= S l cubic centimete rs .

Dividing the exp ressi o n fo r the ene rgy by this equati o n we find ,

that the energy in watt sec o nds per c ubic centime t e r O f iro n is
-

(in/ l)

whe re H is in ampe re tu rns pe r centi m ete r and B is in web c r

-
, s

pe r squa re cen t imete r .

B ut Hd B is the a rea o f an infini t esimal st rip such as is sh o wn ,

by hatc hing in Fig 7 C o nsequen t ly t he right ha nd side o f eq

. .
,
-
.
40 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 17

( 1 9) represents the area o f the figure A C Q which is there f o re a ,

meas u re fo r the energy tran sf erred t o the electric cir c uit per c ubi c ,

centimeter I n exactly the same way it c an be sh o wn that the

.

energy supplied t o the magneti c circuit d uring the pa rt C A o f the ’

cy c le is represen t ed by the area A C Q Hen c e the net energy ’

.

l o ss fo r the part o f the cy c le t o the right o f the axis o f o rdinates

is represented by the area A CC A R epeating the same reas o ning '
.

fo r the le f t hand side o f the l o o p it will be seen that the t o ta l

-

energy lo ss per c y c le o
f ma gnetiz a tio n per c ubi c c enti meter of
ma t eri a l is repres ented by t he A CA C A t he hy steresis
’ ’
a rea o f
loop . a given material this area and c o nsequently the l o ss
Fo r , , ,

is a f un c ti o n o f the ma x imum flux density P A and increases with ,

it a c c o rding t o a rather c o mplicated law T wo empirical f o rmul ae .

fo r the l o ss o f energy as a f uncti o n o f the density are given in A rt .

20 bel o w .

I n the pr o blems that f o ll o w the weight o f o ne cubic decimeter

o f s o lid carb o n steel is taken t o be kg and that o f the all o yed .
,

o r silic o n steel kg The weight o f o ne cubic decimeter o f

.

assembled carb o n steel laminati o ns is taken as kg .

,

and that o f silic o n steel laminati o ns as kg .

Pro b A hysteresi s l o o p i s pl o tted t o the fo ll owin g scal es : abscissae

. 5 .

1 em 10. a m p ord inate s

. 1 c m = 1 kil o ma xwell/ sq c m ; th e
, .
-
. .

a rea o f th e l o o p i s f o un d by a planim ete r t o be 72 sq c m W h at i s the . .

l oss pe r cycle pe r cubic d eci met er o f i ro n ?

A n s 7 2 watt sec o n ds (j o ul es) . .
-
.

Pro b 6 Th e hy ste resi s l o o p m enti o ned in th e p reced in g p ro bl em wa s

. .

o btained fro m a n o s cill ograph ic r ec ord at a frequency o f 6 0 c y w ith a sam .

,

ple o f i ro n which wei gh ed kg Wh at wa s the p o we r l o st in hy s te r es is

.

in the who le r in g ? A n s 5 10 watt s . .

Pro b 7 Th e stati o na ry c o il o f a b allistic elect ro dynamo m eter is c o n

. .
—

nec t ed in s e r ie s with the excitin g elect ri c ci r cuit ( Fig th e mo vin g c o il .

i s c o nnected thro u gh a high r es i stan ce t o a s ec o n d a ry win d in g placed o n

t he ri n g The excitin g cu rrent i s bro ugh t t o a ce rt ai n value an d then th e
.
,

cu rr ent i s reve rsed twice in rapid s ucce ss i o n in o rder t h at th e i ro n m ay ,

u nd e rgo a c o m plete m ag neti z ati o n cycle Show th at th e d eflecti o n o f th e .

elect ro d ynamo m ete r i s a m eas ure fo r th e a rea o f th e hy ste resis l oo p

-
.

H int : dt = C o nst x 12 t .

17 . E ddy C u rr ents
in I ro n I r on is an electrical c o nduct o r ; .

there f o re when a magnetic flux varies in it electric currents are ,

1
S ea rle ,
The B allistic M ea su rement o f H yste resis ,
E lec tricia n, Vo l .

4 9 , 19 0 2 , p . 10 0 .
Cw . III ] HY ST E R E S I S AND E DDY CURRE N T S 41

induced al o ng cl o sed paths o f least resis tance linked with the flux .

These cur rents pe r mea te the wh o le bul k o f the iro n and a re called
eddy o r Fo ucault cur rents E ddy currents cause a l o ss o f energy
.

w hich must be supplied eithe r electrically o r mec hanically f ro m

an o utside so u r ce The refo re the iro n c o res used fo r va riable fluxes
.
,

a re usually built o f la minati ons so as t o limit the eddy c urrents ,

t o a small am o unt by interp o sing in thei r paths the in sulati o n

between the la minati o ns Jap a n va rnish tissue pape r etc a re
.
, , ,
.
,

used for this pur p o se I n many cases the laye r o f o xide f o rm ed

.

o n la minati o ns du r ing the p ro cess o f annealing is c onside r ed t o be

a sufficient in sulati o n against eddy cu rrents .

The usual thickness o f laminati o n varies f ro m to mm .

,

acc o rding t o the f requency fo r which an appa ratus is designed ,

t he flux density t o be used the p ro visi o n fo r c o o ling etc The

, ,
.

m o re a c o re is subdivided the l o we r is the l o ss due t o eddy currents ,

but the m o re expensive is the c o re on acc o unt o f the highe r c o st

o f ro lling sheets and o f pun c hin g and assembling the la minati o ns
,
.

B esides m o re space is taken by ins ulati o n with thinne r sta m p ings

, ,

so t hat the pe r cent net c r oss secti o n o f i ro n is reduced The

-
.

net c ro ss secti o n o f la m inati o ns is usually f ro m 9 5 t o 85 pe r cent

—

o f the g ro ss c ro ss s ecti o n depending up o n the thickn ess o f the

-
,

laminati o ns the kind o f in sulati o n used and the ca re and p res

, ,

su re used ia assembling the c o re F o r p relimina ry calculati o ns .

ab o ut ten per cent of the g ro ss c ro ss secti o n is assu m ed t o be -

l o st in insulati on .

Fig 9 sh o ws t wo i ron c o res in c ro ss secti o n o ne c o re so lid

.
-
, ,

the o ther subdivided into th ree laminati o ns by planes pa rallel

t o the di recti o n o f the lines o f fo rce The lines o f fo r ce a re sh o wn .

by d o ts and the paths o f the eddy cur rents by c o ntinu o us l ines

,
.

E d dy cu rrents a re linked with the lines Of fo rce the same a s t he ,

c u rrent in the exciting win d ing I n fact eddy cu rrents a re simila r

.
,

t o the sec o nda ry cur rents in a t ransfo rme r inasmuch a s they ,

tend to reduce the flux c reated by the p ri m a ry cu rrent The .

c o re must be laminated in plane s perpendicular t o the lines o f

flo w o f the eddy cu r rents so as t o b rea k up thei r paths and at t he
,

sa me ti m e no t t o in t e rp o se ai r gap s in the pat hs o f the line s o f

-

fo rc e .

A n i ro n c o re ca n b e fu rthe r subdivided by us ing thin i ro n

wi res in place o f la m inati o n s S uch c o re s we re used in early
.

machine s a nd t ran sfo rm e rs but we re aband o ned o n acc o un t o f

,
42 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 18

e x pense and p o o r space f act o r I ro n wire c o res are used at present

.
-

in o nly high f requency apparatus in which eddy currents must

-
,

be carefully guarded against ; fo r instance in the ind ucti o n c o ils

( t rans f o rmers ) empl oyed in teleph o ne c ircuits .

I t w ill be seen by an inspe c ti o n o f Fig 9 that eddy currents .

are mu ch smaller in the laminated c o re because the resistance o f

e a c h laminati o n is increased while the flu x per laminati o n and c o n
sequently the induced e m f is c o nsiderably redu c ed I t is pr o ved
. . . .

in A rt 2 1 bel o w that the p o wer l o st in eddy currents per kil o gram

.

o f laminati o ns is pr o p o rti o nal t o the square o f the thickness o f

FI G 9 . .
—
E ddy cu rrents in a so lid and in a laminated c ore .

the laminati o ns the square ,

of the frequency and the square
,
of

the flux density .

Pro b 8 Show th at t h e a rm atu re c o res o f rev o lvin g m ach ine ry m us t

. .

b e lam inated in planes perpen d icula r t o the axi s o f ro tati o n .

Pro b 9 Sho w that assumin g the temperatu re resi stance c o efficient o f

. .
-

iro n lami nati o n s t o be pe r d egree Centigrad e t h e edd y c u rrent l o ss o f

a c o r e at 70 C is o nly abo ut 8 2 5 pe r cent Of that at 20 C
°
. .
°
.

Pro b 1 0 E xpl a in th e reaso n fo r which the hysteresi s l oss I n a give n

. .

c o re a nd at a given f requency depen ds o nly o n th e am plitu d e o f th e exc it

ing cu rr ent w hile the eddy cu rrent l o ss d ep en ds al so up on t he wave f o rm
,
- -

o f t he c u rrent .

18 . T he S i gnificanc e in E lect r ical M

ofachine ry I ro n L o ss .

The p o wer l o st in an iro n c o re o n acc o unt o f hysteresis and eddy

currents taken t o gether is called iron loss o r c ore lo ss I t is o f
, ,
.

imp o rtance t o understand the e ff ect o f this l o ss in the ir on c o res

CR A P . III ] HY STE R E S IS AND E DDY C URRE N TS 43

of elect rical m achine ry and appa ratus : Fi rst because they b ring ,

abo ut a l o ss o f p o we r and hence l o we r the efficiency o f a

ma chin e ; S ec o ndly becaus e they heat up the i ro n and thus
,

lim it the pe rm is sible flux density o r make ext ra p ro visi o ns fo r

,

ventilati o n and c oo ling necessa ry ; Thi rdly because they aff ect ,

the indicati o ns o f measu r ing inst ruments The eff ects o f hy ste re .

sis and eddy cu rrents in the p r incipal ty pes o f elect r ical m achine ry

a re as f o ll o ws

(a ) I n a t ransf o rm e r an alte rnat ing ma gnetiz atio n o f the i ro n

causes a c o re l o ss in it The p o we r thus l o st must be supplied f ro m
.

the gene rating stati o n in the f o rm o f an additi o nal energy c o m

po nent o f the p rimary cu rr ent The c o r e is heated by hysteresis
.

and by eddy cu rrents and the heat m ust be d issipated by the

,

o il in which the t ransf o r me r is imme rsed o r by an a ir blast ,

.

(b) I n a d irect current m achine the revo lving a r matu re is

-

subj ected t o a magneti z ati o n fi rst in o ne di recti o n and then in

the o t her ; the heating e ffect due t o the hyste resis and eddy
currents is pa rticula rly n o ticeable in the a rmatu re teeth in which
the flux density is usually q uite high The c o re l o ss being sup .
,

plied mec hanically causes an additi o nal resisting t o rque between

,

the a rmature and the field I n a gene rato r this to rque is sup
.

p lied by the p r i m e m o ve r ; in a m o t o r this t o r que reduces the

available t o rque on the sha ft .

(c ) The eff ect o f hyste resis and o f eddy cu rrents in the a rm atu re
o f an alte rnat o r o r o f a synch r o n o us m o to r is si mila r t o that in a

di rect c u rrent machine

-
.

(d) I n an inducti on m o to r the c o re l o s s ta kes place chiefly

in the stato r i ro n and teeth whe re the f requency o f the ma gne t ic
,

cycles is equal t o that o f the p o we r supply ; the f requency in the

ro t o r c o rres po nds t o the per cent slip so that even with ve ry ,

high flux densitie s in the ro to r teeth the c o re l o ss in t he ro to r is

c o mpa ratively small A t speed s bel o w synchro nism the necessa ry
.

po wer fo r supplying the i ro n l o ss is furnished elect rically a s pa rt

o f the in put int o the stat o r A t speed s ab o ve synch ro nism this
.

po we r is supplied th ro ugh the ro to r f ro m the p rime m o ver .

(e) I n a d irect cu rrent a m mete r if it ha s a piece o f i ro n as

-
,

it s m o ving element residua l m agnetis m in thi s i ro n c a use s inac

,

cu racies in it s indica t i o n s W ith the sa me cu rren t the in di c a t i o n

.

o f the in st ru m ent is sm a ll e r when the c u rren t is in c reasin g t han

when i t is dec re a sing ; this can be unde rsto o d wi t h refe rence t o

44 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 19

the hysteresis l o o p W ith alternating current the eff ect o f hy st ere

.

sis is aut o matically eliminated by the reversals O f the current

which passes thro ugh the instrument .

Fro m these examples the reader can j udge as t o the eff ect o f
hysteresis in o ther types o f electrical appa ratus no t c o nsidered
ab o ve .

Pro b 1 1 Sh w th at in an p le d i rec t c u rr e nt mo to r r u nnin g at a

. . o 8 -
o -

speed o f 5 25 rp m th e a rm atur e c o r e an d teeth und ergo 3 5 c omplete

.

hy ste re si s cycles pe r sec o nd .

Pro b 1 2 S ho w that fo r t w o p o int s in a n a rm atu r e s tamping ta ke n

. .
,

o n t h e sam e r ad iu s o ne in a t o o t h t h e o t h e r nea r th e i nn e r pe riphe ry o f

, ,

th e a rm ature the hyst ere si s l oo p s a re d i splaced in ti m e by o ne q uarte r

,
-

of a cycle .

19 . T he To tal C o r e L o ss
practical calculati ons o n elect rical . In
machinery the t o tal c o re l o ss is o f interest rather than the hy st ere ,

sis and the eddy current l o sses separately F o r such c o mputati o ns .

empirical curves are used o btained f r o m tests on steel o f the same ,

quality and thickness The curves o f t o tal c o re l o ss given in .

Fig 10 have been c o mpiled fr o m vari o us so urces and give a

.
,

fa ir idea o f the o rder o f magnitude o f c o re l o ss in vari o us grades

o f c o mmercial steel laminati o ns The specimens were tested in .

the E pstein apparatus which is a miniature transf o rmer (see ,

the auth o r s E xperimenta l E lec tric a l E ngineering Vo l 1 p

’
,
.
,
.

and the values given can be used fo r estimatin g the c o re l o ss in

trans f o rmers and in o ther stati o nary appa ratus with a simple
magnetic circuit .

I n using the curves o ne sh o uld n o te that the o rdinates are watts

per cubic decimeter o f laminati o ns hence the gr o ss v o lume and ,

no t the v o lume o f the ir o n itself is represented O n the o ther hand .

,

the absciss ae are the true flux densities in the iro n I n ch o o sing a .

material the f o ll o wing p o ints are wo rthy o f n o te : ( 1) Silic o n steel

is no w used fo r 60 cycle transf o rmers alm o st t o the ex c lusi o n o f
-

any o ther on acc o unt o f its l o wer c o re l o ss ; it is so metimes used

-
,

fo r 2 5 cycle trans f o rmers als o

“
(2 ) The material called G o o d .

carb o n steel is that which is used fo r inducti o n m o t o r stat o rs ,

and in general fo r the armatures o f alternating and direct

current machinery ; also s o metimes fo r the c o res o f lo w f requency ,
~

transfo rmers ( )
3 The mate rial .called O rdinary carb o n steel
sh o uld be used o nly in th o se cases fo r which the c o re l o ss is o f
small i m p o rtance .
Cw . III] HY ST E R E S I S AND E DDY C URRE N TS

8 3 1 3 1910 3 0 O I SD O 8 3 d S l l VM

8 3 1 3 Wl0 3 0 O lenO 8 3 d S L I VM
. .
46 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A R T . 19

The thickne ss o f lam inati o n t o be used in each pa rticular

case is a matter o f j udgment based o n previ o us e x perience and ,

n o general r u le can be laid d o wn e x cept what is said in A rt 17 ,

.

ab o ve in regard t o the f act o rs up o n which the eddy current l o ss

,
-

depends The gauges 26 t o 2 9 are representative o f the usual

.

practice I f it sh o uld be necessary t o estim ate the c o re l o ss fo r a

.

d iff erent t hickness and at an o ther f requency than th o se given in

Fig 10 the meth o d e x plained in A rt 22 bel o w may be used
.
,
. .

The c o re l o ss in the armatures and teeth o f rev o lving machinery

is f o und f r o m tests t o be c o nsiderably ab o ve that calc ulated fr o m
t he curves o f l o ss o n the same material when tested in stati o nary
strips This is pr o bably due in part t o the f act that the c o nditi o ns
.

o f magnetizati o n are di ff erent in the t wo cases I n the o ne case .

the cycles of magnetizati o n are due t o a pulsa ting which

simply changes its magnitude ; in the o ther case t o a gliding
with which the magnetic intensity at a p o int changes its directi o n
as well B esides the distributi o n o f flux densities in teeth and in
.
,

armature c o res is very far fro m being unif o rm Theref o re .

,

wh en using the curves given in Fig 10 fo r the calculati on o f ir o n .

,

l o ss in generat o rs and m o t o rs it is necessary t o multiply the results ,

by certa in empirical c o effi cients o btained fr o m the results o f tests

made o n similar machines M r I E Ha nssen rec o mmends add . . . .

ing 30 3 5 and 4 0 per cent t o the l o ss calculated fr o m the curves

, ,

o btained o n stati o nary samples when estimating the ir o n l o ss in

an armature back o f its teeth at 25 4 0 and 60 cy cles respectively , , ,

.

F o r teeth he rec o mmends adding 30 60 and 8 0 per cent at the , , ,

same frequencies 1
These values are qu o ted here merely t o give
.

a general idea o f the magnitude o f the excess o f c o re l o ss in revolv

ing machinery ; a resp o nsible designer sh o uld c o mpile the values
o f such c o e fficients fr o m actual te s ts made o n the particular class
o f machines whi c h he is designing .

S o me engineers d o no t use fo r rev o lvin g machinery values o f

c o re l o ss Obtained o n stati o nary sa mples b ut pl o t t he curves o f c o re ,

l o ss o btained directly fr o m tests o n machines o f a particular kind ,

fo r vari o us f requencies and flu x densities This is a reliable and .

c o nvenient meth o d pro vided that su fficient data are available t o

separate the c o re l o ss in the teeth f r o m that in the c o re itsel f M r . .

H M Ho bart adv o cates this meth o d and curves o f c o re l o ss

. .
,

H n s n
1 “ C alculati o n o f I ro n L o e in D ynam o elect ric M achine ry
a s e ,
ss s -
,

Tra n A mer I ns t E le E ng Vo l 2 8
s . . P a rt I I p 9 93
. c .
,
.
,
. .
CR A P . III ] HY STE RE S I S AND E DD Y CURRE N TS 47

o btained d i rectly fro m actual machines will be f o und in his seve ral
b o o ks o n electric machine design .

I t is cust o ma ry n o w t o characteri z e a lo t o f steel lamin ati ons

with respect t o its c o re l o ss by the c o called fi gur e of lo ss ( Verlust
-

zifi er) w hich is the t o tal c o re l o ss in watts per unit o f weight at a

'

, ,

standa rd frequency and flux density I n E uro pe the figur e o f l o ss .

is underst o o d t o be the watts l o ss per kil o gram o f laminati o ns at ,

50 cycles and at a flux density o f 10 kilo lines per squa re centimeter ;

the test t o be perf o r med in an E pstein appa ra t us unde r defin itely
presc ribed c o nditi o ns 1
S o meti m es a sec o nd figu re o f l o ss is
.

requi red referring t o a density o f 15 kilo lines per squa r e centi

,

meter when the laminati o ns are t o be used at high flux densities

,
.

I n this c o unt ry a figure o f l o ss is so metimes used which gives the

watts l o ss per p o und o f material at 60 cycles and at a flux density
o f 60 kilo lines per squa re in ch (o r else at 10 kilo lines pe r square

centimeter ; see the paper menti o ned in p ro blem 20 bel o w) .

I n s o me cases it is required t o estimate the hysteresis and the

eddy current l o sses separately ; also it is so metimes necessa ry t o
sepa rate the t wo l o sses kn o wing a curve o f the to tal l o ss These .

calc ulati o ns a re expla ined in the a rticles that f o ll o w .

Pr o b 13 The c o re
. . a cycle t ransfo rm e r weighs 8 9 kg ; t he
of 60 —
.

gross c ross secti o n o f the c o r e is 8 by 10 c m o f w hic h 10 per c en t is ta ke n

- .
,

by th e ins ulati o n between the la mi nati o ns The t o tal flux alte rnate s .

betw ee n th e values o f mega line If the c o re is m ad e o f gaug e 26 .

good carbo n s teel wh at is the to tal c o re l o ss acc ord i ng t o th e cu rves in

,

F ig 10 ? So luti o n : Th e flux d ensity is

. kl/ sq c m . .

The c o re l oss per cu bic d ecim ete r a t t his density and at 6 0 cycles is ,

acc o rd ing t o the c u rv e eq ual watt Th e vo lume o f th e la mi nations

,
.
,

incl uding th e in sulat ion i s cu dm The to ta l l oss is 11 5 x

,
. . .

watt s . Ans 14 6 wa t t s . .

Pro b 1 4 W hat flux density c o uld be us e d in the prec ed ing p ro blem

. .

if th e c ore were mad e o f silic o n steel laminati o ns gauge 20 p ro vide d th at

-
, ,

the to ta l c o re l o ss be kept t he sa me in bo th c ases ?

A ns A bo ut 9 kl/ s q em . . .

Pro b 1 5 Calculate t he c o re l oss in th e s t ti ona ry a r matu re o f a 60

. .
a

cycl e 4 50 alte rnat or o f th e fo ll o wing d im e nsi o ns : bo re 18 0 c m ; .

gro ss a xia l len gth 24 c m ; t wo ai r d uc ts . c m ea c h ; ra d ial wi d t h o f

-
.

sta mp ings b a c k o f t he te eth 15 c m ; t he mac h i ne has 144 sl o ts 2 c m

. .
, .

wid e and c m d ee p T he c re i s mad e o f 26 ga ugc go o d c a rbo n s tee l ;

. . o —

th e u sefu l fl ux per po le i mega lines a nd t wo th i r ds o f t he t o ta l num

s ,
-

b er o f tee th ca rry t he flux s i m ultaneo u l y Use M r I la nsse n s c o efficie nts

s . .
'
.

‘ e
S e E lek lro tec hnisc he c lsd nrifl ,
'

Vol . p . 63 4 .
48 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 20

N o te: A ll pa r t s o f the c or e an d all t h e teeth a r e s ubj ected t o c o mplete

cycles o f m ag neti z ati o n in s uccessi o n ; t h e refo r e , in calculati ng the c or e
l oss the t o tal v o l um e o f the c o re an d o f the teeth m u s t be m ultiplied by
the l oss pe r cubic d eci m ete r c o rr es p o n din g t o the m axim u m m ag netic
,

d en sity in each pa rt The de n sity in a t o o th va ries al o n g its len gth

.
‘

bein g a m axim u m at th e tip T he ave rage de n sity m ay b e ass um e d t o be

.

equal t o th at at th e middle o f th e teeth A ns A b o ut 9 kw

. . .

20 . Practical Data on Hyster esi s L o ss

The energy l o st in .

hysteresis per cycle per kil o gram o f a given material depends o nly
up o n the maximum values o f B and H and d o es no t depend up o n ,

the manner in whic h the magneti zing current is varied with the time
between its p o sitive and negative maxima I t is o nly at very high .

frequencies such as are used in wireless telegraphy that the par

, ,

t ic les o f ir o n d o no t seem t o be able t o f o ll o w in their gr o uping the

c o rresp o nding changes in the exciting current W ith such high .

frequencies ir o n c o res are no t o nly useless but p o sitively harmf ul ,

.

Ho wever at o rdinary c o mmercial f requencies the l o ss o f p o wer

,

P k due t o hysteresis is pr o p o rti o nal t o the number o f cycles per

sec o nd and can be exp ressed as
watt .
,

where f is the number of magnetic cycles per sec o nd V is the vol ,

ume o f the ir o n and F (B ) is a functi o n of the maximum flu x den

,

sit y B F (B ) r epresents the l o ss per cycle per cubic unit o f

.

material and is the re f o re equal t o the area o f the hy steresis l o o p

,

in Fig 7 . .

O ne can assume empirically th at the unit l o ss pe r cycle F (B ) , ,

increases as a ce rtain p o we r n o f B this p o wer t o be determined ,

f r o m tests The preceding f o rmula bec o mes then

.

”
P h = 1; f VB watt .
, (20 )

where 77 is an empi rical c o e fficient which depends up on the quality

o f the ir o n and up o n the units used Dr Steinmet z f o un d f r o m . .

numer o us e x periments that the exp o nent n va ries between and

and pro p o sed fo r practical use the f o rm ula
Ph =
a B L 6
X 10
'

7 watt , ( )
2 1

where the fact o r is intr o duced in o rder t o o btain c o nvenient

values fo r 7) when B is in maxwells per square centimeter and V ,

is in cubic centimeters I t is m o re c onvenient fo r practical calcula

.
Cw . III] HY ST E R E SI S AND E DD Y CURR E N TS 49

ti ons t o use B in kilo lines per squa re cen t imete r and V in cubic ,

dec imete rs I n this case the c o ns t ant

. is no t necessa ry (see
P ro b 17 bel o w ) ; but the student must no w remember t o multiply
.

by the values o f 1, fo und in the va ri o us p o cketb o o ks .

Hysteresis l o ss cann o t be rep resented always with sufficient

accu racy by fo r mula (2 1) o r (20) o ver a wide range o f values o f B ,

because the exp onent n itself seems t o in c rea se with B W he re .

g reate r accuracy is requi red at medium and high flux densities the
f o ll o wing f o rm ula may be used

(2 1a )
In this fo rmula the te r m with B aut o matically bec o mes o f m o re 2

an d m o re imp o rtance as B inc reases B y selecting p ro pe r values .

fo r 1/ and a given experi m ental cu rve o f l o ss can be a ppro xi

mated m o re cl o sely than by means o f fo r mula O n the o the r
hand fo rmula (2 1) is m o re c o nvenient fo r c o mpa riso n and analysis
,
.

C u rves o f hyste resis l o ss and val ues o f the c onstant 1) will be

fo un d in va ri o us handb o o ks and p o cketb o o ks I t is ha rdly w o rth .

w hile giving them he re because hyste resis l o ss va ries g reatly with

,

t he quality o f iro n and with the t reatment it is given befo re use .

M o re o ve r the quality o f the i ro n us ed in elect rical machine ry is

,

being im mo ved all the time so that a va lue of a given no w m ay,

be t oo la rge a few yea rs f ro m no w .

Co nsiderable e ff o rt is being c o nstantly m ade t o imp ro ve the

quality o f the iro n used in elect rical machine ry so as t o reduce its
,

hyste resis l o ss The la t est achievement in this respect is the pro

.

ducti o n o f the so ca lled silicon steel also called a lloyed steel which
-
, ,

c o n t a ins f ro m t o 4 pe r c ent o f silic o n This steel sh o ws a m uch .

l o we r hyste resis l o ss t han o rdina ry ca rb o n steel I ncidentally .

,

the elect ri c resistivity o f silic o n steel is ab o ut th ree times highe r

t han that o f o rdina ry s t eel so that the eddy cur rent l o ss is reduced
,
-

ab o ut th ree t im e s The advantage tha t silic on s t eel has o ve r ca r

.

b o n steel is clearly seen in Fig 10 S ilic o n steel is la rgely used

. .

fo r transfo rm e r c o re s because it pe rm its the use o f highe r flux

densities and t he refo re t he reducti o n o f t he weight and c o st o f a
,

t ran sfo r me r in spite o f the fact tha t silic o n s t eel itself c o s ts m o re

,

pe r kil o g ra m than ca rb o n steel .

A n o the r g reat advan t age o f silic on steel is that it is p ractically

no n a ging ; thi s mean s tha t the hys t e re si s l o ss d o es no t inc rea se
-

with time A n in c rease in t he hy ste re si s l o ss o f a t ransfo rm er

.
50 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 20

du ring the first few years o f its o perati o n used t o be a seri o us

matter in the design and o perati o n o f t rans f o rmers because o f the ,

subsequent o verheating o f the c o re and o f the c o ils Silic on steel .

sh o ws practically no in crease in its hysteresis l o ss after several

years o f o perati on M o derate heating which c onsiderably in
.
,

creases the hysteresis l o ss in o rdinary steel has no effect on silic o n ,

steel .

I mpurities which are o f such a natu r e as t o p ro duce a s o fter

iro n o r steel and a material o f higher permeability are as a r ule ,

f av o rable t o the reducti o n o f the hysteresis l o ss and vic e versa ,

.

M echanical treatment and heating are als o very imp o rtant in thei r
e ff ects on hysteresis l o ss I n particular punching and hammering
.
,

increases hy steresis l o ss while annealing reduces it Therefo re

,
.

laminati o ns are always annealed carefully a f te r being punched

int o their final shape .

The requirements fo r the steel used in permanent magnets a r e

entirely di fferent f r o m th o se fo r the c o res o f electrical machinery .

I n permanent magnets a large and wide hysteresis l o o p is desired ,

because it mean s a high percentage o f resid ual magnetism (rati o

of C O t o A P Fig 7) and a large c o ercive f o rce O F B o th are
,
.
,
.

f av o rable fo r o btaining str ong permanent magnets o f lasting

strength C o mbined carb o n is pa rticularly imp o rtant fo r obtain
.

ing these qualities as is also the p ro per heat treatment afte r m ag

,

net iz a t ion .

Pr o b 16
. I n the . cy cl e transfo rmer gi v en in p rob 13 the c o re
60 —

.
,

w ei ghs 8 9 kgan d i s m ad e o f 2 6 gau ge go o d carb o n s teel

. T he m axi .

m u m fl ux d en sity i s kl / sq cm W h at i s t he hy st er esi s l o ss ass uming

. . .

) t o be e qual t o
1 A n s Abo ut 124 watt . .

Pro b 1 7 W h at is th e c onstant in fo rm ula (21) in place o f 10 7 if

. .
—

, ,

wi th th e s a m e t h e d en s ity B i s in kil o m axwell s p er sq c m a nd the -

. .
,

v o lume i s in cubic d eci m ete rs ? A ns .

Pro b 1 8 Sh ow ho w t o determine the values of ) a nd n in eq

. . 1 .

knowing the valu es W an d W of t h e ene rgy l o s t p er cycl e at t wo giv e n

1 2

values o f m axim um fl ux d en sity B an d B , 1 2 .

A n s n = (lo g W log W ) / (lo g B log B )

.
z
—

1
—

z 1 .

Pr o b 1 9 Th e fo ll o win g values o f hyste resi s l oss pe r cu d ecim ete r

. .
.

h ave been d ete rm ined f rom a test at 25 cycles ( afte r elim inatin g th e eddy
cu rr ent l oss)
Flux den sity in B =5 O .

H yste resi s l oss in watts P h = 1 30 , .

W hat a r e the value s o f 7) an d n in f orm ula S ugges ti o n

Use l oga rith mic pape r t o d ete rm ine th e m o s t probabl e value o f n by ,
 Cm r . II I] HY ST E R E S I S AN D E DDY CURR E N TS 51

drawing th e st raight l ine lo g Ph=

=n lo
g B + l o g Co ns t See the aut h o r .
’
s
E xperi menta l E lect rica l E ngineering , Vo l , 1, p 2 0 2
.

=
A n s P h 0 00 368 f VB "s
.

.
.

.
“
2 1 E d dy C u rr ent L o ss in I r o n
. the thin laminati o ns . W ith
used in the c o res o f elect rical machine ry the eddy c urrent l o ss in -

watts can be rep resented by the f o rmula

P8 :
5 V(t ) 2
r

whe re e is a c onstant which depends up o n the elect rical resistivity

of the ir o n i t s tempera t ure the distributi o n o f the flux the wave
, , ,

fo rm of the exci t ing current and the units used V is the vo l um e ,

.

o r the weight o f the c o re fo r which the l o ss is t o be c o mputed ; t is

the thic kness of lam inati o ns f the f requency of the supply and B , ,

the m ax im u m flux density during a cy cle I f B is diffe rent at .

diff e rent places in the same c o re the ave r age o f these sh o uld ,

be taken (B is the time maximum but the space ave rage)

,
.

So metimes f o rm ula (22) c o ntains al so 10 t o s o m e negative p o we r

in o rde r t o o btain a c o nvenient value of e .

Fo rm ula (22 ) can be pro ved as f o ll o ws : The l o ss of p o we r in a

la minati on can be rep resented as a su m of the { l o sses fo r the
Zr

2 = 2 r
sm a ll filaments o f eddy cu rr ent in it B ut i r e / ; it c an be .

sh o wn that the exp ressi o n in pa rentheses in f o rm ula (22) is pro

p o rti onal t o the sum o f e / pe r unit vo lume W hen the f requency
2 r
.

inc r e ses say times the rate o f change o f the flux dw / d and
f a n ,
t , ,

c onsequently the e m fs induced in the i ron a re al so in c reased n

. . .

tim es The refo re the l o ss which is p ro p o rti onal t o e in c reases n

.
,
2 2

times I n o the r w o rds the l o ss is p ro p o rti o nal t o the squa re o f

.
,

the f requen cy S i m ila rly the induced vo ltage is pro p o rti o nal t o
.
,

the flux density B ; and c o n sequen tly the l o ss is pro p o rti onal t o B 2
, .

T o p ro ve that the l o ss is pro p o rti o nal t o t he squa re o f the

thickness o f lam inati on s o ne must remembe r that inc reasing t he
t hickn e ss n times inc reases the flux and the induced e m f within . . .

any filament o f eddy cu rrent also n time s B ut the re sis tan ce o f .

ea ch path is reduced n t im e s (neglecting the sh o rt sides o f the rect

a ngle n seq uently the exp re ss i o n e / r is in c reased n times
2 ’
) C
.o ,
.

Ho wever ina s much a s the vo lume o f the lam inati o n is al so

,

c reased n time s the l o ss per unit volume is o nly 71 times la rge r I n

,
2
.

o t her w o rd s the l o ss pe r unit v o lume inc rea ses as F A mo re

,
.

rigid p roo f o f thi s p ro p o siti o n is given in p ro ble m 2 1 bel o w .

52 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 22

values o f e the reader is re f erred t o p o cketb o o ks ; the

Fo r
numerical values given there must h o wever be used cauti o usly , , ,

because t he eddv c urrent l o ss depends o n so me f act o rs such as the

-

ca re exercised in assembling and the actual distributi o n o f the ,

flux which f act o rs can hardly be taken int o acc o unt in a f o rmula
,
.

A s a matter o f fact f o rmula (2 2) is used no w less and less in pra c ,

t ical calculati o ns the engineer relying m o r e up on expe ri mental

,

curves of tota l c o re l o ss (Fig .

Pro b 20 A cc o rding t o the e xperi ments of L l oyd an d Fi sc her [T ra ns

. .

A mer I ns t E lec E ngs Vo l 28

. . . p 4 6 5] th e edd y curr ent l o ss in
.
, . .
-

silic o n steel lami nations o f gauge 29

-
mm t hic k) i s from to .

watt s pe r p o und at 60 cycle s a nd at B ma ells pe r sq c m W hat . .

is the value o f the c o efficie nt in fo rm ula (22) if P i s in m ic rowatt s V i s e

,

the weigh t o f th e c or e in kg (no t t he v o lum e as befo r e) if als o t i s inmm .

, .
,

an d B is in kilolines pe r s q c m ? . .

Ans F rom to . is a goo d p ractical ave rage .

Pro b 2 1 Pro ve that th e l o ss o f p owe r cau sed by eddy current s pe r

. .
,

unit v o lum e o f thin laminati o n s is p ro p o r ti o nal t o the s qua r e o f th e t hic k ,

n ess o f the la minati o n s So lutio n : The thic kness t o f the sheet ( Fig 9 ). .

bein g by a ss um pti o n ve ry sm all a s c o m pa red with its wi d t h a th e paths ,

o f t h e edd y cu rr e nt m ay be c o n s i de r e d t o be r ectan gle s o f t h e len gt h a an d

o f d iffe r ent wi d t hs r a ngi ng f r o m t t o z e ro Co nsid e r o ne of th e tub es o f

,
.

fl o w o f cu rrent o f a wi d t h 2 33 t hic kne ss dx an d len gt h l in t h e d ir ecti o n

, , ,

o f th e lin es o f m a gnetic f or ce L et t he flux d e nsity va ry wit h t he ti me .

between the lim i ts l B Then th e m axi m um fl ux lin kin g wit h t h e tub e

: : .

o f cu rr ent und e r c o n s i d e r ati o n i s app ro xi m ately equal t o 2a xB th e r efo re ,

the e ffective value o f the v o ltage ind uced in the tub e c a n b e written in t he
f orm e = C a xB f W h e r e C i s a c o n stant the value o f whic h w e ar e no t c o n
, ,

ce rn ed wit h h e re The res is tance o f t h e tube i s p(2a + 4 33)

. o r ve ry

nea rly T h u s w e h ave that th e i r l oss o r t h e value o f e / r z z

,

fo r the tub e un d e r c o n s i d e rati o n i s dP = C a x B fi ldx/ 2p I nt egra t , e

z 2 2
.

ing this e xp r e ss i o n betwee n t h e lim it s 0 a nd t / 2 we get P = C a t B f l 480 e

2 s z ‘
.

B ut the v o lum e o f th e lamin ati o n is V = a tl D ividi ng P by V we find .

that th e l o ss pe r unit v o lum e i s p ro p o rti o nal t o (t )

Pro b 2 2 Pro ve th at the l o ss of p o we r by e ddy cu rrents p er unit
. .

v o lume in ro und iro n wi r e s is p r o p o r ti o nal t o t h e s quar e o f th e d iam ete r o f

the wire The flux is s upp o sed t o pul sate i n t h e d i recti o n o f the axe s o f
.

the wi r e s and t h e lines o f fl o w o f t h e edd y cu rr ent s a r e c o nc ent ri c c ir cl es

,

H int : Use the method empl oyed in th e p rec eding p rob l em .

22 T he Sep ara ti o n
. is of Hyster esis f r o m E ddy Curr ents . It
s o metimes required t o estimate the t o tal c o re l o ss fo r a thickness
F or a c omplete soluti on of thi s and the foll o win g p ro blem includin g
1
,

the nume rical values of C see S tein met z A lt n ting C u nt P h n m na , ,

er a rre e o e

C hap X I V . .
CR A P . I I I] HY ST E R E SI S AND E DDY CURRE N TS 53

of steel la minati ons o the r than th o se given in Fig 10 o r at a d iff e r .

,

ent f requency F o r t his purp o se it is necessa ry t o sepa rate the

.
,

l o ss due t o hy steresis fro m that due t o eddy c ur rents because the ,

t wo l o sses f o ll o w diff erent laws expressed by eqs (20 ) and (22)

,
.

respectively .

I n o rde r t o sepa rate these l o sses at a ce rtain flux density it is

necessa ry t o kn o w the value o f the t o tal c o re l o ss at t his density ,

and at t wo diff erent frequencies F o r a given sample o f lamina .

ti o ns the t o tal c o re l o ss P at a c o nstant flux density and at a

,

va riable f requency f can be represented in the f o r m

,

P Hf + Ff ,
= 2
(23 a )
whe re Hf rep resents the hyste resis l o ss and Ff the eddy o r F o u ,
2

c a ult cu r rent l o ss H is the hysteresis l o ss pe r cy cle and F is the

.
,

eddy current l o ss when f is equal t o one cycle per sec o nd W riting

-
.

this equati o n fo r t wo kn o wn frequencies t wo simultane o us eq ua ,

ti o ns a re o btained fo r H and F fro m which H and F can be dete r

,

mined .

I n p ractice the p receding equati o n is usua lly divided by f b e ,

cause in the fo rm
(23 b)
it rep resents the equati on o f a straight line between P / f and f .

This f o rm is pa rticularly c o nvenient when the values of P a re

kn o wn fo r m o re than t wo frequencies I n this case the values o f .

P /f a re pl o tted against f as absciss ae and the m o st p ro bable ,

st raight line is d rawn thr o ugh the p o ints thus o bta ined The .

intersecti o n o f this straight line with the axis o f o rdinates gives

d irectly the value o f H A fter this F is f o und fr o m eq (23 b)
.
,
. .

Kn o wing H and F at a ce rtain flux density the separa t e l o sses ,

Hf and Ff can be calculated fo r any desired f requency

2 F o r the .

same ma te rial but o f a di ffe rent thickness the hyste resis l o ss pe r

, ,

k il o g ram weight is the sa me while t he eddy cu rrent c o nstan t F

,
-

va ries as the squa re o f t he thickness acc o rding t o eq Thus ,

.
,

kn o wing the eddy l o ss at o ne t hic kness it can be estimated for any

o ther thickness .

I t is so metimes requi red t o esti m ate the iro n l o ss at a flux den

s it y highe r than the range o f t he available curves ; in o ther w o rd s ,

the p ro blem is so metimes put t o extrap o late a c urve like o ne o f

tho se in Fig 10 The re a re t wo cases t o be c o nsidered
. . .
54 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 22

A
( ) I f t w o o r m o re curves fo r the same material are available ,

taken at di ff erent frequen c ies , the hy steresis is first separated fr o m

the eddy curren t l o ss as is expla ined be f o re fo r several flux densi
-
,

ties with in t he range o f the curves Then the exp o nent acc o rding .
,

t o which the hys t eresis l o ss varies with the flux density is f o und ,

by pl o t t ing the hy steresis l o ss t o a l o garithmic scale (see pro blems

18 an d 19 ab o ve ) Finally the t wo l o sses are extrap o lated I n
. .

ext rap o lating the hysteresis l o ss is assumed t o va ry acc o rding t o

,

t he same law and the eddy current l o ss is assumed t o vary as the

,

square o f the flu x density ; see eq .

( B ) S h o uld o nly o ne curve o f the to tal l o ss be available fo r

extrap o lati o n this curve may be assumed t o be a parab o la o f the
,

fo r m P a B + bB
= 2 Dividing the equati o n thr o ugh o ut by B we
.

get
P / B = a + bB ( 4)
2

This is the equati o n o f a straight line between P / B and B P l o t .

ting P / B against the values o f B as absciss ae a straight line is ,

o btained whi c h c a n be easily extrap o lated I n s o me cases the .

values o f P / B thus pl o tted give a line with a perceptible curva

ture N evertheless the curvature is much smaller than that o f
.
,

the o riginal P c ur ve so that the P / B curve can be extrap o lated

,

with m o re ce rt ainty especially if the l o wer p o ints be disregarded 1

, .

Pro b 2 3 F ro m th e cu r ves in Fig 10 calculate the c o re l oss pe r cubic

. . .

d ecim ete r o f 2 9 gauge silic o n steel laminati o n s at a fl ux d en sity o f 10

- -
,

kl/ sq c m an d at 4 0 cycle s
. . Ans A b o ut 10 watts
. . .

Pro b 24 Usin g the d ata o b tained in the so luti o n o f th e p rec ed in g

. .

p ro blem calculate the fi g u re o f l o ss o f 2 6 gauge lam inati o n s at 6 0 cycles -

.

A ns w a t t / kg . .

Pro b 2 5 Ch ec k the cu rv e o f t o tal c o re l o ss fo r t h e o rd ina ry ca rbo n

. .

steel at 40 cycles with the cu rves fo r 2 5 an d 6 0 cycle s .

Pro b 2 6 E xt rap o late the cu rve o f c o r e l oss fo r th e silic o n ste el at 25

. .

cycles up t o th e de n s ity o f 2 0 kl/ sq c m W hic h me th od i s the more . .

p refe rable ? A n s 22 watt s pe r c u dm at B = 20 . . . .

Pro b 2 7 Sho w th at th e c o r e l oss cu rve fo r ord i na ry ca rbo n steel at

. .
,

6 0 cycl es f o ll o ws cl o sely eq
, .

1
the P/ B curve sh o uld p ro ve t o be a st rai ght line th en it is p robable
If ,

that the hyste re si s l oss fo ll ows eq 2 1a m ore nearly than e q 2 0 I n thi s case
. . .
,

even if we had data for tw o frequencie s m eth od (B ) w o uld be bo th more ,

acc urate and m ore s im ple than m eth o d ( A )

,
.
 C HA P T E R IV

I N D UCE D IN E L E C TR I C A L M A C HI N E R Y

2 3 M eth o ds . of I n ducin g E M F
The fo ll o wing a re the p rin
. . .

c ipal cases o f induced e m f in electrical machin ery and appa rat us

. . .

(a ) I n a t ran sfo rmer an alternating magneti z ing cur rent in the

,

p rima ry winding pro duces an alte rnating flux which lin ks with
b o th windings and induces in them alte rnating e m fs A si mila r . . .

case is that o f a va riable current in a transmissi on line which

induces a vo ltage in a teleph o ne line which run s parallel t o it .

(b) I n a direct current machine in a r o ta ry c o nverte r and in

-
, ,

a h o m o p o lar machine electro m o tive f o rces a re induced in the

a r mature c o nduct o rs by m o ving them acr o ss a stati ona ry magnetic
field .

(0 ) I n an alternat o r and in a synchro n o us m o t o r with a sta ,

t io na ry armature and a rev o lving field electro m o tive f o rces a re ,

induced by making the magnetic flux travel past the armature

c onducto rs .

(d) I n a p o lyphase inducti o n m o t o r the cu rrents in t he sta t o r

and in the ro to r p ro duce t o gether a resultant magneto m o t ive fo rc e
which m o ves al o ng the ai r gap and excites a gliding ( rev o lving)
-

flux This flux induces vo ltages in b o th the p rimary and t he sec

.

o nda ry windings .

( )
e I n a single phase m o t o r
-
with o r with o ut a c o mmu t at
,
o r t he ,

e m f s induced in the a rmatu re a re pa rtly due t o t he t r ansfo rme r

. . .

” ”
a c ti o n as unde r (a ) and pa rtly t o the gene rato r ac t i o n as
, , ,

unde r (b) .

( f ) I n an induct o r type alte rnat o r b o th the exciting and the

-

a rmatu re windings a re stati o na ry ; the p o le piece s al o ne revo lve .

The flux linked wi t h the a rmatu re c o ils varies pe ri od ically due t o ,

the va ry ing reluctance o f the m agne t ic ci rcuit because o f t he ,

m o ti o n o f the p o le pieces This va ry ing flux induces an al t e rnating

.

e m f in the a r matu re winding O r else o ne ma y s ay t ha t t he

. . . .
,

55
56 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 23

fl ux t ravels al o ng the air gap with the pro j ecting p o les and cuts -
,

t he a rmatu re c o ndu c t o rs .

(g) W henever the current varies in a c o nduct o r e m fs are ,

. . .

indu c ed no t o nly in surro unding c o nduct o rs but als o in the c o n

duc t o r itse lf This e m f is called the e m f o f self inducti o n
. . . . . . .
-
.

S uch e m f s are present in alternating c urrent transmissi o n lines

. . .
-
,

in t he armature windings o f alternating current machinery etc -

,
.

W hile the e m f o f self inducti o n d o es n o t di ffer fun damentally

. . .
-

f ro m the trans f o rmer acti o n menti o ned ab o ve its practical aspect ,

is s u ch as t o make a s o mewhat d iff erent treatment desirable .

I nductan c e and its eff ects are theref o re c o nsidered separately in

chapters bel o w X to XI I .

A ll o f the f o reg o ing c ases can be reduced t o the f o ll o wing t wo

f un damental m o des o f acti o n o f a magnetic flux up o n an electrical
c o nduct o r
( )
1 The exciting magnet o m o tive f o rce and the winding in whi c h
an e m f is t o be induced are b o th stati o nary relatively t o o ne
. . .
,

an o ther ; in this case the voltage is induced by a vary ing magnetic

flux C h a nges in the flux are pro du c ed by vary ing either the
.

magnitude o f the o r the reluctance o f the magnetic circuit .

This m eth o d o f induc ing an e m f is usually calle d the tra nsformer . . .

a c tion .

(2) The exciting magnet o m o tive f o rce and the winding in which
the e m f is t o be indu c ed are made t o m o ve relatively t o ea c h
. . .

o t her s o that the armature c o nduct o rs c ut acr o ss the lines o f the

,

flu x This meth o d o f inducing an e m f ; is c o nventi onally referred

. . .

to as the genera tor a c tion .

B y analy z ing the trans f o rme r acti o n m o re cl o sely it can be

reduced t o the generat o r acti on that is t o say t o the cutting o f ,

the sec o ndary c o nduct o r by lines o f magnetic flux o r f o rce This is .

so ,
because in reality the magnetic disturbance spreads o ut in all
dire c t i o ns f r o m the e x citing winding and when the current in the ,

e x c itin g winding varies the magnetic disturbance travels t o o r

f ro m the winding in directi o ns perpendicular t o the lines o f f o rce
( Fig . This traveling flux cuts the sec o ndary c o nduct o r and
induces in it an e m f Ho wever the questi o n as t o whether an . . .
,

e m f is induced by a change in the t o tal flux within a l o o p o r by

. . .
,

the c utting o f a c onduct o r by a magnetic flux is still in a s o mewhat

c o ntro versial state ; alth o ugh Hering s e x periment is a str o ng
1 ’

C arl H e rin g
1 “An I mpe rfecti o n in the U ual Statem ent of the Funda
, s
cm . W] I NDUC E D E M F . . . 57

a rgument in fav o r o f the the o ry o f cutting o f lines o f fo r ce .

He sh o wed that n o e m f is induced in an elect ric ci r cuit when a

. . . .

flux is br o ught in o r o ut o f it with o ut actually cutting any of the

c o nducto rs o f the electric circuit Fo r p ractical purp o se s it is .

c o nvenient t o distinguish the t ransfo rme r acti o n fro m the gene ra

t o r acti o n so t hat the matter o f un ifying the statements ( 1) and
,

( )
2 int o o n e m o re general law is o f no im mediate im p o rt an c e .

24 T he F o rm ul ae f o r I n duc ed E M F
. I n acc o rdance with the . . .

de fi n iti o n o f the webe r given in A rt 3 we have .

,

-
ddl/ dt,

whe re e is the instantane o us e m f in vo lts induced by the t ran s . . .

,

F rG . 11 . induced by t ran sforme r acti o n .

fo rmer acti o n in a tu rn o f wire which at the ti m e t is linked with a

flux o f 0 webers The value o f e is dete rm ined no t by t he value o f
.

a but by the rate at which wva ries with t he time I n the case o f the .

gene rat o r acti o n awin f o r m ula (2 5) rep resents t he flux which the
c o nducto r unde r c o nsiderati o n cuts du ring the inte rval o f time dl .

I t can be sh o wn that the t wo in te rp retati o ns o f ( 10 lead t o t he

sa me result N amely in the case o f t he t ransfo rme r ac t i o n ( Fig
.
,
.

the new flux (10 is b ro ught within the sec o nda ry tu rn by cutting
, ,

thro ugh t he c o nducto r o f this tu rn The refo re in the case o f the .

,

mental L a w o f E lect ro ma gnetic I nducti on T ra ns A mer I nst E lse B a g , . . . . s ,

Vol 2 7
.
Pa rt 2 p 134 1 F ritz E mde D s I nd ukt io ns gesc t z E M
.
, . .
, a ,

t t hnik nd M
ro c c a chinenb u Vo l 20
as Z um lnd ukt i n g set z ib id
a ,
. o s s , .
,

Vol 27
.
De B ill ha c he S ur la L o i d l lnd uc t i n B ull S oc ia é I nla
a e ,
c
’
o , .

na tio na l d s E l t ic ia n
c c Vol 10 ec r pp 8 9 nd 2 88
s, . . a .
58 T HE M AGNE TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 24

tran sfo rmer acti o n dd) can also be c o nsidered as the flux which cuts
the l o o p during the time dl the same as in the generat o r acti o n,
.

O n the o t her hand the m o ving c o nduct o r in a generat o r is a part

,

o f a tu rn o f wire and any flux which it cuts either increases o r

,

decreases t he t o tal flux lin king with the l o o p C o nsequently in the .

,

c a se o f the generat o r acti o n dwcan be interpreted as the change o f

flux within the l o o p the same as in the trans f o rmer acti o n Thus
,
.
,

the mathematical expressi o n fo r the induced e m f is the same . . .

in b o th cases pr o vided that the pr o per interpretati o n is given t o

,

the value o f dd) .

The sign minus in f o rmula (2 5) is underst o o d with refe rence t o

the right hand screw rule (A rt
-
i e with reference t o the direc
. . .
,

ti o n o f the current which w o uld fl o w as a result o f the induced

ele c tro m o tive f o rce N amely the law o f the c o nservati o n of
.
,

energy requires that t hi s induced current must o pp o se any change

in the flu x linking with the sec o ndary circuit I f this were o ther .

wise a slight increase in the flux wo uld result in a f urther indefinite

,

increase in the flu x and any slight m o ti o n o f a c o nduct o r ac ro ss a

,

magnetic field wo uld help further m o ti o n .

The p o sitive directi o n of the induced e m f is underst o o d t o be . . .

that o f the primary current whi c h e x cites the flux at the m o ment
under c o nsiderati o n I f the flux linked with the sec o ndary circuit
.

increases dCD/ dt in f o rm ula (2 5) is p o sitive but the sec onda ry

, ,

current must be o pp o site t o the p rimary in o rder t o o pp o se t he

increase Thus the sec o ndary current is negative and by a ssump
.
, ,

ti o n the in duced e m f e is als o negative Therefo re the sign

. . . .
,

min us is necessa ry in the f o rmula W hen the flux decreases .

,

d(D/ dt is negative but the sec o ndary current is p o sitive because it

, ,

must o pp o se the reducti o n in flux Hence in o rder t o m ake e a .

,

p o sitive quantity the sign minus is again necessa ry

,
.

The f o ll o wing t wo special cases o f f o rmula (2 5) are c o n venient

in appli c ati o ns F o rm ula (25) gives the instantane o us value o f
.

the induced it is o nce and a while required t o kn o w the

average e m f induced durin g a finite change o f the flux fr o m 071
. . .

t o 60 2. B y defin iti o n the average e m f is ,

. . .

where tl is the initial m o ment and t ; the final m o ment o f the

interval o f time during which the change in the flux takes place .
CR AP . rvI I N D UC E D E M F
. . . 59

S ubstituting in this equati o n the value of e f ro m and integ

rating we get ,

(0 1 “ wzl/ (tz —
t r) (2 6)
This sh o ws that the average value o f an induced e m f d o es . . .

no t depend up o n the law a c c o rd ing t o which the flux changes wi t h

the time and is simply p ro p o rti o nal t o the average rate o f change
,

o f the flux .

A s an o the r special f o rm o f eq (25 ) c o nside r a st raight c o n .

duct o r of a length l centimeters m o ving at a vel o city o f v centi

mete rs per sec o nd a c ro ss a unif o r m magnetic field o f a density o f B ,

webe rs per sq cm L e t B l and e be in three mutua lly perpend ic

. .
, ,

ular directi o ns The flux dd) cut by the c o nducto r during an infi
. ni

t esima l element o f time dl is equal t o B lv dl S ubsti t uting this .

value into eq (2 5) we get apart fro m the sign minus

.
, ,

e=
=B lv .

S h o uld the th r ee directi ons B l and be no t pe rpendicular t o , , ,

each o the r I in eq (27) is underst o o d t o mean t he pro j ecti o n o f

,
.

the actual len gth o f the c o nduct o r perpendicular t o the field and , ,

v is the c o mp o nent o f the vel o city n o rmal t o B and l B o th B and .

1) may va r y with the p o siti o n o f the c o nduct o r in which case eq ,

.

( )
27 gives the value o f the instantane o us v o ltage I f at a cer .
,

tain m o ment the vari o us pa rts o f the c o nducto r cut ac ro ss a field

,

o f diff e rent density eq (2 7) must be w r itten fo r an infinitesimal

,
.

length o f the c onduct o r thus : de = B v dl and integ rated o ve r ,

.

the wh o le length o f the c o nducto r .

B esides the rule given ab o ve the directi o n o f the e m f induced ,

. . .

by the generato r acti o n c an also be determined by the familia r

th ree finger rule due t o Fleming and given in handb o o ks and ele
-
, ,

menta ry b o o ks o n elect ricity This rule is useful b ea usc it e mpha .

si zes the th ree mutually perpendicula r d i re cti o ns th o se o f the ,

fl ux the c o nduct o r and the relative m o ti o n

, ,
I n applyin g this .

rule t o a m achine with a stati o na ry a rmatu re o ne must remember

that the di recti o n o f the m o ti o n in Fleming s rule is t hat o f t he '

c o nducto r and therefo re is o pp o site t o the di recti o n o f the ac t ua l

,

m o ti o n o f t he m agnetic field .

Pro b l em 1 A sec ond a ry wind i ng is pl a c ed o n t he ri ng ( Fig I ) a nd is

. .

c onnec ted t o a ballis tic ga lvano m ete r L e t th e nu m b e r o f tu rns in t he .

sec ond a ry wind in g be n t he flux li nki ng with ea c h tu r n be e we bers a nd

, .
60 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 25

th e to tal resis tan c e o f the s ec o nd a ry ci rc uit b e r o h ms S h o w that whe n .

the c urrent in the p rima ry wi nd i ng i s r eve rs ed th e d is cha rge thro ugh ,

t he galvan om ete r is equal t o 2 nt0 c o ul om b s .

Pro b 2 A teleph o ne lin e r un s pa rallel t o a d irect c urren t t ro lley

. .
-

feed e r fo r 2 0 kil om ete rs W h en a cu rrent o f 100 am pe re s fl o w s thro ugh

.

the feed e r a flux o f 2 kil o maxwell s th r eads th ro ug h the teleph o ne l oo p-

,

pe r m ete r o f its len gth W hat i s the ave rage v o ltage in d uced in the tele
.

ph o ne line when th e current i nt he t ro lley feed e r dr0 ps from 6 00 t o 50 am p .

within sec ? . A n s 2 2 v o lts .

‘

P r o b 3 D ete rm ine th e num be r o f a rm atu r e c o n d uct ors in s e rie s in a

. .

5 5 0 v o lt h omo p o l a r gene rat or o f t h e axial type r unnin g at a pe r ip h e ral ,

speed o f ab o ut 100 m eters pe r sec when th e len gth o f the a rm atu r e i ro n .

,

i s 5 0 centim ete rs an d the flux d en sity in the ai r gap i s between 18 a nd 19

,
-

kilo li nes pe r s q c m N ote: F o r the c o n s t r ucti o n o f t h e m ac hin e s ee t h e

S ta nda rd Ha nd book ind ex und e r
“ . .

G enerat o rs homo p o la r
,
”
, , .

Ans 6 . .

Pro b 4 Draw sc hem atically th e a rm at ure a nd th e field win di ngs o f a

. .

sh unt w o und d i rect cu rrent generat or select a d i recti o n o f ro tati o n an d

- -
, ,

sho w ho w t o c o nnect the fiel d leads t o th e br u sh es so that the m ac hine

w ill excite it self in the p repe r d ir ecti o n .

Pro b 5 F rom a given drawing o f a d i r ec t c urrent mo to r p redict its

. .
-

directi o n o f ro tati o n .

Pr o b 6 In an interp o le m ac h ine the ave rage reactanc e v o ltage pe r

. .

c o mm utat o r segm ent d u rin g t h e r eve rsal o f th e cu rr ent i s calc ulate d t o be

equ a l t o 34 v o lt s W h at i s th e requi red net axial len gth o f th e c o mmu
.

tatin g p o le t o c om pen s ate fo r thi s v o ltage if th e pe riph e ral s peed o f the

m a chin e i s 65 m ete rs pe r s ec o n d an d th e flux d en sity un d e r the p o le i s ,

6 kl sq c m ? The a rm atu r e windi n g has t wo tu rns per c o mm utat or s eg

. . .

men t . A ns 22 c m . .

25 . T he I n duc ed E
in a Tr ansf o rm er The three types . M F . . .

o f transf o rmers used in practice are sh o wn in F l gs 12 13 and 14 .

, ,
.

C o nsidering the ir o n c o re as a magnetic link and a set o f prima ry ,

and sec o ndary c o ils as an electric link o n e may say that the c o re ,

type transfo rme r has o ne magnetic link and t wo electric links ;

the shell type has o ne electric link and t wo magnetic links ; the
-

c o mbinati o n o r crucifo rm type has o ne electric and f o ur magnetic

links Still an o ther type no t used in practice can be o btained
.
, ,

fro m the c o re type by adding t wo o r m o re electric links t o the same

-

ma gneti c link E ach electric link is underst o o d t o c o nsist o f t w o

.

win dings : the p rimary and the sec o ndary .

W hen the primary winding is c o nnected t o a s o urce o f c o nstant

p o tential altern ating v o ltage and the sec o ndary winding is c o n
n ec t ed t o a l o ad alternating c urrents fl o w in b o th windings and an
,

alte rnating magneti c flux is established in the ir o n c o re I f the .

Cw . I V] I NDUC E D E M F
H . 61

p rimary electric circuit that is t he o ne c o nnected t o the s o urce o f

, ,

p o we r were pe rf ect that is i f it p o ssessed no resistan c e and no

, , ,

reactance the alte rnating magnetic flux in the c o re wo uld b e the

,

same at all l o ads I t wo uld have such a magnitude that at any

.

instant the c o un ter in du c ed by it in the p rima ry wind

ing wo uld be practically equ al and o pp o site t o the impressed
v o l t age I n reality the resistance and the leakage reactance o f
.

o rdin ary c o mmercial transf o rmers a re so lo w that for the pur po s es

o c a lc ula ting the ma gnetic ci rc uit the p rima ry impedan ce d r o p may

f
he disrega rded and the mag
‘ ,
.

netic flux c o nsidered c o nstant

and independent o f the l o ad .

I f the prima ry applied v o lt

age varies acc o rding t o the sine
law which c o n diti o n is nearly
,

ful filled in o rdinary cases the ,

c o unte r which is pra c t i

cally equal and o pp o site t o it ,

als o f oll o ws the same law .

Hence acc o rd ing t o eq

,
.

the magnetic flux must vary

acc o rding t o the c o sine law ,

because the derivative o f the

c o sine is m inus the sine I n .

o the r w o rds b o th the flux and

,

the induced e m f va ry acc o rd . . F ro 12

. A c o re type t rans forme r . .
— -
.

ing t o the sine law but the t wo ,

sine waves are in time quad rature wi t h each o the r W hen the .

flux reaches its maximum i t s rate o f c hange is zero an d t he re fo re ,

the c o unte r is ze ro W hen the flux passes th ro ugh zero it s

.

rate o f change with the time is a m aximu m and the refo re the ,

induced v o ltage at this instant is a maximum .

L c t wm b e the maximu m v a lue o f the flux in t he c o re in webe rs , ,

and let f be the frequency o f the supply in c ycles pe r sec o nd .

Then t he flux at any instant t is w= ¢ mc o s 27rf t and the e m f , . . .

indu c ed at this m o m ent per t ur n o f the p rima ry o r sec o nda ry

,

windin g is
2 7rft9m sin 27rf t .

Thus the m aximum value

,
of t he induced vo ltage pe r tu rn is
62 T HE M AGN E TI C CI R C UI T [A m 25

2 f¢
7r hence the e ff e c tive v alue is L et
t here be N 1 pr i ma ry turns in series ; the t o tal primary vo ltage is
then equal t o N 1 times the pre c eding value E x pressing the flux .

in megalines we there f o re o btain the f o ll o wing practical f o rmula

fo r t he indu c ed v o ltage in a trans f o rmer :

E 1 4 4 4l
. mm 10 _2

FI G. 13 . hell type
—
A s -
F I G 14 . .
—
A c ruciform type
-

t ran sforme r . t ran sforme r

.

In practice E 1 is assumed t o be equal and o pp o site t o the applied

,

v o ltage (fo r calculating the flux o nly but no t fo r dete r mining the
,

v o ltage regulati o n o f the transf o rmer) F o rmula (28) h o lds als o

.

fo r the sec o ndary indu c ed v o ltage E 2 if the numbe r o f sec o nda ry

t urns in se ri es N 2 be substituted fo r N 1 The v o ltage per turn is .

the same in the prima ry and in the sec o nda ry winding ; there f o re ,

the rati o o f the induced v o ltages is equal t o that of the numbe r

Cw . I V] I NDUC E D B M . 63

of tu rn s in t he p ri m a ry and sec onda ry windings : tha t is we ,

h ave E 1 1 E 2
= N 1 2N 2 .

Pro b 7 A 60 cycle t ransfo rmer is t o b e desi gn ed so as to h ave a fl ux

. .
-

d ensity in th e c o re o f abo ut 9 th e d iff erence o f p o tent ial

between c o n secutive tu rns m us t no t e xc eed 5 vo l ts W h at i s the requi red .

c ros s secti o n o f the i ro n?

-
A ns 2 10 sq c m . . .

Pro b 8 The t ransfo rmer i nth e p re c ed in g p ro bl em is t o be wo und fo r

. .

6600 v p rim a ry and 44 0 v sec ond a ry

.
, W h at a re t h e req ui red n umbers
. .

o f tu rns ? Ans 1320 and 88 . .

Pro b 9 Referr ing t o th e t ransfo rmer in th e p rec eding p roblem wha t

. .
,

a re th e re qui red n um be rs o f t urns if t hree s uc h t ra ns fo rm e rs a r e t o be used

'

Y c onnec ted o n a t hree p h a se sy s te m fo r w hic h t he line v o lta ge s a re 6 6 00

- -
,

and 44 0 r es pectively ? A n s 765 and 5 1 . .

Pro b 1 0 I n a l l O kil o vo lt 25 c ycl e t ran sfo rmer fo r Y c on necti on t he

. .
-
,
— -

n et c ro ss secti o n o f th e iro n is a b o ut 8 20 sq c m and th e p ermi ssibl e maxi

-
. .

m um fiux d en sity is abo ut kl/ sq c m W h at is th e n um b er o f tur n s . .

in th e hi gh tensi o n wind ing ?-

Ans 6 500 . .

Pro b 1 1 Th e sec ond a ry o f th e t ransfo rm e r in th e p rec ed in g p roblem

. .

is t o be wo und fo r 6600 v delt a c onne cti o n with tap s fo r va rying the .

, ,

sec o nd a ry v o lta ge within : t 5 pe r cent S pecify t h e wi nd ing . .

Ans 709 tu rns ; tap s taken afte r th e 34 t h and 68 t h tu rn

. .

Pro b 12 E xp l ain the reason fo r whic h a 6 0 cycl e t ransfo rm e r us ually

. .
-

ru ns ho t even at no l o ad when c o n n ected t o a 25 cycle ci rc uit o f the same

,
-

vo ltage Sho w from t he c o r e l o ss c u rves t hat the vo lta ge m us t b e

.
-

red uced t o f rom 75 t o 8 5 p er c en t o f its ra ted value in o rder t o have the

no rm al tem pe ratu re ri se in th e t ransform e r at th e rated c urren t ,
.

Pro b 1 3 Sho w graph ically tha t th e wave o f the fl ux withi n a t rans

. . ,

f o rm e r bec o mes mo re and mo re p ea ked wh en th e wa ve o f the a ppli ed e m f

,
. . .

bec o m es mo r e and mo re flat and vic e v ersa Hin t : T he in stan ta neo us ,

.

valu es o f e m f a r e p ro p o rti on al t o the values o f th e slo pe o f th e c ur v e o f

. . .

flux .

Pro b 1 4 The wave o f th e vo ltage im p ressed Upon a tra ns fo rme r has

. .

a 15 pe r ce nt t hird h a rmo nic wh ic h flattens th e wave symm et rically Sho w .

an alytically tha t t he c o rres pond i ng fl ux wave ha s a 5 pe r ce nt t hird har

monic in s uc h a pha se p o siti o n a s to ma ke t he flux wave pea ked .

2 6 T he .
I n u
d ce d E M F in an A lte r n a t o r a n d .in a n I n d u.
c ti
.
o n
Mo o t r a t
P r of
.
a rev o lving field alte rnat o r is sh o wn in Fig 1 5 . .

T he a r mature c o r e is stati o na ry and h as a winding pla c ed in sl o ts ,

which may be either o pen o r half c l o sed The p o le pie c es a re .

m o un ted o n a spider and a re p ro vided with an exciting winding .

Wh en t he spider is d riven by a pime m o ve r the mag ne t ic flux -

s weeps past the a r matu r e c o nduct o rs a n d induces alte r na t ing

voltages in them 1 I n o rde r t o o b t ain an e m f app ro aching a sine

.
. . .

F or det il c o nce rnin g the di ff e ent types of a rmatu re windin g ; see t h

a s r e

auth or E xp rim nt l E le tric l E ngineering Vol 2 C ha p 30

'
s e e a c a , .
,
. .
64 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A m 26

wave as nea rly as p o ssible the p o le sh o es are shaped as sh o wn

in the sketch that is t o say so as t o make a variable air gap and
, ,
-

thus grade the fl ux density fr o m the center o f the p o le t o the edges .

I n high speed turb o alternat o rs the field structure o ften has a

- -

sm o o th surf a c e with o ut pro j e c ting p o les (Fig

,
in o rde r t o .

reduce the n o ise and the windage l o ss S uch a structure is als o .

stro nger mechanically than o ne with pr oj ecting p o les The grad .

ing o f the flux is secured by distributing the field winding in sl o ts ,

so t hat the wh o le m m f acts o n o nly part o f the p o le pitch

. . . .

C o nsider a c o nduct o r at a during the interval o f time during

which the flux m o ves by o ne p o le pitch r The average e m f . . . .

FI G . 15 .
—
The c ross secti o n o f a synch ro n ous machine
-
.

induced in the c o nduct o r is acc o rding t o eq equal t o (D/ l T

, .
A —

where (D is the t o tal flu x per p o le in webers and T is the tim e o f ,

o n e c o mplete cycle c o rresp o nding t o 2 c the space o f t wo p o le

,

pitches . B ut T = 1/ f so that the ave r age v o ltage induced in a

,

c o nduct o r is
m
2 .
( 9)
2

The value of em thus d o es no t depend up o n the distributi on o f the

flu x (D in the air gap —
.

I f the p o le pieces are shaped so as t o give an appr o ximately

-

sinus o idal dist ributi o n o f flu x in the air gap the ind uced e m f is -
, . . .

als o appr o ximately a sine wave and the rati o between the e ff ect ,
Cm . I V] IN DUC E D E M F
. . . 65

ive and the average values o f the vo ltages is equ al t o ix/ 2

or I f the shape o f the indu c ed e m f departs widely fro m the . . .

sine wave the actual curve must be pl o tted and its fo rm fac t o r
deter mined by o ne o f the kn o wn meth o ds (see the E lec tric C ir
c uit) L et the fo rm fact o r in general b e 1 an d let the machine
.

have N armatu re tu rns in series pe r phase o r what is the same .

,

2 N c o nduct o rs in se ries The t o tal induced e m f in eff ective

. . . .

vo lts is then
E = 2fx¢ 2N .

This fo rmula presupp o ses that there is but o ne sl o t pe r p o le per

phase so that the e m fs induced in the sepa rate c o nducto rs a re a ll
, . . .

in phase with each o ther and that thei r values are simply added ,

t o gethe r I n reality there is usually m o re than o ne sl o t pe r p o le

.
,

pe r phase fo r practical reaso ns discussed in the next a rticle I t

, .

will be seen fr o m the figure that the e m fs induced in adj acent . . .

sl o ts a re so mewhat o ut o f phase with each o the r because the c rest ,

o f the flux reaches diff e rent sl o ts at diff erent times The refo re .
,

the resultant vo ltage o f the machine is s o mewhat s m aller than that

ac c o rding t o the preceding fo rmula The influence o f the dis .

t rib ut io n o f the winding in the sl o ts is taken int o acc o unt by mul

t iply ing the value o f E in the p receding f o r mul a by a c o efficient kb ,

which is smaller than unity and which is called the brea dth fac to r
I ntro ducing this fact o r and assuming z 1 1 1 which is accu r ate
=
,
.
,

en o ugh fo r go o d c o m me r cial alte rnat o rs we o btain ,

whe re 0 is no w in mega lines Values o f lo a re given in the a rticles .

,

that fo ll o w .

Fo rm ul a (3 1) applies equally well t o the p o lyph as e inducti o n

m o t o r o r gene rat o r There we also have a unifo rmly revo lving
.

flux in the ai r gap the flux density being dist ributed in space
-
, ,

acc o rding t o t he sine law This gliding flux induces e m fs in the . . . .

stato r and ro t o r windings The o nly di ff e rence between the t wo .

kinds o f machines is that in t he synch ro n o us alte rn ato r the field is

made t o revo lve by me c hanical m eans while in an in du c ti o n ,

m achine the field is excited by the p o lyphase cu rrents fl o wing in

‘F or the p ro porti o ns o f a pole s h oe which very nearly give a sine - wave
see Arn old W ec lrs cls tro mtec hnilc Vol 3 p 247
, , .
,
. .
66 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT ( m
A . 27

the stat o r and r o t o r windings The f o r mul a of this chapter als o .

apply wi t h o u t change t o the synchr o n o us m o t o r beca u se the c o n ,

s t ruc t i o n and t he o perati o n o f the latter are identical with th o se o f

an alternato r ; the o nly d iff erence being that an alternat o r trans
f o rms mechani c al energy int o electrical energy while a synchro ,

n o u s m o t o r trans f o rms energy in the reverse directi o n I n all .

cases t he in duced v o ltage is underst o o d and no t the line vo ltage .

The latter may d iffer c o nsiderably fr o m the f o rmer due t o the ,

impedance dr o p in the stat o r winding .

Pro b 1 5 A d elta c o nnected 2 300 v 60 cycle

. .
-
alt ernat o r
,
-
.
,
-
,

is es t im ated t o h ave a us eful fl ux o f ab o ut mega lines pe r p o le If th e .

m ac hine ha s o ne sl o t pe r p o le pe r p h a se ho w m any c o n d ucto rs pe r sl o t a re

n eed ed ? A ns 8 . .

Pro b 1 6 A . . c ycle alte r nat o r fo r wi reless w ork h a s o ne c o n d ue

-

t o r pe r p o le a nd 600 p o le s The rated v o ltage at no l o ad is 110 v W hat

. .

i s the fl ux pe r p o l e and the speed o f th e m ac hine ?

A ns m axw ell s ; rp m . .

Pr o b 1 7 It i s d esi red t o design a line o f in d ucti o n met ers fo r a per

. .

iphera l s peed o f 5 0 m et pe r sec the m axi m u m d en sity in t he ai r gap t o b e

. .
,
-

ab o ut 6 kilolin es pe r sq c m W hat will be the m axim u m v o ltage in d uce d

. .

pe r m ete r o f active len gth o f t he s tat o r c o n d uc to rs ? Hint : Use fo rm ula

A ns 3 0 v o lt . .

Pr o b 18 F o rm ula (3 1) is d ed uced u nder th e ass umpti on that eac h

. .

arm atu r e c o n d uct or i s s ubj e ct ed t o the

“ cuttin g acti on o f th e wh o le
fl ux In r eality al mo st the who le flux pass es thro ugh t h e teeth between
.
,

th e c o n d uct o rs so that it m ay seem up o n a s upe r ficial in specti o n that

,

little v o ltage c o ul d be in d uced in th e c o n d ucto rs whic h a re embedd ed in

sl o ts Show that s uc h i s no t th e case a nd th at the same average vo ltage
.
,

i s in d uc ed in the c o n d uct o rs placed in c om pletely cl o sed sl o t s a s in t h e ,

c o n d uct o rs placed o n the sw i ace o f a smo o th body a rm ature H int : -

.

W hen the flux m o ve s the sam e am o unt o f m a gnetic d i stu rbance m us t

,

pass in th e tan gential d i recti o n t hro ugh t h e sl o t s as thro ugh th e te eth .

Pr o b 19 D ed uc e eq (3 1) d i rectly f rom eq
. . . C a n eq (3 1) be .

d e ri ve d u nde r th e c ase of th e tr an sfo rme r acti on?

2 7 T he B
. r ea dth Facto r . rmature c o nduct o rs are usually
A
placed in m o re than o ne sl o t per p o le per phase fo r the f o ll o wing ,

reas o ns :
(a ) The distrib u ti o n o f the magnetic field is m o re unif orm ,

there being less bunching o f the flux u nder the teeth ;

(b) The indu c ed e m f has a better wave f o rm ;
. . .

(0 ) The leakage reactance o f the winding is reduced ;

( )
d The same armature pun c hing c an be used fo r ma c hines with
di ff erent numbers o f p o les and phases ;
CR AP . I Vl I NDUC E D 67

(e) The mechanical arrangement and c oo ling of the c o ils is

so mewhat simp lified .

The disadvantage o f a large numbe r o f sl o t s is that m o re space

is taken up by insulatio n and the machine bec o m es m o re expen ,

sive especially if it is wo und fo r a high v o ltage The elec t ro mo

,
.

tive fo rce is also so mewhat reduced because the vo ltages induced

in d iff erent sl o ts a re s o mewhat o ut o f phas e with o ne ano t her .

The ad vantages o f a distribu t ed winding gene rally o utweigh its dis

ad vantages and such windings are used alm o st en t irely Thus
, .
,

it is o f imp o rt a n ce t o kn o w ho w t o calc ulate the value o f t he

b readth f ac t o r kg fo r a given win ding
, .

l P hase 1

D 3

FI G . 16 .
—
A fracti o nal pitch windin g
-
.

In the winding sh o wn in Fig 15 each c o nduct o r is c o nnec t ed .

with ano ther c o nduct o r situated at a distance exactly equal t o the

po le pitch I t is p o ssible h o weve r t o c o nnect o ne a r mature c o n
.
, ,

duct o r t o an o ther at a distance s o mewhat smalle r than the p o le

pitch ( Fig S uch a winding is called a fra c tio na l pitc h wind
.
-

i ng in distincti o n t o the winding sh o wn in Fig 15 ; the latte r

,
.

winding is ca lled a full pitch o r hund red per cent pitch winding
- -
.

I t will be seen f ro m Fig 16 that wi t h a t wo laye r f racti o nal pitch

.
,
- -

winding s o me sl o ts a re o ccupied by c o ils bel o nging t o t wo diff e rent

,

phas es The advantages o f the fracti o nal pitch winding a re

.
-

( )
a The end c o nn ecti o ns o
-
f the winding a re sh o rtened so t hat ,

the re is s o me saving in a rma t u re c o pper .

(b) The end c onnecti o ns o ccupy less space in t he axial d ire c

-

ti o n o f the mach ine so that the wh o le machine is sh o rte r

,
.
68 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT lA R T . 28

( )
c I n a t wo p o le o r f o ur p o le machine
-
it is necessary t o use a -

f racti o nal pitch winding in o rder t o be able t o place machine

-

wo und c o ils into the sl o ts .

A disadvantage o f the fracti o nal pitch winding is that the -

e m fs induced o n b o th s ides o f the same c o ils are no t exactly in

. . .

phas e with each o the r so that fo r a given vo ltage a lar ger number
,

o f turn s o r a larger flux is r equired than with a full pitch wind ing -
.

Fracti o n al pitch windings are used t o a c o nsiderable extent b o th

-

in direct and in alternating current machinery - .

Thus the induced e m f in an alternat o r o r an inducti o n m o t o

,
. . .

is reduced by the dist ributi o n o f the winding in m o re than o ne

sl o t an d als o by the use o f a fracti o nal winding pitch I t is
,
-
.

the refo re c o nvenient t o c o nsider the breadth fact o r Io as being ,

equ al t o the pr o duct of t wo fact o rs o ne taking int o acc o unt the ,

numbe r o f sl o ts an d the o the r the in fluence o f the winding pitch

,
.

W e thus put

whe re k is called the slot fa c tor and kw the winding pitc hfa c tor
,
-
.

F o r a full pitch winding kw = 1 and kb = k ; fo r a fracti o nal

-
, 8

pitch unislo t w inding k 1 and kb = kw The fact o rs k and kw s

:
,
.
,

are independent o f o ne an o the r and thei r values are cal c ul ated ,

in the next t wo articles .

28 T he S l o t Fact o r k
. L et the stat o r o f an alte rnat o r (o r s.

inducti o n m o t o r) have t wo sl o ts per p o le per phase and let the ,

cente rs of the adj acent sl o ts be displaced by an angle a in elec t ri ,

cal degrees the p o le pitch r c o rresp o nding t o 180 electrical

, , ,

degrees I f E (Fig 17) is the vect o r o f the eff ective v o ltage

. .

induced in the c o nduct o rs in o ne sl o t the v o ltage E due t o the ,

’

c o nduct o rs in b o th sl o ts is represented graphically as the ge o metric

sum o f t wo vect o rs E relatively displaced by the angle a W e see .

fro m the figure that sE = E c o s 4a o r E = 2 E c o s set I f b o th sets

’
,
’
.

o f c o nduct o rs were bunched in the same sl o t we w o uld then have

E = 2E
’
Hence in this case the c o efficient o f reducti o n in
.
,

v o ltage o r the sl o t fact o r

, ,

L et no w the armature stamping have S sl o ts per p o le per phase ,

the angle between adj acent sl o ts being again equal t o a electri c al

degrees L et the vect o rs marked E in Fig 18 be the v o ltages
. .

induced in each sl o t ; the resultant v o ltage E is f o und as the geo ’

CR A P . I V] I NDUC E D E M F
. . .
69

met ric sum of the E s The r adius

’
. of the circle and
i E
’
= r sini S a . The refo re ,

(sin i s m/ s sin t a ) .
(3 3 )
W hen S = 2 , the fo rmula (33 ) bec o mes identical with the exp res
si o n given befo re .

F ro 17
. .
—
A diagram illu st rating the s l o t FI G . 18 .
—
A diagra m
illust rating
factor with two s l o ts . the s l o t facto r with several s lo ts .

The angle a depends up o n the nu m ber o f sl o ts and the num b e r

o f phases L et the r e be m phases ; then a sm = 180 degrees and
.
,

=
a (34)
The values o f k in the table bel o w are calculated by using the fo r
,

mulae (33) and

VA L UE S O F T HE SL OT F ACT O R r
e
,

S l to s pe r P has e
pe r P o l e .

single phas e alte rnat o rs pa rt o f the sl o t s a re o ften left empty

In -

so as t o redu c e the b readth o f the winding and the re fo re inc rease

the value o f k Fo r instance if a p unching is used with six sl o ts

. .
,

pe r p o le pe rha ps o nly three o r fo u r adj acent sl o t s a re o ccupied

,
.

I n this case it wo uld b e w ro ng t o take the value s o f k f ro m the

, .

first c o lu mn o f the table I f fo r instance th ree sl o ts o ut o f six .

, ,
70 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A m 2 9

are o c c upied the value o f k is the same as

, , fo r a t wo -
phase wind
ing wi t h t hree sl o ts per p o le per phase .

Pr o b 20 Chec k som e o f t he values o f It given i n the tabl e ab o ve

. .
, .

Pro b 2 1 The a rmatu re c o r e o f a si ngle ph ase alte rnat or i s built o f

. .
-

s tam pin gs havi ng thr ee sl o t s pe r p o le ; t wo sl o ts pe r p o le a re utili z ed .

W h at i s the value o f Ans .

Pro b 22 A s in gle phase m ach ine h a s S uniform ly d ist rib uted sl o ts pe r

. .
-

p o le o f whi ch o nly S a re us ed fo r th e win d in g W h at i s th e value o f

,
’
.

A n s Use S in eq ( 3 3 ) in ste a d o f S ; p rese rve S in eq

.
’
. .

Pro b 2 3 A six p o le 6 6 00 v Y c o nnected 5 0 cycle t urb o alternato r i s

. .
-
,
.
,
-
,
- -

t o be b uilt u sin g an a rm atu r e wit h 9 0 sl o ts

,
The esti m ate d flux pe r p o le .

is abo ut 6 mega li nes Ho w m any c o nduct o rs a r e requi red pe r sl o t ?

.

A ns 20 . .

Pro b 24 W h at i s th e value o f It wh en the win d in g i s d istributed uni

. .
3

fo rmly o n the s u rface o f a smo o th body a rm atu re eac h p has e c o v erin g 8 -

, ,

elect ric l d egrees ? S o luti o n : R efe rr in g t o Fig 18 k i s in t hi s case equal

a .
, s

t o th e r ati o o f the c hord E t o the a r c o f t h e ci r cle whic h it s ub ten ds Th e

’
.

cent ral an gle i s B an d we h ave k (s ins fl) ( sfln /

, I n a three p ha se
,
-

machine fi= 60 d egrees an d th e refore It = 0 9 55 Th is I s the value given

, , . .

in th e las t c o lum n o f the table ab o ve .

Pro b 25 D ed uce th e exp ressi o n fo r It given in th e p reced in g p ro blem

. .
,

d irectly f rom f orm ula So luti o n : S ub s titutin g s a = e; S = o an d o

a = 0 an ind ete rm inate exp r essi o n i s o btained B ut wh en t h e

, , .

an gle app ro aches z e ro it s s ine i s nea rly e q ual t o the a re so that th e

a
,

d en ominato r o f the right h an d side o f eq (33 ) app ro ac hes th e value-

.

whe r e fl i s in rad ians Ch anging B t o d egrees the requi r ed .

, ,

fo rm ula is ob tained .

29 . T he W in ding- pitc h
F a c to r k L et the distance between
the t wo o pp o site sides o f a c o il ( Fig 16) be 180 7 degrees where .
—

r is the angle by which t he winding pitch is sh o rtened The v o lt -

.

ages induced in the t wo sides o f the c o il are o ut o f phase with

ea c h o ther by the angle 7 so that if the v o ltage induced in each ,

side is e the t o tal v o ltage is equal t o 2 6 C o s h ( Fig

,
Fig 17 . .

will apply t o this case if we read r fo r the angle a Hence we .

,

have that

In practice the winding pitch is measured in per cent o r as a fra c

,
-
,

ti o n o f the p o le pitch r F o r instance if there are nine sl o ts per .

,

p o le and the c o il lies in sl o ts 1 and 8 the winding pitch is 7/ 9 o r ,

-
,

per cent I f the c o il were placed in sl o ts 1 and 10 we w o uld

.

have a full pitch o r a 100 per cent pitch winding L et in gen

-
, .
CR AP I V]
. I NDUCE D 71

e ral the winding pitch be C exp ressed as a f racti o n Then

-
, .

( 1 S ubstitutin g this v al ue o f 7 int o f o r mula (3 5 ) we ’

o btain

km= c o s [90 °
(l O] (3 6)

The values o f km given in Fig . 19 have been c a lculated acc o rding

t o this f o rm ula .

P er C ent W inding P itc h

F ro 19 . .
—
Values o f the windin g pitc h fac to r - .

In applicati o ns o n e takes
,
the value o f k f r o m the table assum . ,

ing the winding pitch t o be o ne hund red pe r cent and m ultiplies it ,

by the value o f low taken f ro m the cu rve ( Fig W ith f rac .

t io nal pitch t
-
w o laye
- r windings the value o f k c o rresp o nd s t o the .

numbe r o f sl o ts per la y er pe r p o le pe r phase and no t t o the to t a l ,

numbe r o f sl o ts pe r p o le pe r phase This is clea r f ro m the explana

.

ti o n given in the p receding pa rag raph Thus fo r ins t a n ce in Fig .

, ,
.

16 It m ust be taken f o r t h ree sl o t s and n o t fo r five sl o ts I f o ne .

, .

has t o c alculate the values o f k, o f t en it is advisa ble t o pl o t a set

, ,
72 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 30

of curves like the o ne in Fig 1 9 each curve giving the values o f kb

,
.
,

fo r a c ertain number o f sl o ts per p o le per phase against per cent ,

winding pit c h as absciss ae .

Pro b 2 6 I n a 4 p o le
. sl o t turb alte rnat o r the c oil s li e in sl o t s 1
.
-
, 72 -
,
o-

and 13 W hat is the pe r cent wind in g pitch a nd by wh at pe r c entage i s

.
-

t he e m f r ed uc ed by m a king t h e pitc h s h or t in s tea d o f

. . .

A ns pe r cent ; 1 kw pe r cent .
—
.

Pro b 2 7 W hat is the fl ux pe r p o le at no l o ad in a 6 6 00 v o lt 2 5 cycle

. .
-

,
-

5 00 Y c o nn ecte d in d ucti o n m o t o r whic h h as 9 0 s l o t s 36 c o n d ue

—

to rs pe r sl o t an d a wind in g pitc h o f ab o u t 73 pe r cent ?

,
-

A ns . mega lines .

Pro b 28 Sho w th at for a c h ai n wind ing kw i s always equal t o unity

. .
,

in spite o f the fact th at som e o f the c o il s a r e na rro we r than the p o le pitch .

Pro b 29 Draw a sketch o f a sin gle laye r f racti o nal pitch win din g
. .
-
,
—

usin g alte r nate sl o ts fo r the o ve rlappi ng p h as es Show wh at values o f k .

,

an d kw s h o uld b e us ed fo r s uc h a wind in g .

30 . N o n- sinus o i dal Vo ltage s

the f o reg o ing calculati o ns . In
the supp o siti o n is made that the flux density in the air gap is dis -

tributed acc o rding t o the sine law so that sinus o idal v o ltages are
indu c ed in each c o nduct o r Under these Circumstances the .

resultant v o ltage als o fo ll o ws the sine law no matter what the ,

winding pitch and the number o f sl o ts are The flu x is practically

-
.

sinus o idal in in ducti o n m o t o rs b ecause the higher harm onics o f

t he flux are wiped o ut by the sec o ndary currents induced in the
lo w resistance r o t o r
-
B ut in synchr o n o us alternat o rs and m o t o rs
.

with pr oj ecting p o les the distributi o n o f the flux in the air gap is -

us u ally di ff erent f r o m a pure sine wave F o r instance when the .

,

p o le sh o e is shaped by a cylindrical surface c o ncentric with that o f

t he armature the air gap length and c o nsequently the flu x density
,
-

are c onstant o ver the larger p o rti o n o f the p o le ; there f o re the ,

c urve o f the field distributi o n is a flat o ne This shape is impr o ved .

t o s o me e x tent by chamfering the p o le tips o r by shaping the p o le -

'

sh o es t o a c ircle o f a smaller ra dius so that the length o f the air gap ,

-

increases gradually t o ward the p o le tips -

.

W hen a machine rev o lves at a uni f o rm S peed the e m f induced , . . .

in a single armature c o nduct o r has e x actly the S hape o f the field

distributi o n curve be c ause in this case the rate o f cutting the flu x
,

is pr o p o rti onal t o the flu x de nsity (see eq 2 7 ab o ve ) There . .

f o re when a m a c hine has but o ne sl o t per p o le per phase (which

,

c o nditi o n is und esirable but unav o idable in lo w speed alternat o rs

,
-
,

o r in th o se desi gned fo r e x tremely high frequencies ) the S hape o f ,

onl y I V]
.
I N D UC E D 73

the p o le pieces must be w o rked o ut ve ry c a rert in o rde r t o have

'

an e m f app ro achin g the t rue S ine wave W ith a larger number

. . . .

o f slo ts this is n o t so necessa ry because the em fs indu c ed in di ff er . . .

ent sl o ts a re added o ut o f phase with each o ther and the undesir ,

able higher harm o nics partly cancel each o the r The vo ltage .

wave is fu rther impr o ved by a j udici o us use o f a f racti o n al pitch -

winding These facts a re made clea rer in the so luti o n o f the pro b
.

lems that f o ll o w 1
.

Pro b 3 0 T h e flux densi ty in the air gap under th e po l es o f an altern a

. .
-

t o r is c ons tan t fo r 50 pe r cent o f the p o le pitc h and t he n it dro p s t o zero , ,

acc o rding t o th e s t raight line law o n ea c h sid e in a s pace o f 15 pe r cen t

-
,

o f t he p o le pitc h Draw t o s cale the c u rv es o f in d uced e m f fo r th e fo l

. . . .

l o wing wind ings : (a ) S i ngle ph ase o ne sl o t p er p o le ; (b) S in gle ph as e

-
,
-
,

n in e sl o ts pe r p o le five sl o ts bein g o ccupi ed by a o ne h undred pe r cen t

,
-

pitc h wind in g ; (c ) T h e sam e a s in (b ) o nly t h e wi nd in g pitc h i s equal t o - -

T hree p h as e Y c on n ec ted full pitc h win d in g t wo s l o ts pe r p o le

-
,
- -
,

pe r p hase ; in t h e latter case give cu rves o f b o th the p hase vo ltag e an d th e

lin e vo lta ge O n all the c u r v es ind icate ro u ghly th e equival ent sine wave
.
,

in o rder t o s ee the infl ue nc e o f the n umb e r o f sl o ts and o f th e frac tion al

pitc h in im p ro vin g th e wave fo rm .

Pro b 3 1 A t hree phase Y c onne cted altern ato r h as three sl o ts pe r

. .
-
,
-

p o le p er p has e an d a ,
full pitc h w in d i ng T h e fiel d c u r ve h
-
a s a n 8 pe r .

c ent fifth h a rm o nic t h at i s t o s ay th e am p litud e o f th e fifth h a rmon ic i s

, ,

o f t h at o f t h e fu nd a m en tal s in e wav e W h at is t h e m a gnitud e o f t he .

fifth h a rmon ic in th e p h a s e v o lta ge and in th e lin e v o ltage So luti o n : I n .

fo rm ula (3 3 ) th e angle b etwee n the ad jace nt sl o ts is 20 el ect rical d egrees

or

fo r the fund a m en tal wav e F o r t he fifth h arm on ic t he s a me d is tanc e

.

between th e sl o ts c o rresponds t o 100 elect rical d egrees Hence for t he .

,

fund amen tal wave

k, = sin sin

whil e fo r the fifth h a rm oni c

sin
This means th a t du e t o th e d i s t rib utio n in three sl o ts th e fund amental
, ,

wave o f t he vo ltage is red uc ed t o o f it s valu e i n a unis lo t ma c h i ne ,

wh ile th e fi fth ha rmon ic is red uc ed t o on ly o f its c o rre s p o nd ing value .

Therefo re t h e rel ative m a gni tud e o f the fif th ha rm on ic in th e phas e

,

v o ltage is 8 X 2 l 7 / 9 6 p er c en t whic h means that the fifth ha rmoni c

.
,

i s red uc ed t o l ess th an o ne fo urth o f i ts va lue in the field cu rve I n —

c a l c ulating the line vo l t a ge the vecto rs o f th e fund am

.

en tal waves in a
three ph a se ma c h i ne are c o mb ined at an angl e o f 120 degrees C o nse
- .

F or furthe r deta ils see Pro fe so r C A Adams pape r o n E lect ro mo tive s . .

'

F orce W ave s hape in A lte rnato rs T r n A mer I n t E lse E nga Vo l

-
,
"
a s . . s . .
, .

28 Pa rt I I p 10 53 , . .
74 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 31

quen tly th e vecto rs o f the fifth h a rm o nic a re c ombined a t a n an gle

,

o f 1 2 0 X 5 = 600 degrees o r wh at is the s am e l 2 0 d e gr ees The refore

, ,
-
.

the p ro p orti o n o f the fifth ha rmo nic in th e lin e v o ltage is t he s am e as

t ha t i n th e phas e v o ltage .

Pr o b 3 2 So lve the fo rego in g p ro blem w hen the win d in g pitc h i s 7 / 9

. . .

A ns pe r cent This s h o ws that by p ro pe rly selectin g th e

. .

wind in g pitc h an o bj ecti o nable h igher h a rmo nic can be

"

red uced t o a n egli gible amo unt .

Pro b 3 3 Sho w that the l ine v o ltage o f a Y c o n nected m ac hine can

. .
-

have no 3d 9 t h 15 t h etc h a rmo nic s that is t o say ha rmo nic s the num
, , , .
, ,

be rs o f which a re m ultiple s o f 3 no m atte r t o wh at extent s uc h harmo nic s ,

a re p r e s ent in the i nd uced e m fs in eac h ph ase . . . .

Pro b 34 Pro ve that in ord e r t o h ave even h a rmo nic s in th e in d uced

. .

e m f o f an alte rnat or t wo c o n d iti o n s a re necessa ry : (a ) th e flux dist rib u

. . .

ti o n und e r the alte rnate p o le s m u s t b e d i ffe rent ; (b) the d is t ributi o n o f

the a rm atu re c o nd uct o rs und e r t he al te rnate p o le s m u s t al so be d i ff e rent
f rom o ne an o the r I nd icate p o le sh ape s an d an a rran gem ent o f t h e a rm a
.

tur e win d in g pa rt icula rly favo rable fo r th e p rod ucti o n o f th e sec o nd h a r

m o nic N ote: In spite o f a d i ff e ren t d i st ributi o n o f fl ux d en sities th e
.

t o tal flux is th e sam e un d e r all th e p o les The refo re th e ave rage v o ltage s .
,

fo r b o t h h alf cycle s a re equal (see Ar t tho ugh t h e sh ape o f t he t wo .

h alves o f th e cu rve m ay b e d i fferent d ue t o th e p resence o f eve n h a r ,

mo nic s Th i s sho w s th at t h e r e i s no
. c o ntinu o u s vo ltage c om p o nent -

in th e wave o r r ath e r that the v o ltage i s in no s en s e un i d i recti o nal an d

, ,

th at a d irect cu rrent m ac hine cann o t be b uilt wit h alternat e p o les witho ut

-

t h e us e o f som e kind o f a c omm utating devic e .

3 1 T he I n duc ed E M F
. cu rr ent M achine The . . . in a Dir ect -
.

e m f induced in the armature c o ils of a direct current machine

. . .
-

( Fig 2 0 ) is alter
. n ating but due t o the c o mmutat o r the v o ltage , ,

between the brushes o f o pp o site p o larity remain s c o nstant .

This v o ltage is equal at any i nstant t o the sum o f the instantane o us

e m fs induced in the c o ils which are c o nnected in series between
. . .

the b rushes W hen a c o il is transferred f r o m o ne circuit t o .

an o ther a new c o il in the same electr o magnetic p o siti o n is intr o

,

d uc ed int o the first circuit and in this wise the v o ltage between ,

the b rushes is maintained practically c o nstant e x cept fo r the small ,

variati ons which o c c ur while the armature is c o ming back t o a

symmetrical p o siti o n These variati o ns are due t o the c o ils sh o rt .

circuited by the brushes and t o the fact that the number o f

c o mmutat o r segments is finite .

Thus t o o btain the value o f the v o ltage between the brushes

, ,

it is necessary t o find the sum o f the e m fs induced at s o me . . .

instant in the individual armature c o ils which are c o nnected in

 C HA P . I Vl
'

I NDUCE D 75

c o ils diff ering in phase fr o m o ne an o t her because they o ccupy ,

diffe rent p o siti o ns with respect t o the p o les The v o l t ages in duced .

in the e x treme c o ils o f an arm ature circuit d iff er fro m o ne an o ther

by one half o f a cycle -
.

I nstead o f adding the actual instantane o us v o ltages it is su fh ,

cient t o calculate the average vo ltage pe r c o il and t o mul t iply it ,

by the number o f c o ils in series because the wave fo rm o f the ,

e m f s induced in all the c o ils is the same and their phase di ffer
. . .

F xG . 20 .
—
The c ross secti o n o f a di rec t cu rrent
- - m ac hine .

ence is distributed unifo r mly o ver o ne half o f a cycle A cc o rding -

.

t o eq (26 ) the average v o ltage per tu rn per half a cycle is

. T ,

whe re 5 T is the time during which the c o il m o ves by o ne p o le

pitch and (D is the flux per p o le in webe rs S ubs t i t uting
, fo r
, .

T the ave rage v o ltage per turn is equal t o 4f ¢

, Le t the re b e N .

tu rns in series be t ween t he brushes o f o pp o site p o la rity ; t hen the

induced v o l t age o f the machine is
E =g m x10 -
2
, (3 7)
whe re d? is no w in mega lines Thus in a di rect c u rrent machine .
,
-

the induced v o l t age between the b rushes depends o nly upo n t he

t o tal use ful flux pe r p o le and no t up o n it s dist ribu t i o n in the ai r
,

ga p
76 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT [A R T . 31

The relati o n between the number o f turns in series and the t o tal
number o f turns o n the armature depends up o n the kind o f the
a r matu re win ding l I f the armature has a mul t iple winding N is .

equal t o the t o tal number o f turns o n the armature divided by the

number o f p o les F o r a t wo circuit winding the number o f turns
.
-

in se ries is equal t o one half o f the t o tal number o f turns The num -
.

ber o f p o les and the speed o f the machine do no t enter explici t ly

int o fo r mula but are c ontained in the value o f f .

Pro b 3 5 A 9 0 sl o t a rm atu re i s t o be u sed fo r a 6 p o le 58 0

. .
-
250 -
,

v d ir ec t cu rr en t m ac h ine wi th a m ultiple win d ing

.
,
- Ho w m any c o n d ue .

to rs pe r sl o t a r e necessa ry if t he pe rm i ssible flux per p o le i s ab o ut 3 m ega

line s ? A ns 1 0 . .

Pro b 36 A 550 v 4 p o le r ailway m o t o r h as a t w o ci r cuit a rmatu re

. .
-
.
,
- -

win ding w hic h c o nsists o f 59 c o il s 8 tu rn s pe r c o il Th e t o tal resi stance ,

.

o f t he m o t o r i s o hm W h en t he mo t or r un s at 6 75 rp m it ta kes in . .

8 1 am p W h at i s t h e flux pe r p o le at th i s l o ad ?
. A ns ml . .

Pro b 3 7 Sh ow th at in a d i rect current m ac hine th e u se o f a f racti o nal

. .
-

pitc h win d in g h as no e ffect wh ateve r up o n th e value o f the in d uced

a s l o n g a s th e win d in g pitc h som ew hat excee ds th e wi dth o f th e p o le sho e
-
.

Pr o b 3 8 Pro ve that f o rm ula (3 7) i s id entical wit h th e exp ressi on

. .

E C CDX 10 — 2
, ( 38 )

whe re C i s th e t o tal nu mbe r o f a rm atu r e c o n d uct ors p i s t h e numb e r o f ,

p o les an d p i s the n u mbe r o f ci r cuit s in pa rallel

,
’
.

Pro b 3 9 Sho w that the in d uced e m f i s the s am e when the a rm atu re

. . . . .

c o n d uct o rs a re place d in o pen o r in cl osed sl o t s a s when they a re o n th e

su rface o f a smo o th b o dy armatur e See P ro b 18 Ar t 26 -
. .
, . .

Pro b 40 Co n sid e rable effo r t ha s b een m ad e t o p rod uce a direct cu r

. .
-

rent gene rat o r w ith alte rnate p o les a nd w itho ut any c o mm utato r O n e of , .

the p ro p osal s whic h i s som etim e s u rge d by a b eginne r i s t o u se a n o rd ina ry

alte rnato r an d t o s upply t h e excitin g win d in g with an alte rnatin g cu rrent
,

o f t h e synch ro n o us f r equency Th e appa re nt reaso nin g i s th at th e fiel d .

bein g reve rsed at the c o mpleti o n o f o ne alte rnati o n the next h alf wave o f
the ind uced e m f m u st b e in th e sam e d i recti o n a s the p reced in g o ne th u s
. . .
,

givin g a unid i recti o nal v o ltage Show that s uc h a m ac hine in reality .

w o uld giv e an ord ina ry alte rnatin g v o ltage o f do uble th e f requency .

H int : M a ke u se o f th e fact that an alte rnatin g fiel d can be replaced by t wo

c o n s tant fiel ds r ev o lvin g in Opp osite di recti o n s O r el se give a ri gi d .

m athem atical p roo f by c o nsi d e rin g th e actual rate at wh ic h th e a rmatu re

c o n d uct ors a re cut b y the field whic h field i s at t he s am e ti me pul satin g ,

an d revo lvin g .

F or detail s c o ncer nin g the di rect cu rrent armature windin gs

1 -
see the
auth or s E xperimenta l E lec tric a l E ngineering Vol 2 C hapte r 3 0
’

,
.
, .
CR A P . IV ] .
I NDUC E D E M F. . . 77

Pro b 4 1 Pro ve t h a t if in t he p rec eding p ro ble m the f requen c y o f the

. .

ro tatio n o f the p o les is j } , a nd the f requency o f t he alte rnati ng cu rre nt i n

t he exciting wind ing is j } , t hat t he v o lta ge in d uc e din t h e a rm atur e is a c o m
bina tion of t wo waves ha ving f re quenc ies o f f , +13 and f, f, re spe ctive ly —
.

32 T he R. tio of A O t o D C Vo lta ge in a R o ta ry C onverter

a . . . . .

A ro ta ry c o nve rte r r esembles in its general c o nst ructi o n a direc t .

cu rrent machine except that the a r mature windin g is c o nn ected

,

no t o nly t o the c o mmutat o r but als o t o t wo o r m o re slip r in gs l

, .

W hen such a machine is d ri ven mechani cally it c an supply a di rect

current th ro ugh its c o mmutat o r and at the same time an alte r ,

natin g cu rrent thr o ugh its slip rin gs I t is then called a d o uble .

current generat o r B ut if the same machine is c o nn ected t o a

.

so urce o f a lte rn ating v o ltage and b ro ught up t o sync hro n o us

speed it runs as a synch ro n o us m o t o r and can supply direct curren t
th ro ugh its c o m mutat o r I t is then called a ro tary c o nve rte r I t
. .

is also s o metimes used fo r c o nve rtin g di rect cu rrent into al t er

nating cu rrent and is then called an inve rted ro ta ry
, .

B o th the direct and the alte rnating v o ltages a re induced in the

a rm atu re o f a ro ta ry c o nve rter by the same field and o ur p ro ble m ,

is t o find the r ati o between the t w o v o ltages fo r a given arrange

m ent o f the slip rin gs Co nsider first the simplest case o f a single
.

phase c o nve rter with t wo c o llect o r r ings c o nnected t o the a r ma

tu re windin g at s o me t w o p o ints 180 elect rical deg rees apa rt I f
,
.

the a r mature has a multiple winding each slip ring is c o nn ected

t o the armature in as many places as there are pai rs o f p o les In .

the eas e o f a t wo circuit winding each c o llecto r rin g is c o nnected

-

t o the a rm ature in o ne place o nly .

I f the machine has p p o les then 1) times du r ing each rev o luti o n
the di rect cu rrent b rushes make a c o nnecti o n with the same a rma
-

t ure c o nduct o rs t o which the slip rings a re c onnected A t these .

m o ments the alte rnating v o ltage is a maxi m um becaus e the di rect ,

cu rrent b rushes a re placed in t he p o siti o n whe re t he induced vo l t

age ih the armatu re is a maximum Thus with t wo slip rings .
, ,

c o nnected 180 elect rical degrees apa rt the m aximum value o f the ,

alte rnatin g vo ltage is e q ual t o the vo ltage o n the di re c t-cu rren t

side I f the p o le sh o es a re shaped so that t he alte rnating vo l t a ge
.

is app ro ximately sinuso idal t he e ffective value o f the vo ltage ,

between the slip rin gs is 1/ V2 = pe r c ent o f that between t he

See the auth or s '

E xpa imc nwl E hr t ric a l E ng ineering
'
, Vol . 2, Chapte r 28 .
78 T HE M A G NE T IC C I R C UI T lA a r . 32

direct c urrent b ru shes The same rati o h o lds true fo r a t wo

- .

phase r o tary fo r t he v o ltages induced in ea c h phase

,
.

L e t no w t wo slip rings be c o nnected at t w o p o ints o f the a r ma

t ure winding a electri c al degrees apart I n o rder t o o btain the
,
.

value o f the alternating

v o ltage the vect o rs o f the
vo ltages induced in the
individual c o ils must be
added ge o met rically as in ,

Fig 18 W it h a la rge num . .

ber o f c o ils the ch o rds can be

r eplaced by the a re and in
FI G 2 1 Relati on between the alte rnatin g
—
,

this way Fig is o btained

. .

2 1
v o lta ge s in a ro ta ry c onve rte r .
. .

The diameter M N el o f the

semicircle represents the vect o r o f the alternating v o ltage when
the p o ints o f c o nnecti o n t o the slip rings are displaced by 180
electrical degrees while the ch rd ,
o M P = e gives the v o ltage a

between t wo slip rings when the taps are distant by a electrical

degrees I t will thus be seen that
.

61 sin éa —

.
(3 9)
B ut we have seen befo re that el = 0 70 7E where E is the v o ltage .
,

o n the direct current side o f the machine

-
Hence fo r sin us o idal .
,

vo ltages ,

c = o 70 7E sin i n . .
a

The fo llo wing table has been calculated using this f o rm ula , .

N um be r of lip rin gs s . 4 5
An gle between the adj acent tap in electrical s

de gree s 18 0 12 0 90 72
Rati o o f alte rnatin g t o c o ntinu o u v olta ge in s ,

pe r cent 50

The f o rego ing the o ry sh o ws that the rati o o f the c o ntinu o us t o

the altern ating v o ltage is fi x ed in a gi ven c o nverter and in o rder ,

t o r aise the value o f the dire c t v o ltage it is necessary t o raise the

applied alternating v o ltage This is d o ne in pra c tice either by
.

means o f vari o us vo ltage regulat o rs separate fr o m the c o nverter ,

o r by means o f a b o o ster built as a part o f the c o nverter A n o ther .

meth o d o f varying the v o ltage is by using the so called split p o le - -

c o nverter I n this ma c hine the distributi o n o f the flux density in

.
CR A P . I V] I NDUC E D 79

the air gap can be varied within wide limits and c onsequently
-
,

that c o mp o nent o f the field which is sinus o idal can be varied The .

result is that the r ati o o f the direct t o the alte rnatin g v o ltage is

also va riable N amely we have seen be f o re that the value o f the

.
,

c o ntinu o us v o ltage d o es no t depend up o n the distribu t i o n o f the

flux but o nly up o n its t o tal value while the e ff ective value o f t he
, ,

al t e rnating v o ltage depends up o n the sine wave o r fundamental

c o mp o nent o f the flux distributi o n 1
.

Pro b Chec k so m e o f the values given in the table abo ve

. 42 . .

Pro b A three ph ase ro ta ry c o nve rte r m us t d elive r d i rect c u rr en t

. 43 .
-

at 550 v W h at is t h e vo ltage o n the alternating cu rrent s id e ?

.
-

A n s 337 v . .

Pro b 4 4 The same ro ta ry is t o b e tapped in three add itio n al places so

. .

as t o get t w o p hase cu rr ent al so How m an y d iffer ent v o ltage s a re o n

-
.

the altern atin g c u rren t side and what a re th ey ? -

A n s 38 9 337 2 75 195 100 .

, , , , .

Pro b 4 5 The tabl e given ab o ve ho lds t rue o n ly wh e n the flux d en sity

. .

is d is t rib uted app ro xi m ately acc o rd ing t o th e s in e law Sho w ho w t o .

d ete rmine th e ratio o f alte rna tin g t o c o ntin u o u s v o lt ag e in th e c ase o f t wo

c o llec to r rin gs c o n n ected t o tap s 180 el ect rical d e grees apa rt when the ,

c u rve of field d is t ributi o n i s gi ve n grap hically So luti o n : D ivid e th e p o le .

pitc h in to a s ufficien t n umb e r o f equal pa rt s and m a rk th em o n a st rip o f

pape r Place th e s t rip alo n g t h e axi s o f a b sc issaa Th e s um o f the o rd i
. .

nates o f t h e flux d e ns ity c u r ve c orr e s p o nd ing t o t h e p o in ts o f d ivis i o n at

-
, ,

a ce rtain p o s iti on o f t he st rip gi ve s the ins tan taneo u s value o f th e a lte r ,

na tin g vo lta ge H aving p erf orm ed th e s ummati on fo r a s ufficient n um be r

.

o f p o s iti o ns o f t he s t rip t he wave o f t he ind uced e m f is pl o tted ,

T he . . . .

scal e o f the c ur ve is d ete rmined by t he c ond iti on th at th e maxim um o rd i

nate i s e qual t o the value o f th e c o ntin uo u s vo ltage Th e effec tive value is .

fo und in the well kn o wn way either in r ec tangula r o r in p o la r c oo rd inates

-
,

(see th e E lec tr ic C ir cuit) .

Pro b 4 6 A ppl y th e so luti o n o f the p r ec ed in g p roblem to th e field d i s

. .

t rib ut io n s p e cified in Pro b 3 0 A rt 30 Ans p er c ent .

, . . . .

Pro b 4 7 E xte nd th e m etho d des c ribed in Prob 4 5 t o the c ase when

. . .

the dis tan c e betwee n t h e tap s c onn ect ed t o th e slip rings is less t han
180 degrees Sho w ho w t o fi nd the s cale o f v o ltage
. .

Pro b 48 Ho w d o es a f racti on al pitc h aff ect the values gi ven in th e

. .

table ab o ve and th e so luti on o utli ned in Prob 4 5 ?

, .

Pro b 49 Sho w ho w t o so lve p roblems 45 t o 4 8 whe n t he field cu rve

. .

i s gi ven an aly ticall y as fo r ins ta nce in th e form o f a F o u rie r

,

se ri es H i nt : See C A Ad ams Vo ltage R ati o in Sync hrono us ( o nver

. . .
,
‘

”
te rs with Special Referen c e t o t he Spli t po le Co nve rte r T ra ns A mer -
, . .

I ns t E tec E ngs Vo l 2 7
. . pa r t I I p 0 59 .
, .
, . .

‘
See C W S to ne S o me Devel o pmen t s in S ynch ro n o us Co nve rte rs
. .
, ,

T ra ns A mer I n t E lec E ng
. Vol 27. p 18 1 s . . a , . . .
 C HA P T E R V
.

T HE E XC I T I N G A M PE R E - T UR NS IN E L E C TR ICA L
M A C HI N E R Y

33 T he E xciting C u rrent in
. a Trans f o r mer The magnetic .

flux in the c o re o f a c o nstant p o tential trans f o rmer is determined

-

essentially by the primary applied v o ltage and is practically ,

in dependent o f the l o ad (see A rt W hen the terminal .

vo ltage is given the fl u x bec o mes definite as well The ampere

,
.

turns necessary fo r pr o ducing the flux are c alled the mag

net iz ing o r the exciting ampere turns W hen the sec o ndary cir
-
.

cuit is o pen the o nly current which fl o ws thr o ugh the primary
winding is that necessa ry fo r pr o ducing the flu x This current is .

called the no loa d exciting o r ma gnetizing c urrent o f the trans

-
, ,

fo rmer W hen the trans f o rmer is l o aded the vect o r di fference

.
,

between the primary and the sec o ndary ampere turns is pra c t i -

cally equal t o the exciting ampere turns at n o l o ad — -

.

The exciting current is partly reactive being due t o the ,

peri o dic trans f er o f energy between the electric and the magnetic
circuits (see A rt 16 ab o ve) partly it represents a l o ss o f energy
.
,

due t o hysteresis and eddy currents in the c o re So me writers call .

the reactive c o mp o nent o f the no l o ad current the magnetizing -

current and the t o tal no l o ad current the exciting current

,
-
.

G enerally h o wever the w o rds magnetizing and exciting are used

, ,

interchangeably t o den o te the t o tal n o l o ad current The -

.

c o mp o nents o f the current in phase and in quadrature with the

induced vo ltage are called the energy and the reactive c o mp o nents
respectively .

The n o l o ad o r exciting current in a transf o rmer must usually

—

no t e x ceed a specified percentage o f the rated f ull l o ad current ; -

it is theref o re o f imp o rtance t o kn o w ho w t o cal c ulate the

exciting current fr o m the given dimensi o ns o f a transfo rmer .

Kn o wing the applied v o ltage and the number o f turns the ma x i ,

m u m value o i the flux is calc ulated f ro m eq W e shall .

80
Cm . V] E XC I T I N G A M PE RE T URN S —
81

assume fi rst that the m axi m u m flux density in the c o re is so

lo w that it lies practically o n the straight pa rt o f the mag
,

net iz a t io n cu rve o f the materi al ( Fig The case o f high fl ux .

densities is c o nside red in the next a rticle .

S in ce by assumpti o n the instantane o us m agnet o m o tive fo rces

a re p ro p o rti o nal t o the c o rresp o nding flux densities the ma gnet iz ,

ing current must vary acc o rd ing t o the sine law I t is sufficient .
,

therefo re t o calculate the maximum value o f the magnet o m o tive

,

fo rce c o rresp o nding t o the maxi mu m flux Kn o wing the ampli

, .

tude (Pm o f the flux and the net c ro ss secti o n o f the c o re A t he

'

-
, ,

flux density B m bec o mes kn o wn ; fro m the magneti z ati o n cu r ve o f

the material (Fig 3) the c o rresp o nding value o f Hm o r the ampere
.
,

turns per unit length o f path is fo un d The mean length l o f the ,

.

lines o f f o rce is deter mined fro m the d rawing o f the c o re so that ,

the t o tal magneti z ing ampere tu rns M m = Hml can be calculated -

.

The mean magnetic path aro und the c o rners is so mewhat sh o rte r
than the mean ge o metric path .

L et nl be the number o f turns in the p rima ry winding and i , a

the efi ec tive value o f the reactive c o mp o nent o f the exciting cur

rent W e have then

“
.

t o? V§ = M m .

Fro m t his equati o n the quantity which is unkn o wn can be caleu

lated .

I t is presupp o sed in the ab o ve deducti o n that the j o ints

between the laminati ons o ffer no reluctance I n reali t y .
,

the c o ntact reluctance is appreciable ; its value depends up o n

the character o f the j o ints and the ca re exe rcised in the ,

assembling o f the c o re This reluctance o f the j o ints can be.

exp ressed by the length o f an equivalent air gap having the same -

relu c tance Thus experiments sh o w that each o verlapping j o int

.
,

is equivalent t o an ai r gap mm l o ng A butt j o int with

-
. .
,

ve ry careful w o rkmanship is equivalent t o an air gap o f ab o ut ,

-

mm ; in practice a butt j o int may o ff e r a reluctance o f fro m

.
,

50 t o 100 per cent highe r than the fo rego ing value l Kn o wing t he .

H . a B o hle ,
“
M gnetic Reluctance f J
int s in T ra n s f orm in g I ro n J o ur na l o o ,

( B riti h
s ) I ns t E lect r E nga Vo l 4
. 1 19 0 8 .p 5 2 7 It is.
c o nvenient .
t o
, ,
. .

esti mate t he influence o f the j o ints in am pe re tu rn s at a sta nda rd flux -

dens ity F or each lap j o int 3 2 a mpere t urns mus t be adde d at a dens i ty
.
b

o f 10 kilo lines pe r squa re centimete r while a butt j o i nt requi res at the same ,
82 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R r . 33

lengt ha o f the equivalent air gap the number o f additi o nal ampe r e -
,

turns is calc ulated acc o rding t o the f o rmula a B m/ ju and then is ,

multiplied by the number o f j o ints in series (usually f o ur) This .

number o f ampere turns must be added t o M m calculated ab o ve

-
.

The energy c o mp o nent il o f the exciting current is determined

f ro m the p o wer l o st in hysteresis and eddy cur rents in the c o re .

Having c alculated this p o wer P as is e x plained in A rti c le 1 9 we ,

find i l P / E 1 where E 1 is the primary applied v o ltage Kn o wing

,
.

i and i 1 the t o tal no l o ad current is f o und as their ge o metric sum

o ,
-
,

2
in ?
+ 711 )
The watts e x pended in c o re l o ss depend o nly up o n the v o lume
o f the ir o n the frequency and the flux density used
,
I t can be
, .

als o sh o wn that the reactive v o lt amperes required fo r the e x cita -

ti o n o f the magnetic circuit o f a trans f o rmer depend o nly up on the

v o l u me o f the ir o n the frequency and the flux density N amely
, , .
,

neglectin g the in fluence o f the j o ints eq (4 1) can be written in the ,

.

f o rm
70 71 1 Hml .

Eq .
(28) in A rt . 25 can be w r itten as
E1 4 4 4n1fA B m x10 5
-

where A is the cr o ss secti o n o f the ir o n and is the maximum

-
,

fl ux density in kilo lines per square centimeter M ultiplying these

,
.

t w o equati o ns t o gether term by term and cancelling nl we get

, , ,

after reducti o n ,

( 2)
4

w here is the v o lume o f the ir o n in cubic centimeters

V= A l , .

The left hand side o f eq (4 2) represents the reactive magnetizing

-
.

vo lt amperes per un it v o lume o f ir o n ; the right hand side is a

- -

functi o n o f f and E m o nly because Hm can be expressed thr o ugh ,

B "fr o m t he magnetizati o n curve o f the material

,
.

F o rmula (4 2) can be pl o tted as a set o f c urves o ne fo r each ,

c o mmercial frequency These curves are quite c o nvenient in the

.

design o f transfo rmers because they enable one t o estimate ,

dire c tly either the permissible v o lume o f iro n o r the permis sible ,

flux density when the r eactive c o m p o nent o f the exciting cu r

,

dens ity from 60 t o 80 ampe re tu rns - . A t o ther flux den sities the inc rea se
is p ro p orti onal .
Cw . V] EX C ITI NG A M P E R E T URN S -
83

rent is limited t o a ce rtain pe rcentage o f t he full l o ad current I n -

.

p ractice such cu r ves a re s o metimes pl o t t ed directly fro m t he

,

results o f tests o n previ o usly built transf o r mers These expe ri .

mental curves a re the m o st secure guide fo r predicting the exci t ing

current in t ran sfo rme rs ; f o rmul a (4 2) sh o ws thei r r ati o nal basis .

Pro b 1 Pro ve th a t if there we re no c o re lo ss the excitin g c urrent

. .

w o uld be p urely reactive th at is t o sa y in a lagging p hase q uadratu re , ,

wi t h th e ind uced v o lt a ge .

Pro b 2 Th e c o re o f a 2 2 kv 25 c ycle t ransfo rmer li ke th e o ne

. .
-
.
-
,

sho w n in Fig 12 h a s a gro ss c ro ss secti o n o f 4 5 00 sq c m ; th e mea n

.
,
-
. .

path o f the line s o f f orc e i s 420 c m th e m ate rial i s s ilic on s teel ; the
m axim um fl ux is 36 mega lines Th e expect ed reluctance o f eac h o f the .

fo ur b utt j o ints i s es ti mat ed t o b e equivalent t o a n mm ai r gap '

.
-
.

W hat are t he t wo c omp on en ts o f the e xciting c urre nt and w hat i t he ,

s

to tal no l o ad c u rrent ?
—
Ans .

Pro b 3 In w ha t resp ects do es the calculatio n o f th e magneti z in g

. .

c urren t in a sh ell typ e o r c r ucifo rm type t ransfo rmer difier fro m t hat
- -

in a c o re type t ra nsfo rm e r ?
—

Pro b 4 Sho w that fo r flux densiti es up t o 10

. . th e ma g
net izi n g v o lt a m pe res pe r kil ogram o f carbon s teel at 6 0 cycles a re
-

a pp ro xi m at e ly equal t o

Pr o b 5 Sho w th at th e influe nc e o f th e j o in ts can be taken i nto

. .

ac c o un t in fo rrhula ( 4 2) by add in g t o th e actual v o lum e o f the i ro n

the vo lume o f the ai r gap s m ultipli ed by the relative pe rmeab ility o f
-

the i ro n .

Pro b 6 A sh ell typ e 100 0 kva 60 cycle t ran sfo rm e r is to have a

. .
- -
.
,
—

c o re m ad e o f silic o n s teel pu nc hings o f a wid th w = 17 c m ( Fig

-
. .

th e ave ra ge len gt h o f th e m a gnetic path in iron i s 18 0 c m ; th e rea ctive .

c om po nen t o f th e no l o ad c u rre nt m us t no t e xceed 2 per cent o f the

-

fu ll l o ad cu rre nt Draw cu rves o f th e re q ui red h eigh t o f th e c ore pe r

-
.

link and o f the to tal c o re l o ss in per c en t o f th e rated kva fo r flux

,
.
,

densi ti es Up t o 10
A ns E h- 5200 ; at B = 9 P = 0 5 1 per c ent .
’
, . .

34 T he E xciting C u rrent
. in a Tr ansf o rm er with a Sa tur ated
C o re I n the preceding article the flux density in the c o re is
.

supp o sed t o be within the range o f the st raigh t pa rt o f the satura

ti o n c u rves ( Fig so that when the flux va ries acc o rding t o the
.
,

s ine law the magneti z ing cu r rent also fo ll o ws a sine wave W e

,
.

shall no w c o nsider the case when t he flux density rises t o a value

o n o r bey o nd the knee o f the ma gneti z ati o n c u rve S u c h high flux .

den sities a re used with silic o n steel c o res especially at lo w fre q uen ,

cies I n this cas e the magn e ti z ing c u rren t do es no t va ry acc o rding

.
.

t o the sine law b ut is a peaked wave because at t he m o m ents when

, ,
84 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 34

the flux is appr o a c hing its maximum the current is increasing ,

faste r than the flux o n a c c o unt o f s a turati o n

,
The amplitude .

fact o r o f the current wave o r the rati o o f the amplitude t o the

,

e ffective value is no m o re equal t o V2 but is large r L et this ,

.

rati o be deno t edb y Z Then eq (4 1) bec o mes

a
.

where io is as bef o re the effective value o f the reactive c o mp o nent

of the excitin g current The value of l is o btained by actually
.
a

l
F ux d ensity in K 1 .
per S q Cm . .

F I G 22
. .
—
Rati o of the amplitude t o the effective value of the ma gneti z ing
current .

pl o tting the cu rve o f the magneti z ing current fr o m p o int t o p o int

and calculating its effective value Since the pr o cedure is rather .

l ong it is c o nvenient t o calculate the values o f 75 o nce fo r a ll fo r

,
a

the w o rking range o f values E m This has been d o ne fo r the m ate

.

rials represented ih Fig 3 and the results are pl o tted in Fig 2 2

.
,
. .

Strictly speaking the exciting current is unsymmetrical due

, ,

t o the e ff ect o f hysteresis and the values o f Z o ught t o be cal

, a

c ul a t ed usin g
,
the hysteresis l o o ps o f the steel Ho wever it is ve ry .
,

nea rly c o rrect t o calculate 1 f ro m the m agnetizati on cu rve and t o

a ,
CR A P . V] E XC ITI NG AM PE RE T URN S —
85

calculate the energy c o mp o nent o f the exciting cu rrent separately ,

f ro m the c o re l o ss c urves ( Fig The magnetiz ing cu r rent .

requi red fo r the j o ints is calculated sepa rately using 73 V2 , 0 ,

acc o rd ing t o eq The t o tal efi ec tive magneti z ing cur rent is

'

fo und by adding t o gethe r the values o f io fo r the iro n and fo r the

j o ints The l o ss c o mp o nent i l is added t o this value in quad ra
.
, ,

tu re t o get the t o tal n o l o ad c urrent A s is menti oned ab o ve it

,
-
.
,

is preferred in practice t o estimate the t o tal exciting cu r rent o f new

transf o rmers fr o m the curves o f no l o ad v o lt ampe res per kil o gram - -

o f ir o n the values being o bta ined fr o m tests o n simila r trans

,

f o rme rs .

Pro b 7 Th e c o re o f a 25 cycl e c r ucifo rm type t ra nsfo rmer ( F ig 1 4)

. .
-
.

weighs 2 6 5 kg ; t he me an len gt h o f th e magnetic path i s 170 c m ; the

. .

mate rial is s ilic o n s teel The 44 00 v windin g o f the t r ansfo rmer h as

.
- .

1 100 turn s in s e rie s W h at is t h e reactiv e c om p onen t o f t he no l o ad

.
—

c urrent ? Ans amperes . .

Pro b 8 Che c k a few p o int s o n th e c u rves in Fi g 22

. . . .

Pro b 9 Sho w th at in form ula (4 2) th e c o efficient n is a sp eci al

. .

c ase o f t h e m o r e g en er al fact o r when th e magne tiz ing c u rrent

d o es no t fo ll o w th e s ine wave .

Pro b 10 W h at a r e th e reactive v o lt amp eres pe r kil o gram o f c arbo n

. .
-

s teel a t 40 c ycles and at a flux d en sity o f 16 A ns .

Pr o b 1 1 Sho w ho w t o calc ulat e the excitin g a mp ere tu rns req ui red

. .
-

fo r a given flux in a thi c k a nd sho rt c o re in whic h t h e fl ux dens ity i s

diff e re nt al o n g diff e rent paths .

35 Typ es o f M agn etic C ir cuit O ccu rring in R evo lvin g

. T he
M a ch in er y The remainder o f this chapter and the next chapte r
.

have fo r thei r o bj ect the calc ulati o n o f the exciting ampere turns -

necessa ry fo r p ro ducin g a ce rtain useful flux in the principal types

o f elect ric generat o rs and m o t o rs I n di rect cu rrent machines .
-
,

in alte rnat o rs and in ro ta ry c onvert ers it is necessa ry t o kn o w the

,

exciting o r field ampe re tu rns in o rde r t o pl o t the no l o ad satu r a - -

ti o n cu rve t o predict the pe rfo rmance o f the m achine under va ri

,

o us l o ad s and t o design the field c o ils I n an inducti o n m o t o r o ne .

,

wants t o kn o w the required excitati o n in o rde r t o dete rm ine the

no l o ad cu r rent o r t o calculate the numbe r o f tu rns in t he stat o r
-
,

winding when the limiting value o f the no l o ad cur rent is p re

,
-

sc ribed The general pro cedu re ih dete rmining the requi red
.

numbe r o f ampe re tu rns fo r a given flux is in m any res pects the-

same in a ll the type s o f ele c trical mac hine ry s o that it is p o ss ible ,

t o o ut line the gene ra l m eth od befo re go ing int o details .

86 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 35

direct current machines and in syn c hr o n o us generat o rs

In -
,

m o t o rs and r o tary c o nverters the magnetic flu x ( Figs 15 and 20 )

, ,
.

fr o m a field p o le passes int o the air gap and the armature teeth -
.

I n the armature c o re the flu x is divided int o t w o halves each half ,

go ing t o o ne o f the adj acent p o les The magneti c paths are c o m .

p le t ed thr o ugh the field frame P art o f the flu x passes directly

.

fro m o ne p o le t o the t wo adj acent p o les thr o ugh the air with o ut ,

go ing thr o ugh the armature This part o f the flu x is kn o wn as

.

the lea ka ge flux The cl o sed magnetic paths and the field c o ils o f a
.

ma c hine may be th o ught o f as the c o nsecutive links o f a cl o sed

cha in W hile in a transf o rmer the chain is o pen in generat o rs
.
,

FI G 23
. .
—
The paths o f the main fl ux and o f the leaka ge fluxe s in an
inducti o n m o t or ( or gene rat or) .

and m o t o rs the chain must be cl o sed o n acc o unt o f the c ontinu o us

ro tati o n .

I n inducti o n machines b o th generat o rs and m o t o rs ( Fig

,
.

the flux at no l o ad is pr o duced by the currents in the stat o r wind

ings o nly W hen the machine is l o aded the flux is pr o duced by
.
,

the c o mbined acti o n o f the stat o r and r o t o r currents the r o t o r cur ,

rents o pp o sing th o se in the stat o r the same as in a transfo rmer ,

.

There f o re the flux in the l o aded machine may be regarded as the

,

resultant o f the f o ll o wing three c o mp o nent flu x es : The main o r

-

useful flu x d which links w ith b o th the primary and the sec ondary
, ,

windings ; the primary leakage flu x 4 5 which links with the stat o r , ,

winding o nly ; and the sec o ndary leakage flu x (0 2 which is linked ,

with the r o t o r winding al o ne The leaka ge flu x es no t o nly do no t

.
CR A P . Vl E XC ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S —
87

c o ntribute t o the useful t o rque o f the m ac hine bu t ac t ually reduce ,

it I n reality there is o f c o u rse but o ne flux t he result an t o f the

.
, ,

th ree but fo r the purp o ses o f the o ry and c o mpu t ati o ns the th ree
,

c o mp o nent fluxes can be c o nsidered as if they had a real separate

exis t en ce I n this and in the fo ll o wing chapter t he main flux
.

o nly will be discussed fo r this type o f machinery Co nside ra .

ti o n o f the leakage flux will be reserved t o A r t 6 6 . .

The t o tal magnet o m o tive f o rce per magnetic circuit is equal

t o the sum o f the m m fs necessa ry fo r establishin g the required . . .

flux in the separate pa rts o f the circuit which are in series viz the , .
,

p o le pieces the air gap the teeth and the a r matur e c o re A ll the
-
,
-
, , .

necessary elements fo r the s o luti o n o f this p ro blem have been dis

cussed in the first t w o chapters I t remains here t o establish s o m e .

semi empi rical sh o rt cut rules and f o rm ulae fo r the irregula r

- -

pa rts o f the circuit fo r which alth o ugh cl o se appr o ximati ons can
, ,

be made the exact s o luti o n is either imp o ssible o r t o o c o mplicated

,

fo r the purp o ses o f this text The f o ll o wing t o pics are c o nsidered .

m o re in detail in the subsequent a rticles o f this and o f the fo ll o w

ing chapter .

(a ) The ampe re tu rns necessa ry fo r the air gap when it is

- -

li mited on one side o r o n b o th sides by teeth so that the flux den ,

s it y in the air gap is n o t unif o r m

-
.

b
( ) The ampere tu rns necessary f o r the a r mature
-
teeth when
they a re so highly saturated that an app reciable pa rt o f the flux
pas ses thro ugh the sl o ts between the teeth .

(c ) The ampere turns necessary fo r the highly satu r ated c o res

-

in which the lengths o f the individual paths di ffer c o nside r ably

f ro m o ne an o ther with a c o nsequent lack o f unifo r mity in the flux
,

density .

(d) The leakage c o effi cient and the value o f t he leakage flux
which passes dire c tly fro m p o le t o p o le This leakage flux .

inc reases the flux density in the p o les and in the field framc o f t he
machine and c o nsequently increases t he required number o f
,

ampe re tu rns -
.

A ll o f the m m f c alculati o ns that fo ll o w are per pole o f t he

. . .

ma c hine o r what is the same fo r o ne half o f a c o mple t e magnetic

, ,
-

cir c uit (cdfg in Figs 15 20 and 23 ) t hc t wo halves b eing iden t ical

.
, , ,
.

This fact must be b o rne in mind when co m pa ring t he fo rmulre with

th o se given in o ther b o o ks in which t he re qui red ampe re t urns a re ,
-

so metime s c a lculated fo r a c o mplete ma g neti c ci r cui t .

 88 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A r m 36

Pr o b 1 2 In spect wo rkin g drawin gs o f elect rical m ac hines fo un d

. .

in va ri o us boo ks and m aga z in e a r ticle s ; in d icate the paths o f t he m ain

and o f the lea kage fluxes ; an d m a ke clea r t o yo u rs elf the reaso n s fo r t h e
us e o f d iff e rent kinds o f s teel and i ro n in the fram e the c o re t he p o le , ,

piece s a nd the p o le sho es

,
.

Pro b 1 3 M a ke s ketche s o f th e m agnetic cir cuit o f a tu rbo alte rnat or

. .
-

with a d i s t ribut ed field win d in g o f a h omo p o la r m ac hin e o f an in d uct o r

, ,

type alte rnat o r an d o f a s in gle p ha s e c omm utat o r m o t o r In dicate the

,
-
.

paths o f th e u s eful and o f t he lea kage fluxe s .

3 6 T he A ir- ga p A mp er e
. Tu r ns The gene ral character o f the .

distributi o n o f the magnetic flux in the air gap o f a synchro n o us -

and o f a direct current ma c hine is sh o wn in Fig 24 the curvature

-
.
,

o f the armature being disregarded The principal features of this .

flux distributi o n are as f o ll o ws

ct
ir d u
-

F I G 24
. .
—
The c ross secti o n of a di rect cu rrent or synch ro n o us
- - m achine ,
s h o win g the fl ux in the ai r ga p -
.

(a ) The flux per t o o th pitch /l is p r actically the same under all

the teeth in the middle part o f the p o le W here the air gap has a ,
-

c o nstant lengt h and is smaller fo r the teeth near the p o le tips

,
-

where the air gap is larger -

.

(5) O n the armature surface the flux is c o ncentrated mainly

at the t o o th tips ; very few lines o f fo rce enter the a r mature
-

thr o ugh the sides and the b o tt o m o f the sl o ts .

(c ) There is a c o nsiderable spreading o r fringing o f the lines , ,

o f f o r ce at the p o le tips -
.

d
( ) I n the planes passin g thr o ugh the axis o f the shaft of the
machine there is als o s o me spreadin g o r fringing o f the lines o f
f o rce at the flank surfaces o f the armature and the p o le and in ,

the ventilating du c ts .
CR A P . V] EX C ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S -
89

This picture o f the flux distributi o n f o ll o ws di rectly fro m the

fundament al law o f the magnetic circuit the flux density bein g ,

highe r at the places whe re the permeance o f the path is higher .

The actual flux distributi o n is su c h t hat the to tal permeance o f all

the paths is a maximum as c o mpa red t o any o ther p o ssible dis t ri ,

b ut io n I n o ther o the r w o rds the flux distributes itself in such a

.
,

way that with a given m m f the t o tal flux is a maximum o r with

,
. . .
,

a given flux the required m m f is a minimum This is c o nfirmed . . . .

by the beautiful expe riments o f P ro fesso r Hele S haw and his c o l -

la b o ra t o rs w ho have o btained ph o t o graphs o f the st r eam lines o f a

l
,

fluid fl o wing thro ugh an arrangement which imitated the shape

and the relative permeances o f the ai r gap and o f the teeth in an -

electric machine .

L et 0 be the t o tal permeance in pe rms o f the ai r gap between

’
a
-

the su rface o f the p o le sh o e and the teeth and let (0 be the useful ,

flux per p o le in maxwells which is supp o sed t o be given Then

, , .
,

acc o rding t o eq A rt 5 the numbe r o f ampe r e tu rns requi red

. .
,
-

fo r the ai r gap is -

Ma=

The p ro ble m is t o c alculate the permeance o f the gap f ro m the

d rawing o f the mac hine .

O ne o f the usual p ractical meth o ds is t o calculate 0 unde r ce r ’

tain simpl ifying assumpti o ns and then multiply the result by an

emp irical c o efficient determined fro m tests o n similar m achin es .

The simplest assumpti o ns are ( Fig (a ) that the a r matu re has .

a sm o o th su rface the sl o ts being filled with iro n o f the same pe r

,

meab ilit y as that o f the teeth ; (b) that t he exte rnal surface o f the
po le sh o es is c o ncentric with that o f the armature ; (c) that the
equivalent air gap is equal t o t wo thi rds o f the min imu m air
- -

gap plus o ne third o f the maxi m um air gap o f the a c tual mac hine ;
- -

d
( ) that the ventila t ing ducts are filled with ir o n ; ( e) that the paths
o f the f ringin g flux at the edges o f the p o le sh o e a re st r aight lines ,

and extend l o ngitudina lly t o the edge o f the a rm atu re su rface and
la t e r ally fo r a dist ance equal t o the equivalent air ga p o n each -

side .

F or a detailed ac c o unt o f the e xpe rimental a nd the o re tica l inve ti ga t i o ns s

o n this subj ect with nu me ro us re fe rences see H awkins a nd W allis T he

, , ,

Dy na mo Vo l 1 C ha pte r XV .
,
.
90 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 36

W ith t hese assumpti o ns the permeance,

of the simplified
air gap is
-

1 25 w8 l8 / a eq ,
.
(4 5)

where w is the average width

,
of the flu x and ,
l, is its average
axial length O r .

2< w
,
we a + w p) wp + a ;

The lateral spread a o f the lines o f fo r c e '

p o le tip
-

taken t o be appro ximately equal t o a q e .

FI G . 25 .
-
M a gnetic fl ux in the simplified ai r -
ga p
.

The permeance o f the a c tual air gap is smaller than that o f the -

simplified gap so that we have ,

y a
m/k ar ( 6)
4

where h is a c o efficient larger than unity called the a ir ga p fa c tor

a ,
-
.

S ubstituting the value o f G fr o m e q (4 6 ) int o (4 4) gives ’

.

M a ka ¢/ 0 )
s ( )
4 7

s o that Ic is the fact o r by whi ch the ampere turns fo r the simplified

a
-

air gap must be m ultiplied in o rder t o o btain the ampere turn s

- -

required fo r the actual air gap The value o f usually v aries -

.

between and depending o n the relative pr o p o rti o ns o f the

teeth the sl ots an d the air gap and o n the shape o f the p o les
, ,
-
,
.

The numerical values o f k are calculated fr o m the results o f tests

a

o n m achines o f pr o p o rti o ns similar t o that being c o mputed L et .

the no l o ad saturati o n curve o f a m achine be available fr o m test ;

-

this is a cu rve which gives the r elati o n between the induced v o ltage
ou r . v] E XC ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S -
91

and the field cu rr ent o f the machine Fr o m the kn o wn spec ific a .

ti ons o f the machine t his cu r ve can be eas ily c o nve rted into o ne
which gives the useful flux pe r p o le against the ampere tu rns pe r -

p o le as absciss ae The l o wer pa rt o f such a cu r ve is always a

.

straight line the re being then practically no satur ati on in the iro n
, .

O n this pa rt o f the cu r ve practically the wh o le m m f is c o nsumed , . . .

in the air gap so that the actu al pe r meance o f the air gap is fo und
-
,
-

by dividing one o f the o rd inates by the c o rresp onding abscissa .

The permeance o f the simplified air gap is calculated fro m eq -

.

and the rati o o f the t wo gives the value o f the c o efli c ient k This c .

value is then used in the design and calculati o n o f the pe rfo r mance
o f new machines with simila r pr o p o rti o ns E ngineering j udg .

ment and practical experience are fact o rs o f c o nside rable i m p o r

tan ce in estimat ing the val ues o f k fo r new machines c .

The same meth o d of c al culating the air gap ampere turns is - -

applicable t o inducti o n machines ( Fig The ampere turns .

-

are c o mputed assum ing b o th the ro t o r and the stat o r t o have

,

sm o o th iro n su rfaces with o ut sl o ts ; the result is then multiplied

,

by a fact o r k larger than unity determined f ro m tests up o n

c ,

machines of similar p ro p o rti o ns .

A m o r e accu rate th o ugh m o re elab o rate meth o d fo r calcula

, ,

ting the air gap ampe re tu rns is explained in the next a rticle
- -
.

Pro b 1 4 Cal cu l a te the a ir gap am pe re tu rns per p o l e fo r a 6 600 v

. .
- -
.
,

25 cycl e 3 75 ,
alter nat o r t o be b uilt acc o rd in g to t he fo ll o win g
s pecificatio n s : T he bo re m ; t he gro ss axial lengt h o f t h e a rm atu re .

c o re 5 5 c m ; seve n air d uc ts 9 mm eac h ; t he mi ni m um ai r gap is 15

. .
-

mm ; t he m axim um ai r gap is 3 0 mm The p o les c o ver 6 6 pe r ce nt o f

.
-
.

the pe rip hery ; t h e axial lengt h o f t he p o l e sho es i s 5 3 c m The u seful .

fl ux pe r p o le at no lo ad an d a t t he ra ted vo lta ge is- mega lines The .

ai r gap fac to r is e s ti m a ted t o be a bo ut

- A ns .

Pro b 1 5 The no l o ad c ha rac te ris tic o b ta in e d fro m the tes t Upo n

. .
-

the m ac hine s pecifi e d i n t he p rec ed in g p ro ble m has a s t raigh t pa rt uc h s

that at a field cu rren t o f 5 2 am p the lin e v o l t a ge is 4 000 v E a c h field

'

. .

co il has 120 t urns W ha t is the t rue valu e o f t he ai r ga p fac to r?

.
-

Ans .

Pro b 1 6 A po le shoe is so sh aped th at th e m i nim um ai r gap is a

. .
-
,

a nd the m a xim um a i g p sr a i a - a + d a t he in c rea se in t h e le ng t h bei ng

-
l o ,

p ro po rti o nal to th e squa re o f t he d is ta nc e f ro m the ce nte r o f the po le

“
.

W h t i s t he lengt h a , o f th e eq uival e nt unifo mi ai r ga p suc h th at it s

a
-

t o ta l pe rmea nce i s th e sa me a s tha t o f the give n ai r ga p? Ass u m e a -

smoo th b ody a rm atu re and neglec t th e f rin gi ng a t the po l e ti ps So lu

-
,
- .

tion : Le t th e pe ri phe ral wid t h o f t he po le be 2 10 ; the n the l engt h o f

92 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A m . 37

th e ai r gap at a d is tan ce x f ro m th e cente r i s a = a o

-
The pe r
m eance o f a n in finitesimal path o f t he wi d th dx i s p ro p o r ti o nal t o dr / a x .

H ence we have the relati o n

dsc / [a o w / a eq ,

f ro m w hic h
Va OA a / t a n

Pro b 1 7 W hat i s the len gth the equivalen t ai r gap in th e p reced

. . of -

ing p ro ble m if the clea r ance at the p o le tip s i s twice the clea rance at -

the cente r o f th e p o le ? A n s l 2 73 a . .
o.

Pr o b 1 8 S h o w that when th e ai r g p i s no n uniform the len gth

. .
,
-
a -
,

o f the equivalent unif o rm g ap can be d ete rm ine d app ro xi m a tely acc ord ,

i ng t o Sim p so n s R ule f rom t h e equati o n

’
,

= “ l
l (a o
1
4a m )
"
~ ~
a , ,

o, “
w he r e a a an d a m a re th e len gths o f t h e gap at the cente r at the tip o f ,

the p o le an d m i d way r e spectively If the ai r ga p is uniform un d e r the

,
.
-

m aj or p o rti o n o f th e p o le but th e p o le sho e i s c ham fe red m o r e te rms

, ,

m u st be taken in Simp so n s fo rm ula in o rder t o o btai n a q wit h a ’

e

s ufficient accu racy .

Pro b 1 9 W hat i s the length o f t he ai r gap requi red in p rob l ems

. .
-

1 6 a nd 17 acc o rd i ng t o t h e f o rm ula g ive n in p ro bl em 18 ?

,

Ans . 1 2 7 6a 0
. .

37 . T he M eth o d of E q uival ent P e rm eance s fo r

the C alculati o n
o f A ir gap A mpere turns
- A n inspe c ti o n o f Fig 24 will sh o w that
-
. .

the t o tal permeance o f the air gap is made up o f a number o f per -

mea nc es in parallel I t is equal theref o re t o the sum o f these

.

permeances F o r the purp o se o f c a lculati o n t w o kinds o f per

.

mea n c es are c o nsidered separately : th o se fro m the teeth t o

the p o le surface pr o per and th o se f r o m the teeth t o the p o le tips
,
-
.

The f o rmer c a n be calculated quite accurately the latte r are t o ,

s o me extent estimated .

The permeance per to o th pitch in the part o f the air gap near -

the center o f the p o le can be divided int o t w o parts that under the ,

t o o th tip and the fringe fr o m the sides o f the sl o ts and in the ven
-
,

t ila t ing ducts The permeance o f the paths whi c h pr o ceed f r o m

.

the t o o th tip c o nstitutes the larger p o rti o n and is made up o f

—

nearly parallel lines ; this permeance is there f o re easily c o mputed .

The values o f the permean c e o f the fringe fr o m the flank o f the

t o oth t o the pe rpendicula r su rface of the p o le have been dete r
CR A P . V] EX C ITI NG A M PE RE TURN S - 93

mined the o retically by M r F W C a rte r l O nly the nu m e rical . . . .

results are given he re in a s o mewhat simplified p ractic al f o r m ; ,

the so luti o n itself p r esupp o sing a kn o wledge o f the p ro pe rties of

c o nj ugate functi o ns .
2

C o nsider the pe rm e an ce o f t wo t o o th f ringes such as opqr and ,

( Fig pe rpen dicular t o the plane o f the pape r This

. .

permeance depends o nly up o n the r ati o o f the sl o t width 3 t o the

length a o f the air gap fo r let b o th 3 and a be in c reased say twice :
-
,

T he length and the c ro ss secti o n o f each elementary tube o f f o r ce -

is als o in creased twice hence its perme an ce r e m ain s the same ,

.

The pe r meance o f each fringe c an be replaced by the permeance

o f an equivalent rectangular path o f the length a and o f a width

i A t ( Fig This is the same as increasing the width o f the

.

t o o th by the am o unt A l and assuming all the lines o f f o rce t o be

parallel t o each o ther in the air gap The pe rm e a nce o f the path -
.

which replaces the t w o fringes is equal t o pA t/ a Fro m what has

been said ab o ve f o ll o ws that the rati o A t/ a depends o nly up o n the
rati o o f s/ a the relati o nship between the t wo r ati o s is pl o tted I n
Fig 2 6 fro in C a rter s calculati ons F o r the sake o f c o nven ience
.
,
’
.

and accur acy the cu rve is drawn t o t wo diff e rent scales one fo r
, ,

large the o ther fo r s m all values o f s/ a .

The curve in Fig 2 6 may be inte rp reted in t wo ways : I t m ay

“ ”
be said t o rep resent the ge o metric pe r mean ce of the f ringe (fo r
.

o r else it may be said t o give the c o rrespo ndings sets o f

values o f s and A t m easured in the lengths o f the air gap as the ,

-

unit W ith a given a A t increases with 8 because the maximum

.
, ,

width o f the actual fringe is i s W ith a given 3 the width A t .

increases t o wa rd the p o le tip (if the ai r gap is va riable) because - -

,

with a l onge r air gap the f ringing lin es o f flux fill a la rge r pa rt o f
-

the air gap unde r the sl o t

-
.

The c o rrected width o f the t o o th is t t + A t and t he perm ean c e ’

o f the ai r gap in pe rm s pe r t o o th pitch is

-
, ,

G >
Q ¢
= l

‘
Note
Ai r ga p Inducti on J o u n I nst E le tr E ng ( B ri tish) Vol 29
on -
,
r . . c . .
, .
,

( 18 9 9 p 929 A i r ga p Ind ucti o n E l ct ri l W ld Vo l

.
,
-
,
e ca or , .

p 88 4 ; See also H aw kins and W alli s T he Dy na m

. Vo l 1 p 44 6 ; ,
o , .

E Arn o ld Die G l ic h tro mm

.
,
hin Vol 1 p 260
c s as c e .
, . .

J C M axwell E le t r i ity nd M g net is m Vo l 1 p 28 4 ; J J Th o mso n

. .
,
c c a a , .
, . . .
,

R nt R es
ec e r he in E lec tr i it y a nd M agnet is m C ha pte r I I I ; Horac e L a mb
ea c s c , ,

Hydr dyna mics o Cha pte r I V .

94 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 37

where a is the length t he air gap at the center o f the t o o th and

,
of -
,

l ”is t he e ff ective a x ial leng t h o f the ma c hine (see bel o w)

, The .

value o f A t/ a must be taken fr o m Fig 2 6 fo r the c o rresp o nding

‘

z .

r ati o s/ a x .

The permean ce o f the p o le f ringe hmn in Fig 2 4 cann o t be cal , .

,

c ula t ed by the f o reg o ing meth o d because this permean c e depends ,

up o n the irregular shape o f the p o le tip The p o le fringe permean c e —

.
-

is usually estimated graphi c ally by drawing lines o f f o rce taking ,

Fig 24 as a guide l ; the permeance o f ea c h tube o f flux between the

.

p o le and the armature is aA / l where A is the mean cr o ss se c ti o n , ,

-
,

an d l is the mean length o f the tube The f ringe permeance is o f .

the o rder o f magnitude o f 10 per cent o f the t o tal permeance o f

the air gap so that s o me err o r in its estimati o n d o es n o t seri o usly
-
,

aff ect the t o tal required ampere turns C are f ul designers s o me -

.

times cal c ulate the air gap permeance fo r t w o p o siti ons o f the
-

p o le di ff ering fr o m each o ther by o ne half o f the t o o th pitch and

,
-
,

take the average o f the t w o results .

C arter s cu rve c o uld be used directly fo r calculating the p o le

’

f ringe permean ce if the p o le waist were o f the same width as

,

the p o le sh o e (line mm in Fig and if the armature had no

’
.

sl o ts I n this case the space between the adj acent p o les c o uld be
. .

c o nsidered as a big sl o t and the curve in Fig 2 6 c o uld be directly

,
.

applied t o it O n acc o unt of a smaller width o f the p o le c o re and

.

because o f the armature sl o ts the mean length o f the lines o f f o rce

in the frin ge is increased so that the actual permeance o f the p o le ,

f ringe is s o mewhat smaller than that acc o rding t o C arter s curve ’

.

B y practi c e and e x perience o ne can acquire a j udgment as t o what

fracti o n o f C arter s permeance t o take in a given case
’
.

The len gth l ff is a sum o f the parts such as ll Z2 etc (Fig

e , ,
. .

o n which the lines o f f o rce are parallel and o f small additi o nal ,

len gths which take acc o unt o f the fringing in the air ducts and at -

the p o le flanks These additi onal lengths are again estimated

.

fro m C arter s curve ( Fig ’

The fringe A d in an air d u . ct o f —

the width cl is pra c tically the same as that in a sl o t o f the width

s= d The additi o nal length Af fo r the p o le flanks is f o und by c on
.

sidering the t w o f ringes as due t o a sl o t o f the width f W hen the .

s t ati o na ry and the revo lving pa rts are o f the same axial length so
that f = 0 there still remains so me f ringe permeance between the
,

1
See Art 4 1 bel o w in re ga rd t o the d rawin g o f the l ine s o f force by the
.

j ud gment o f the eye .

C RAP V]
. EX C ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S
- 95

v eims 8 ,

F 1
96 T HE M AGN E T I C C I RCU IT (A m . 37

flank surfaces o f the t w o ir o n structures This permeance is ho w .

,

ever very small and has t o be es t imated empiri c ally if at all

, , , .

S tri c tly speaking l i, is d iff erent fo r each t o o th i f the air gap

, e ,
-

is variable be c ause the am o unt o f f ringing in the air du c ts and at

,
-

the flanks is di ff erent Ho wever it is hardly w o rth the e ff o rt

.
,

in o rdinary cases t o calculate l ff fo r each t o o th I t is su fficient t o e .

take an average l ff fo r s o me intermediate value o f the air gap

e
-
.

I n s o me high speed alternat o rs and usually in ind ucti o n

-
,

m o t o rs air ducts are pr o vided in b o th the stati o nary and the

,
-

r ev o lving parts in the same planes The fl ux f ringe in an air du c t

,
.
-

is then o f su c h a shape that the l ines o f fo rce are parallel t o o ne

an o ther in the middle o f the air gap between the stat o r and the -
,

r o t o r Theref o re when using the curve in Fig 2 6 fo r such a c ase

.
,
.
,

the c ylindrical surf ace midway between the stat o r and the r o t o r
must be taken t o c o rresp o nd t o that o f the s o lid ir o n surface
assumed in the deducti o n o f the curve Hence t a x must be used .
,

instead o f a x in determining A t .

Having calculated the permeances o f the several paths per p o le

pitch the t o tal permeance o f the air gap is f o und as their sum o r -
,

w e
:
+ 2 Wf ringe '

Then the required number

,
ampere turns is dete rmined fr o m of -

eq . The meth o d gives quite c o rrect results especially with ,

s o me experience in estimating the permeances o f irregular paths .

E ach designer usually m o difies slightly the empirical fact o rs which

are indispensable in this meth o d and devises sh o rt cuts go o d fo r ,

the pa rticular kind o f machine in which he is interested .

I nstead o f calculating the permeance o f each t o o th separately ,

so me en gin eers replace the actual variable air gap by an eq uiva -

lent c o nstant air gap a m either by the j udgment o f the eye o r as

—

, ,

in pr o b 18 ab ove The actual peripheral length o f the p o le arc is

. .

in creased by fr o m o ne t o one and o ne half a q on each side t o take -

e

int o ac c o unt the f rin ging at the p o le tips This gi v es the number -
.

o f teeth under the p o le The permeance o f ea c h t o o th is c a lc u

.

lated fro m eq (4 8) fo r a = a q and is then multiplied by the num

.
x e ,

ber o f teeth W ith so me practi c e on e can o btain in this manner

.
,

quite ac c urate results at a c o nsiderable saving in time .

The meth o d o utlined ab o ve is n o t dire c tly applicable t o indu c

ti on machines which have sl o tted c o res o n b o th sides o f the air
CRAP V] . E XC ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S - 97

gap ( Fig A t each inst an t s o me stat o r teeth a r e o pp o site r o t o r

.

teeth o thers bridge o ver s o me ro t o r sl o ts and vic e ver sa The

, , .

am o unt o f o verlap varies fro m instant t o in stan t causin g peri o dic ,

fluctuati o ns in the air gap relu c tance -

.

A ssume fi rst that b o th the stato r and the ro t o r have sm o o th

su rfaces facing the air gap Le t the permeance o f such a machine -
.

be 0 I f no w the armatu re be sl o tted the cro ss secti o n o f

5 .
,
-

the paths in the ai r gap (neglecting the f ringe) is redu c ed in the -

rati o tl / l l where t1 and Ill are the stat o r t o o th wid t h a nd t o o th

pi t ch respectively The permean ce (P is also reduced in the same .
,

rati o L e t the r o t o r be als o pr o vided with sl o ts ; the a ver a ge

.

cro ss secti o n o f the path is thereby f u rther reduced in the ra t i o

-

where t2 and 112 are the t o o th width and the t o o th pitch o n

the surface o f the ro t o r Thus disregarding the spread o f the .
,

fl ux the ave r age air gap permeance o f an inducti o n m o t o r is

,
-

( 6 )
a ) 4
( / 1)
tr

the symb o l 0 bein g put in pa rentheses t o indicate that a fu rther

0

c o rrecti o n fo r the t o o th fringe is necessa ry 1

.

I n o rder t o take the fringe int o c o nsiderati o n an empirical c o r ,

recti o n is m ade in this f o rm ula N amely it is assumed that the .

,

actual permeance o f the fringes o f the stat o r teeth is the same as

if the r o t o r had a sm o o th c o re and vic e versa A cc o rdingly in the , .
,

p reced ing fo r mula the values t1 and lg o f the t o o th widths are ,

c o rrected fo r the fringe using C a rter s curve ( Fig The ,

’
.

fo rmula bec o mes then

(Pa = (11 7 111 ) ll2 )

whe re t , and tg a re the c o rrected widths o f t he stato r and ro to r

’ ’

teeth respectively This fo rmula has been fo und t o be in a satis .

facto ry ag ree m ent with c xperiment al results 2 .

F or a m ore ri g orous p roo f o f this form ula see C A Ada ms A S tudy . .

,
”
in t he Des i gn o f Inducti on M o tors T ra ns A mer I nst E lec tr E ngs Vo l 2 4 ,
. . . . .
, .

p 33 5 . .

2 T F W all The R eluctance o f the A ir a

. .
g p in Dyna mo machines Jo urn
,
- -
, .

I ns t E lec tr E ng rs ( B riti sh ) Vo l 4 0 ( 19 0 7
. . p 5 68 E Arn o ld in his
.
,
. . . .

W ec lwels tro mtc c hnik Vo l 5 Pa rt 1 pp 4 2 43 calculate s the value o f k

,
.
, ,
.
, , ,,

for an inducti o n mac hine in a so mewhat d i ff e re nt way W ith o pen sl o ts

in t he sta tor Arn o ld s meth od gives l o we r values o f k“
.

,
than t hey a re in reality
'
.

See Hooc k and Hellmund B eit ra g z ur B e rechnun g des M a gne t izie rung ,
98 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 37

e f erring t o A rt 3 6 eq (5 0 ) may be interpreted as f o ll o ws

R .
, .

L et k be t he air gap f a c t o r fo r the sl o tted stat o r and a sm o o th

’
-
a

b o dy ro t o r ; let k be the same f act o r fo r the sl o tted r o to r and a c

sm o o th b o dy stat o r Then the air gap fact o r Of the actual

-
.
-

ma c hine

an inducti o n m o t o r the magnetic flux is distributed in the

In
air gap appr o x imately acc o rding t o the sine law due t o the dis
-
,

tributed p o lyphase windings Theref o re the val ue O f M deter .

mined fr o m eq (4 4 ) gives o nly the average value o f the m m f . . . .

requi red fo r the air gap W ith a sine wave distributi o n o f the -
.
-

flux the maximum m m f is n/ 2 times larger than the average . . .

value .

Pro b 20 W h at i s th e pe rmeance o f t he ai r gap o f a 16 pO le d i rec t

. .
- -

cu rrent m ac h i ne the a rm atu re Of wh ic h h as a d ia m ete r Of 2 5 0 c m an d

,
.

i s p ro vid ed with 3 24 sl o t s 12 by 1 5 mm ? Th e gross len gth o f the a rm atu re ,

.

i s 23 c m a nd it i s p ro vi d ed with t hree ventilatin g d ucts 1 0 mm wid e

.
, ,
.

each The axial len gt h o f the p o les i s

. c m Th e p o le sho es c o ve r .

6 5 pe r cent Of t h e pe riphe ry a nd a r e no t c h a m fe r ed Th e len g t h o f t he , .

ai r gap is 10 mm
-
A n s A b o ut 9 00 pe rm
. . .

Pro b 2 1 The m ac hine m enti o ned in p ro blem 14 ha s 12 0 sl o ts 3 b y

. .
,

cm The p o le sho e s a re shaped acc ord in g t o t h e a rc Of a ci rcle o f a

.
-

ra d ius equal t o 9 0 c m an d s ubten d in g 3 6 d egree s ; the p o le tip s a re f orm ed

.
-

by quadran ts Of a rad iu s equal t o c m Ch ec k t h e value Of the fiel d .

cu rren t ( 5 2 a mp ) given in p roblem 15 b y the m eth od Of equival ent

.
,

pe rm ean ce s .

Pro b 22 W h at is t he m axim u m m m f ac ro ss th e ai r gap o f an

. . . . .
-

in d ucti o n m o t o r if the gro s ave rage flux d en s ity in th e ai r gap (t o tal

,
s -

fl ux d ivi d ed by t he gross a r ea o f th e ai r gap no t inclu d in g the vent s) -

,

is 3 an d the clea ranc e i s mm Th e b ore i s 6 4 c m ; th e . .

stat o r i s p ro vid ed with 4 8 Open sl o ts 22 by 4 3 mm The ro t or h as 9 1 ,

.

h alf cl o sed sl o t s t he sl o t Openin g b ein g 3 mm T h e m ach in e h a s a vent

-
, .

7 mm wi d e fo r eve ry 9 c m o f t he lam inat i o ns

. . .

A ns 8 20 am p tu r n s . . .

Pr o b 23 Show th at . . lo g if t h e f rin gin g

line s Of fo rce a re a ssu m ed t o b e c o ncen tric quadrant s (F ig 2 7 t o the left) .
,

with the p o int s 6 as th e cente r ; t h e av erage len gth o f path in the pa r t

bcc i s e s ti m ated t o be equal t o l 2 a an d t h e ave ra ge wi d t h 0 72 a H int :
’
. . .
,

The pe rm eanc e Of an in finitesim al tube Of force Of a ra diu s a: an d o f a

wi d th dx i s Integr ate thi s exp ress i o n b etwee n th e li m it s
s t romes in Indukt i on smo t oren E l ktr t hnik a nd M a hinenb u Vo l 2 8 ,
e o ec sc a ,
.

p . 74 3 .
CRA P . Vl E XC ITI NG A M PE RE TURN S -

Of a and 48 See Ad a ms lo c c it p 3 32 Th e fo rm ula can be u sed o nly

.
, . .
, . .

w hen 8 is la rge r than 2 a .

Pro b 24 S h o w that A t / a = 2 9 3 lo g ( 1
. . if t h e f rin ging l ines
.

o f f o r ce a re a ss um ed t o c ons is t o f c o n cen t ric q uad r an ts ( F ig 2 7 t o .

,

F I G 27 . .
—
Two s implified paths for the fringing fl ux .

th e righ t) with the p o in t c as a cen ter c o ntinued as s t raigh t lin es

,
’
,
.

See Arn o ld Die G leichstro mmac hine Vo l 1 p 26 9

, ,
.
,
. .

Pro b 2 5 Sho w t hat form ula (5 0 ) applie s t o sync hro n o u s an d d i rect

. .
"

curre n t m ac hine s with salien t p o le s a s well if t is the wid th o f t h e , ,

’

po le shoe c o rrec ted fo r the f ringe and l , is th e p o le pitc h

, ,
.

PR O PER T Y O F El ECT R I CA L LA B O R A

FAC UL T Y
C E
O F A P PU E . SC reN .
 C HA P T E R VI

E XCI TI N G A M P E R E -T UR N S IN E L E C TR I CA L
M A CHI N E R Y —

( C o nt inued )
38 . T he A mpere
tu rns R equi r ed fo r Satu r ate d Teeth The teeth
-
.

and the sl o ts O f an armature under the p o les are m agnetically in , ,

parallel ( Fig hence part o f the flux passes fr o m the p o le int o

.
,

the ar m ature c o re thro ugh the sl o ts between the teeth B ut with .

,

a m o derate saturati o n in the teeth say bel o w 18 kilolines per ,

square centimeter the am o un t o f the flux which passes thr o ugh the
,

sl o ts is alt o gether negligible I f the taper o f the teeth is slight .

,

the required ampere turns are f o und fo r the average flux density
-

in the t o o th taking the value o f H fr o m the curves in Fig 3

,
. .

S h o uld the taper o f the teeth be c o nsiderable as is the case in ,

rev o lving armatures O f small diameter the flux density sh o uld be ,

deter m ined in say three places al o ng the t o o th viz at the r o o t ,

.
, ,

in the middle part and at the cr o wn L et the c o rresp o nding

, .

values o f magnetic intensity fr o m the m agneti z ati o n curve Of the

m aterial be H0 Hm and H1 A ssuming H t o vary al o ng the t o o th
, ,
.

a c c o rding t o a parab o lic law we have acc o rding t o Simps on s , ,

’

rule in the first appr o ximati o n that the average intensity o ver the ,

t o o th is

If a g reate r accuracy is desired the values o f H can be determined ,

fo r m o re than three c r o ss secti o ns Of the t o o th and S imps o n s

’
-

rule applied 1
F o r instance let the length be divided int o n equal
.
,

1
A desi gner wh o ha s t o calculate ampere tu rn s fo teeth frequently -
r

will save tim e by pl o ttin g cu rve for the avera ge H a gain st the fl ux den ity
s s

B at the roo t of the teeth

0 E ach cu rve w o uld be f or o ne tape r and the e
.
,
s

c urve w ould c ove r the u ual ran ge f tape r in the teeth S e A M ille r Gray
“
s s O . e .

M a gnet om o tive F orce in No n unif orm M a gnetic Paths E l tric l W ld

-
,
ec a or ,

Vol 5 7
. p 11 1 . .
CR AP . VI ] E XC ITI NG AM PE RE T URN S -
10 1

pa rts whe re ,
n is an even number . Then we have that ,

[( Ho l H
-
n)
'
.
‘

t
‘
Hn -
1 )

. + Hn

W hen
the flux density in the teeth is c o nsiderable say between ,

18 and 24 kilo ma xwells per square centimete r an app reciable pa rt ,

Of the t o tal flux passes thr o ugh the sl o ts between the teeth also ,

thro ugh the a ir ducts and in the insulati on between the la mina
-
,

ti ons Dividing therefo re the flux per t o o th pitch by the net

.
, ,

c ro ss secti o n Of the t o o th one gets only the so called a ppa r ent flux
-
,
-

density in the t oo th which density is higher than the true density

, .

W ith highly satu r ated teeth a small d iff erence in the est im ated ,

flux density makes an appreciable di fference in the required numbe r

o f ampere tu rns ; it is therefo re O f imp o rtan ce t o kn o w ho w t o
-

dete rmine the t rue density in a t o o th kn o wing the appa rent ,

density .

C o nside r fi r st the case o f a m achine with a la r ge dia m ete r in ,

which the tape r o f the teeth c an be neglected A ssume the c on .

cent ric cylindrical surfaces at the tips and at the ro o ts o f the teeth
t o be equip o tential su rfaces and the lines o f f o rce t o be all pa rallel ,

t o each o ther in the sl o ts as well as in the i ro n

,
I n reality s o me .
,

lines Of fo rce enter the teeth o n the sides o f the sl o ts ( Fig so .

that the fo rego ing assumpti o ns are no t quite c o rrect ; but they a re
the s implest o nes that can be made A n y o ther assumpti o ns .

w o uld lead t o calculati o ns t o o c o mplicated fo r practical use .

Le t B ,
be the t r ue fluxM
density in the i ro n o f the t o o th and ,

let B m be the apparent flux density in the t o o th unde r the assump

a ,

t io n that no flux passes thro ugh the sl o ts air d ucts insulati o n ,

—
,

between the la minati o ns Then den o ting the actual flux density .
,

in the ai r by we have the fo ll o wing exp ressi o n fo r the t o tal

flux pe r t o o th pitch

A iB rc a l
‘
l A aB a,
'

whe re A , and A “ a re the c ro ss secti o n s in squa re c enti m ete rs o f the -

path s per t o o th pitc h in the i ro n and ai r r s pec t ively Since the

,
e
.

iro n and t he ai r paths a re o f equal leng t h and a re in parallel the , ,

m m f gradient is the s ame in b o t h Le t 11 be this g radient in

. . . .
,
10 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 38

kil o ampere tu rns pc r c entimeter Th en if

-
.
,
a ll the fl ux densities
are in kilo ma xwells per square centimeter ,

E u = I 2 SH . .

S ubstituting this value o f B a into the pre c eding equati o n we

o btain a f ter divisi o n by A
,

(54 )

The rati o A / A , can be expressed thr o ugh the dimensi o ns o f

d

the ma c hine as f o ll o ws : A i = tl where t is the width o f the t o o th n ,

and I is the net a x ial length o f the laminati o ns with o ut the air
n ,

du c ts and in sulati o n A = l lg tl where A is the t o o th pit c h

.
a
—

n,

( Fig . and la is the gr o ss length o f the armature c o re H ence .

,

I n eq .
(54 ) the flux density
and the rati o A / A , are kn o wn B a m, a

in any parti c ular case and the pr o blem is t o find B , d

and H ra
.

The o ther equati o n which c o nnects B , and H is the magnetiza r ad

ti o n curve o f the material and the pr o blem can be s o lved in a simi,

lar manner t o pr o ble m 1 1 in chapter 11 (see also pro blem 4 bel o w) .

P r o fessi o nal designers use curves like th o se sh o wn in Fig 2 8 .

,

which give directly the relati o n between B upp and B d within the re

range o f values o f A / A , which o ccur in practice The curves are

d .

pl o tted p o int by p o int by assuming certain values o f B , and cal r ed

c ula t in g the c o rresp o nding B p fr o m eq F o r instance fo r

p a ,
.

B = 2 4 the saturati o n c urve sh o wn in Fig 2 8 gives H so

l ? .
r ea

that fo r A / A , = 2 we have : B pp = 24
d , X2X a

This deter mines o ne p o int on the cu rve marked R ati o o f air t o

iro n = I n using these curves o ne begins with the kn o wn value
o f B p p o n the l o wer axis o f absciss ae and f o ll o ws the o rdinate t o
a ,

the intersecti on with the curve fo r the desired rati o A / A i ; this d

gives the value of B d B y f o ll o wing the h o riz o ntal line fr o m the

ra
.

p o int so l o cated t o the intersecti o n with the B H curve the c o rre -

,

spo n ding value o f H is read o ff o n the uppe r axis o f absciss ae .

The curves in Fig 2 8 are c o mpletely determined by the shape

.

o f the B H curve so that if the material t o be used fo r the arma

-
, ,

ture c o re d iffers c o nsiderably f ro m that assumed in Fig 2 8 new .

,

curves o f B , versus B m o ught t o be pl o tted o r else the meth o d

M a , ,
nxc rrmg A M PE R E T URNS
- 10 3

5 113 0 9 6 mm
10 4 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 38

m ay be used w hich is suggested in pr o blem 4 bel o w c o mparis o n . A

o f the B H curve with th o se in Fig 3 sh o ws that a much better
-
.

quali t y o f steel is presupp o sed in Fig 2 8 Such is usually the c ase . .

when it is desired t o empl o y highly saturat ed teeth fo r o therwise ,

it might be pra c tically imp o ssible t o get the required flux The .

curves in Fig 3 re f er t o an average quality o f electrical steel

. .

F o rmula (54 ) and the curves in Fig 2 8 presupp o se that the .

teeth have no taper o r that the taper is negligible I f the taper o f

,
.

the teeth is quite c o nsiderable the t o o th and the sl o t are divided

by equip o tential cylindrical surfaces int o t w o o r m o re parts and ,

H is determ ined separately fo r each part Then the e ff ective value .

o f H is calculated acc o rding t o S imps o n s rule using either f o rmula

’
,

(5 2) or

Pro b 1 A f o ur p o l e d ir ec t cu rren t a rma tu re h a s the fo l l owing

. .
- -

d im en si o n s : d iam ete r 4 5 c m gro ss length o f c o r e 2 0 c m t wo air d uct s

. .
-

7 mm eac h ; 6 7 o pen s l o t s 1 by 3 c m
. Th e p o le s a r e o f s uc h a sh ape
.

that the flux pe r p o le i s ca rried uniform ly b y teet h Ho w m any .

ampe r e turn s pe r p o le a re r equi red fo r the teet h wh en t he fl ux pe r p o le

-

i s 3 mega lines ? Us e the satu rati o n cu r ve fo r ca rb o n s teel la m in ati o n s -

in Fig 3. . A n s 148 am p tu rns . .

-
.

Pro b 2 Ho w many a mp er e tur n s a re requi red in t h e p re c ed ing

. .
-

p rob lem when t h e flux p er p o le i s mega lines ?

A n s B etween 2 4 00 a nd 2 500 . .

Pro b 3 T h e m ac hin e i n p ro blem 2 2 o f th e p reced i ng c h ap te r h ad

. .
, ,

a gross av e r ag e flu x d en sity in the ai r gap o f 3 kl / sq c m T he bor e -

. . .

wa s 6 4 c m The s tat o r was p ro vi d e d with 48 s l o t s 22 by 4 3 mm T he

. .

machin e h a s a vent 7 mm wid e fo r eve ry 9 c m o f th e la minatio n s . . .

W hat i s t h e m axi m um m m f r equi r ed fo r the s tat o r an d ro t or teeth if

. . .
,

the s i z e o f eac h o f th e 9 1 ro t o r s l o t s i s 14 by 30 mm b el o w the o ve rh a ng ? .

A n s b etween 2 4 0 0 an d 25 0 0 a mp tu r n s
.
-
.

Pro b 4 In stead o f drawin g t h e cu rve s sho wn in Fig 28 th e relati o n

. . .
,

between B ; an d B p can be fo u nd by t h e fo ll owin g c o n s t r ucti o n :

r ed a p
D i srega rd th e l o we r s cale m a rked A ppa rent Flux D en sity exten d
th e left h an d s cale t o t he d ivi si on 3 4 an d m a rk t h e s cale R eal an d A pp a r
-

”
ent flux d en sity C ut o ut a s t rip o f pape r a nd c opy th e left h an d s cale
.
,
-

o n the left h an d edg e o f the s t rip O n the ri gh t h an d e dge o f the s t rip

- -
.

m a rk t he scale fo r A / A , a s f o ll o ws : d ivi si o n 2 6 o f t he flux d en sity t o

a

c orresp o n d wit h zero d ivi si on 2 7 wit h ,

d ivi si o n 2 8 with etc .

A pply t he left h an d edge o f the st rip t o d i vis i o n

-
o n t h e uppe r h ori z o n

tal s cale an d t o d ivis i o n 2 6 o n t h e l o we r h o ri z o ntal s cale M o ve t h e

,
.

s t rip up an d do wn until the uppe r ho ri zo ntal scal e c o incid es with the

d e si red val ue o f A / A t m a rked o n t h e s t rip
a L a y a s t r ai ghtedge o n the .

d ivi si o n s o f the t wo ve rtical scales c o rr esp o n d in g t o the given apparent

flux d e nsity T he inte rs ecti o n o f t h e s t rai ghtedge with the B H cu rv e
.
-
CR A P . VI] E XC ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S - 10 5

will gi ve th e re q ui red value s o f B z and H Chec k t his c onst ructio n r ea .

fo r a few p o in ts wit h the value s o b tain ed f ro m t h e c u r ve s an d give a ,

gene ra l p ro o f Hint : T hi s c o n s t r ucti o n a mo u nts t o c onsid e rin g th e

.

B H c u r ve and E q ( 5 4 ) as t w o s i m ultan eo u s equati o n s wit h t wo un kn o wn

-
.

q uan titi es B ; and H See p roblem 1 1 in c hapte r II Ar t 13

ra d .
, . .

39 .
m T he A m
tu r ns f o r t he A r m
re-a tu r e C o r e a nd f o r t he

Fi el d F r a me I n m any m achines the m m f requi red fo r the ai r

. . . .

gap and the teeth a re large as c o mpared t o th o se requi red fo r the

a rmature c o r e and the field frame ; in such cases the latte r are
either alto gether neglected o r a re esti m ated ro ughly by inc re as
, ,

ing the ampere tu rns calculated fo r the rest o f the magnetic cir
-

cuit by say five o r ten per cent W here this is no t permissible the .
,

usual pr o cedure is t o estimate the m aximu m flux densi t y in the

c o re o r frame under c o nsiderati o n and t o measu re fro m the drawing
o f the m achine the length o f the average path o f the lines o f f o rce

in it The assumpti o n is m ade that the same flux density is m ain

.

t a ined o n the wh o le length o f the path and the required ampere ,

tu rns are calculated fro m the m agneti z ati o n cu rve o f the material
(Figs 2 and . W hile the ampere turns determined in this way -

a re usually larger than th o se actually r equired the meth o d is per ,

missible if the t o tal am o unt o f the m m f fo r the parts under c o n . . .

siderati o n is small as c o mpared t o the t o tal m m f o f the magnetic . . .

cir cuit I f a greater accur acy is desired the path is subdivided

.
,

into t wo o r m o re pa rts in series and the average density deter ,

m ined fo r each pa rt ; and then the ampere turns required fo r ea c h -

pa rt a re ad ded .

The tendency no w is t o increase the flux density in the a rm a

tu re c o res o f al t e rnat o rs and inducti o n m o t o rs so as t o reduce the
si ze o f the machine This is made p o ssible thro ugh a better quali ty
.

o f laminati o ns which sh o w a sm a ller c o re l o ss and als o thr o ug h t he

, ,

use o f a m o re intensive ventilati o n W ith these high densities .

and with t he c o mpa rative large values o f the p o le pit c h necess a ry i n

high speed ma c hine ry t he ampere turns fo r the c o re c o nstitu t e an
-
,
-

appreciable am o unt o f the t o tal m m f o f the machine and it is . . .

,

therefo re desirable t o calculate them m o re a c curately .

The flux density in t he c o re is a minimum o pp o site the cente r

o f a p o le and is a maximum in t he r adi a l plane midway be t ween
,

t wo p o les ( Fig A t ea c h p o int t he flux density has a ta ngen

.

tial and a radial c o mp o nent T he lat t e r is c o mpa ratively s ma ll

.

a nd can be neglected ; the tangential c o mp o nent c a n b e as sumed

106 T HE M AGN E T I C C I RCU IT [A nn 39

to va ry acc o rdin g t o the sine law being zer o o pp o site the c enter o f ,

t he p o le a nd rea c hing its ma x imum between the p o les W ith .

these assumpti o ns kn o win g the ma x imum flux density in the c o re

, ,

the firm density at a ll o ther p o ints is calculated and the c o rre ,

s po nd ing v alues o f H are determined fr o m the B H curve o f the -

ma t erial The average value o f H fo r o ne half p o le pitch is then

.
-

f o und by Simps o n s r ule eqs (52 ) and ’

W ith the sine wave
,
.
-

assumpti o n the average H depends o nly up o n the maximum

,

flux density so that fo r a given material a c urve can be c o mpiled

,

fro m the B H curve giving di r ectly H

-
fo r di ff erent values o f
, a ve
}
B m x

Sh o ulda still greate r accuracy be required the f o ll o wing ,

meth o d can be used : Draw the assumed o r the calc ulated curve
o f the distributi o n o f flux density in the air gap and indicate t o —

y o ur best j udgment the tubes o f f o rce in the armature c o re say ,

fo r each t o o th pitch The flux in the radial plane midway between

.

the t wo p o les can be assumed t o be distributed unif o r mly o ver the

cr o ss secti o n and this fact facilitates greatly the determinati o n o f
-
,

the shape o f the tubes o f flux The m m f required fo r ea c h tube . . . .

is c al culated by dividing it int o smaller tubes in series and in paral

lel ; thus either the average m m f fo r the wh o le flux can be f o und
,
. . .
,

o r the maximum m m f fo r o ne particular tube

2
. . . .

The frame t o which the p o les are fastened in direct current and -

in synchro n o us machines is usually made o f cast ir o n ; in s o me

cases the frame is made o f cast steel ; in high speed synchr o n o us -

mach ines the rev o lving field is made o f f o rged steel The magneto .

m o tive f o rce required fo r such a frame is f o und in the usual way

fro m the magn etizati o n curve o f the material kn o wing the area ,

and the average length o f the path between t wo p o les ; the length
is estimated fr o m the d rawing o f the machine I n figu ring o ut the .

flux density in a field frame o ne must n o t f o rget that ( 1) o nly one

hal f o f the flu x per p o le passes thro ugh a given cr o ss secti o n o f the -

frame ( Fig .
(2) the t o tal flu x in the f rame and in the p o les is
larger than that in the armature by the am o unt o f the leakage flux
between the p o les This leakage is usually estimated in per cent
.

This meth od is due t o E Arn o ld S ee his W ec hselstromtec hnik Vo l 5

4
. .
,
.
,

pa rt 1 p 4 8 , . .

2
F or detail s o f thi s m eth o d see Hooc k and Hellm und B eitra g z ur B erec h ,

nun g des M a gnet iz ierun gss t ro m es in I nduk ti o n sm o t oren E lektro tec hm k a nd

'

M a sc hinenba u Vo l 2 8 ,
.p 74 3 . .
CR AP V I]
. EX C ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S -
10 7

of the useful flux fro m o ne s expe rience with previ o usly built
,
’

mac hines o r it can be calc ulated by the m eth o ds explained in t he

,

next a rticle Thus a lea ka ge fac to r o f

. means that the flux in
,

t he field p o les is 20 per cent highe r than that in the ar matu re the ,

leakage flux c onstitu t ing 20 per cent o f the useful flux The usual .

values o f the leakage facto r vary between and depending

up o n the pro xi mity o f the adj acent p o les the degree o f satur ati o n ,

o f the circuit and the pr o p o rti o ns o f the m ac hine

, .

The ampe re turns requi red fo r the p o le pieces are calculated in

- —

a si milar way assuming the wh o le leakage t o take place between

,

t he p o le tips so that the flux density in the p o le waist c o rrespo nds

-
,
-

t o the t o tal flux in c luding the leakage flux

,
I n excepti o nal cases .

o f highly satu r ated p o le c o res this m eth o d may be inadmissible o n

-
,

acc o unt o f t o o large a margin which it w o uld give as c o mpa red t o

t he ampe re turns actually required I n such cases part o f the
-
.

leakage may be a ssumed t o be c o ncentrated between so m e t wo

c o rresp o nding p o ints o n the waists o f t wo adj acent p o les o r it may ,

be assumed t o be actually distributed between the t wo p o le wais t s -

.

See pro bs 9 and 10 in chapter I I

. .

I n s o me mac hines the j o int between the p o le and the f r ame

off ers a perceptible reluctance like the j o ints in the t r ansfo rmer ,

c o res discus sed in A rt 3 3 S o m e designe rs all o w a certain

. .

fractio n o f a mi llimete r o f air gap t o acc o unt fo r this r eluctance -

,

and add the number o f ampere tu rns requi red t o maintain the -

flux in this air gap t o th o se fo r the p o le piece The length o f

- -
.

t his equiv alent ai r gap is f o und by checking bac k no l o ad

- -

saturati o n c ur ves o btained fr o m experiment A s a usual rule .

,

it is ad visable t o inc r ease the t o tal calculated ampe re turns o f the -

magnetic circuit by ab o ut 5 t o 10 pe r cent This increase c o ve rs .

such m in o r po ints as the reluctance o f the j o ints o mitted in ,

c alculati o ns as well as ce rtain inaccurate assumpti o ns ; it al so

,

c o ve rs a p o ssible disc repancy between the assumed and the

actual pe rm eability o f the i ro n W ith a libe rally p ro p o r ti o ned .

field winding and a p ro pe r regulating rhe o stat a designe r can

rest a ss u red that the requi red vo ltage will be o btained tho ugh ,

p o ssibly at a so m ewha t diffe ren t valu e o f the field cu rren t than

the estimated o ne .

Pro b 5
. Th e s tato r c o re o f
. a six po l e ind uc ti on m o t o r has t he - .

fo ll owing d i mens i ons : bo re 112 c m ; o utsi de di mete r 14 c m ; gro s . a 5 . s

len gth 55 c m ; th e sl o ts a re 2 c m X 4 5 c m ; th e mac hi ne is p ro vi d e dwith

. . .
108 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A m . 40

8 v en tilati ng d ucts 9 mm wid e eac h W hat i s t h e m axi m u m m m f

. . . . .

requi red fo r th e s tato r c ore pe r p o le if the flu x pe r p o le i s webe r ?

A n s 1 9 0 u sin g Ar n o l d s m ethod .
’
.

Pro b 6 Draw a cu rve b etween the ave rage H an d m axi m u m B

. .

in t h e c ore a ss u min g a s in uso i d al d i s t ributi o n o f the flux d en sity in t h e

,

tangential d i recti o n fo r the ca r b o n s teel laminati o n s in Fi g 3

, . .

A n s H v = 26 5 fo r E m m 18 .
a e .
a .

Pr o b 7 Th e c ro ss secti o n o f th e ca s t i ro n fiel d y o ke o f a di rect

. .
- -

c urrent m ac hine i s 3 70 s q c m ; th e m ean len g th o f path in it between

. .

t w o c o n secutive p o le s i s 8 5 c m The len g th o f t h e line s o f fo rce in eac h

.

p o le w a i s t i s 2 1 c m ; it s c ross secti o n 4 2 0 sq c m Th e p o le s a r e m ad e
-
.
-
. .

o f s teel la mi nati o n s 4 mm thic k so t h at the s pace l o s t between the

.
,

la minati o n s i s negli gi b l e Th e reluctance o f the j o int between a b o lted

.

p o le an d t h e y o ke i s e s ti m ate d t o be equivalen t t o mm o f ai r W hat . .

i s the requir ed n u m be r o f a m pe re tu r n s fo r the p o le piece an d t he y o ke

- -
,

per pole wh en t h e u seful flu x o f the m achine i s 5 mega lines p er p o le ?

,

T h e l ea kage fac to r is es ti mat ed t o be equal t o

A ns Abo u t 9 30 . .

40 . M agneti c L eakage b etw een F iel d Po les is o f imp o r . It

tance in m o dern highly saturated machines t o kn o w accurately the
leakage flux between the p o les in o rder t o estimate c o rrectly the ,

ampere turns required fo r the field p o les and the frame o f the
-

machine M o re o ver the design o f the po les c a n be impr o ved

.
,
‘

kn o wing exactly where the principal leakage o c c urs and ho w it

depends up o n the pr o p o rti o ns o f the machine The value o f the .

leakage fact o r als o affects the v o ltage regulati o n o f the machine ,

because at full l o ad the m m f between the p o le tips has t o be . . .

-

larger than at no l o ad o n acc o unt o f the armature reacti o n

-
, .

F o r new ma c hines o f usual pr o p o rti o ns the value o f the leakage

fact o r can be estimated fr o m tests made up o n similar machines .

B ut in new machines o f unusual pr o p o rti o ns the designer has t o

rely up o n his j udgment assisted if necessa ry by crude c o mpa r a
,

tive c o mputati o ns o f the permeance between adj acent p o les I n .

this and in the next article so me examples o f such c o mputati o ns

are given no t so much in o rder t o give a definite meth o d t o be fol
,

l o wed in all cases as t o sh o w the student a p o ssible pr o cedure and

,

t o train his j udgment in estimating the permeance o f an irregula r

path .

Fo u r principal paths o f leakage can be distinguished between

t w o adj acent p o les ( Fig (a ) between the sides o f the p o le
.

sh o es whi c h fa c e ea c h o ther ; (b) between the sides o f the p o le

c o res (waists) parallel t o the sha ft o f the machine ; (0 ) between the
CR AP . VI l E XC ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S —
109

flanks o r sides o f the p o le sh o es pe rpendicula r t o the shaft ; (d)

between the flanks o f the p o le c o res I n the calc ulati o ns w hich
.

fo ll o w the per m eances a re c o mputed between a p o le an d the planes

,

o f sy mm et ry M N between the t wo p o les the per m eance o f the

, , ,

o the r half o f each path being the same A ll these leakage pat hs .

a re in pa rallel with respect t o the p o le so that the t o tal leakag e ,

F I G 29. .
—
The lea ka ge fl ux bet ween fiel d poles .

pe rm ean ce is equal t o thei r sum Kno wing this t o tal pe rm ean ce

.

and the m m f between the p o le and t he pl an e M N the leakage

. . .

flux is fo und and kno wing this flux and the useful flux pe r p o le
,

t he leakage fa c t o r is eas ily cal c ulated .

W e shall no w estima t e the pe rm eances o f each o f the fo u r abo ve

m en ti oned paths o f leakage .

( )
a B et ween th e a dj a c ent p o le tips E s ti m ate the
-
ave rage .
.

c ross secti o n A o f the path in squa re centime te rs and the ave r

-
, ,
1 10 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 40

age leng t h 1 between t he p o le tip and the plane M N being guided -

,

by Fig 2 9 ( Do no t encro a c h up o n the f ringe t o the armature )

. . .

Then t he permean c e o f t he path is in perms , ,

pA / l .
(5 6)
If a greater accuracy is desired subdivide the t o tal path int o ,

smaller paths in se ries and in parallel and calculate the permeance ,

o r the relu c tan c e o f each separately Then t he t o tal permean c e is .

fo und a c c o rding t o the well kn o wn law o f c o mbinati o n o f relu e-

t ances and permeances in series and in parallel (A rt W hen .

mapping o ut the lines o f fo r c e in the air begin them nearly at right ,

angles t o the surface o f the p o le (see A rt 4 1 0 bel o w ) and draw . .

t hem so as t o make the t o tal permeance o f t he path a maximum ,

that is reducing as fa r as p o ssible the length and increasing the

,

c r o ss secti o n o f each elementary tube o f flux The mediu m may

-
.

be said t o be in a state o f t ensi on al o ng t he lines o f f o rce and o f ,

c o mpressi o n at right angles t o their dire c ti o n by virtue o f the ,

energy st o red in the field Hence there is a tendency fo r the tubes

.
,

o f f o rce t o c o ntract al o ng their length and expand ac r o ss thei r

width .

b
( ) B e tw ee n th e O pp o si t e po le co res I n this pa rt o f the leakage
-
.

field each elementary c o ncentric path is subj ected t o a di ff erent

that between the r o o ts o f the p o les being practically z er o ,

while the m m f between the p o ints 39 and p is equal t o that

. . .
’

between the p o le tips I n m o st cases it is permissible t o c o nsider

-
.

the wh o le leakage flux as if passing thr o ugh the wh o le length o f the

p ole c o re and then cr o ssing t o the adj acent p o les at the p o le tips
,
-
.

Therefo re it is c o nvenient t o add the permeance between the p o le

,

c o res t o that between the p o le tips B ut the average m m f -

. . . .

between the waists is o nly ab o ut one h alf o f that between the tips -
,

s o that the equivalent permeance between the p o le c o res r educed ,

t o the t o tal is equal t o one half o f the actual permeance -

.

I f the actual permeance calc ulated acc o rding t o f o rmula (5 6) is

,

the e ffective permeance is The average length and cro ss

secti o n o f the path are easily estim ated fr o m the drawin g o f the
mac hine .

()
0 B et we en th e fl a nks o
f the p o le s ho es The path extends in defi .

n it ely o utside the m ach ine and the lines o f f o rce are twisted ,

curves so th at it is di ffi c ult t o estimate the permeance graphi c ally

, .

A s a r o ugh estimate t his permeance c a n be redu c ed t o that o f the

,
C RAP V I ] . E XC ITI NG AM PE RE T URN S —
1l 1

path in the air between t w o rectangular p o les o f an elect ro m agnet

( Fig . A ssu m e the paths o f the film t o c o nsist o f c o ncentric
quad rants with the centers at c and c j o ined by parallel st raight ’
,

lines and let the width o f the p o les in the di recti o n perpendicular
,

t o the plane o f the paper be h Then the permeance o f an in fin .

it esima l layer o f thic kness dx between o ne o f the p o les and the ,

plane M N o f sy mmet ry is ,

d0 = ’
u
,
dxh / ( kmr l l) --
.

I n teg rating this expressi o n between the limi t s 0 and b we find

1 84 h lo g
. perms
( c o m pa r e with pr o b 2 4 in C hapte r V A rt.
, .

I n apply ing this f o rmula and Fig 3 0 t o the case o f the flan k .

leakage between the p o le sh o es h is the ave rage r adial height o f ,

the p o le sh o e b is equal t o o ne
,

half the width o f the p o le sh o e ,

and 2l is the distan ce between

the t wo o pp o sing p o le tips -
.

W hile the m eth o d evidently

gives o nly a c rude a ppro xi
m ati o n t o the actual perme
ance fo rm ul a (5 7) at least
,

fixes a l o we r limit t o the pe r

meance in questi o n .

d
( ) B et ween the fl a nks of
the pole The c onditi o ns
c ores .

a re si mila r t o th o se unde r
so that the pe rm eance is esti

mated aga in on the basis o f

fo r mul a The sides o f the
t wo rectangles in Fig 2 9 a r e .

no t p a r allel t o each o the r as in

Fig 30 b il l; this difierenc e is F ro 30 The ma gnetic path between

.
: . .
—

taken into acc o unt by m entally the p o les o f a n elec t roma gnet .

tu rning them into a pa rallel

'

po siti o n, and estimating the equivalent distance 21 between the

edges o f the o ppo sing p o les The d imens i o n h is in thi s case the
.

rad ial heigh t o f the p o le waist and b is o ne half o f t he width o f

-
,
-

the p ole waist The fl a nk leakage is smalle r than that between

-
.
1 12 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT [A er 40

the o pp o site side so that o ne m ay be satisfied with a lesser degree

,

o f accu r acy The equivalent permeance reduced t o that between

.
,

the p o le tips is again equal t o o ne half the actual permeance fo r

-
,
-
,

the same reas o n as under (b) ab o ve .

The t o tal leakage permean ce between a p o le and the t wo planes

o f sy mmetry is equal t o the sum o f the permeances calculated as

ab o ve I n summin g them up it wi ll be seen fr o m Fig 29 that the

. .

pe rmean ces (a ) and (b) must be taken twice and als o that (c ) and ,

m ust be taken f o ur times The leakage flux per p o le is .

o btained by multiplyingthe t o tal leakage permean ce by the m m f . . .

between the p o le tip and the plane o f sy m metry This m m f is

-
. . . .

equal t o that required t o establish the useful flux al ong the path ,

q rs
,
thr o ugh the air gap and the arm-
ature o f the machine and ,

c onsequently it is kn o wn befo re the p o le piece and the field wind -

ing a re c o mputed in detail K n o wing the leakage flux and the .

useful flu x the leakage fact o r is fi

,
gured o ut acc o rding t o the defi
n it io n given ab o ve .

W hen calculating permeances as indicated ab o ve o ne is advised ,

t o m ake liberal estimates o f the same fo r t wo reas o ns : I n the first ,

p la c e t h
,
e true pe rmeance o f a path is always the largest p o ssibl e so ,

that whatever assumpti o ns o ne m akes the calculated permeance

, ,

c o mes o ut smalle r than the actual I n the sec o nd place in design .

,

ing a new machine it is bette r t o be on the safe side and rather

underestimate than o verestimate the excellence o f the perfo rm
an ce So me writers give m o re elab o rate rules and f o rmul ae fo r the
.

calculati o n o f the leakage permeance wh ich a re useful in the

design o f machin es o f special imp o rtance 1
.

The leakage fact o r remains practically c onstant as l o ng as the

flux density in the armature c o re and teeth is m o de r ate so that ,

the reluctance o f the useful path qrs is nearly c onstant This is .

because the reluctance o f the leakage paths is c onstant and if the , ,

r eluctance o f the useful path is als o c onstant the useful flux and ,

the leakage flux inc rease in the same p ro p o rti on when the m m f . . .

between the p o le tips is in creased W hen the armature ir o n is

-
.

appr o aching satur ati o n the leakage fact o r increases with the field
,

1
F or a m ore detailed t reatm ent o f the leaka ge between p o les see the
fo ll owin g w orks : E Arn old D ie G letc hs tro mma sc htne Vo l 1
.
,
pp ,
. .

2 8 4 2 9 4 ; H awkin s and W alli s T he Dy na mo Vo l 1

—

,
pp 4 6 9 4 8 4 ; ,
. .
—

Pic helma y er Dy na mo ba u
,
pp 12 7 13 1 ; C ramp C ontinuo us C urrent
.
—

,
-

M a ehine D es ign pp 42 4 7 and 2 2 6 2 30 .

— —
.
CR A P . VI ] EX C ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S -
1 13

cu rrent because the leakage fl ux inc reases the m o re rapidly than

,

the useful flux This increase is pa rtly o ff set by the fact that t he
.

p o le tips also bec o me gradually satur ated by the leakage flux so

-
,

that the leakage fact o r d o es no t increase as r apidly as it wo uld

o therwise The practical p o int t o be o bserved is that fo r t he
.
,

higher flux densities if accuracy is desired the leakage sh o uld , ,

be estimated separately for a few p o ints o n the no l o ad satu ra t i o n -

curve .

F o r a given terminal v o ltage the leakage fact o r o f a machine is ,

so mewhat higher at full l o ad than at no l o ad because the required - -

,

m m f between the p o le faces is higher due t o the a r mature rea o

. . .
-
,

ti o n and t o the v o ltage dro p in the armature I n c o mpa ra t ively .

ra re cases when the a r mature reacti o n assists the field

, fo r
instance in the case o f an alternat o r supplying a leading cur ren t
, ,

the leakage fact o r decreases with the in creasing l o ad The fo l .

l o wing example illustrates the influence o f the l o ad up o n the value

o f the leakage fact o r .

“
L et the useful flux per p o le in an alte rnat o r at the rated ,

v o ltage and at no l o ad be 5 mega lines and let 6000 a mp tu rns

-
, ,
-

pe r p o le be required fo r the air gap and the a r mature c o re L et -

.

t he pe r meance o f the leakage paths between a p o le and the neutral

planes be 120 perms so that the leakage flux is megal ine and
, ,

t he leakage fact o r is Le t a useful flux

of mega lines be required at the same v o ltage and at full l o ad ,

an inc rease o f 10 pe r cent be ing necessa ry t o c o mpensate fo r the

inte rnal d ro p o f v o ltage due t o the armatu re impedance I f the .

teeth an d the a r matu re c o re we re no t saturated at all an m m f , . . .

o f 6 600 amp tu rns w o uld be requi red.

-
I n reality the m m f is .
, . . .

higher say 7 50 0 a mp turns Le t the a r matu re reactio n be equal

,
-
.

t o 1500 demagneti z ing ampe re tu rns pe r p o le T o c o mpensate -

.

fo r its acti o n 1500 additi o nal ampere tu rns a re requi red o n each
,
-

field c o il Thus the di ffe rence o f magnetic p o t ential between

.
,

a p o le tip and the adj acent plane o f sy m met ry M N ( Fig 2 9)

-
.

is no w 90 0 0 a mp tu rns and the leakage flux is in crea sed t o-

,

mega lines Therefo re the leakage facto r at full l o ad is

.
,

(5 50 + S imila r relati o ns h o ld fo r the di re c t

cu rrent machines .

I n c alcula t ing the pe rfo r mance o f a synch ro n o us o r a di rec t

cu rrent m achine o ne has t o use the re lati o n bet ween the fi eld c ur
rent and the v o ltage induced in the a rm atu re O rdina rily t he .
,
 1 14 T HE M AGN E T I C C I RCU IT (A m . 40

no l o ad sat urati o n curve is used fo r this purp o se assuming t hat

-
,

the leakage fa c t o r is the same at full l o ad as at no l o ad Ho wever .

c are f ul designers s o metimes pl o t a separate curve using a higher ,

leak a ge f a ct o r fo r use at full l o ad ,

.

Pro b 8 A s s um e in the illu st rative exam ple give n in th e text th e

. .

a rm atu re c urrent t o be lead in g so th at the v o ltage d ro p i n t he a rm atu re ,

i s negative an d the a rm atu re r eacti o n s t ren gthen s the fiel d S h o w that .

with the s am e v a lue o f the a rm atu re cu rren t the lea kage fact or i s ab o ut

Pr o b 9 Draw ro ugh sketc he s o f the m agnetic ci rcuits o f t wo

. .

m achines o ne p ossessin g s uc h p ro p o r ti o n s nu mbe r a nd s hape o f p o le s

, ,

as t o give a pa r ticula r ly lo w lea kag e fact o r t h e o th e r m a rke dly d eficient ,

in t his r e s pect .

Pro b 1 0 Calculate th e lea kage facto r an d th e lea kage pe rm eance

. .

pe r p o le o f a six p o le tu rbo alte rnat o r o f t h e f o ll o win g di m en si o n s ; the

- -

b o re i s m ; the axial len g t h o f t h e p o le s

. m ; mini m u m ai r ga p .
-

1 c m ; m axi m u m ai r gap 2 c m ; t o tal h ei g ht o f t h e p o le 2 3 c m ; the

.
-
. .

h eigh t o f th e p o le wai s t 18 c m ; th e b read th ac ross the p o le wai s t 2 5 c m

-
.
-
.

t h at ac ross th e p o le tip s 36 c m Th e reluctance o f t h e u seful path in

-
.

t h e air gap a nd in t h e a rm ature i s e s ti m ated t o be ab o ut

-
millirel
pe r p o l e . A ns ab o ut 2 00 pe rms . .

Pro b 1 1 T h e lea kage fact o r o f th e m ac hi ne specified in th e p re

. .

cedin g p ro ble m wa s f o un d f ro m an expe ri m ent t o be at no l o ad -

,

wh en t h e t o tal flux pe r p o le wa s mega lines W hat i s t h e t r ue .

leakage pe rm eanc e if 2 0 kil o am pe re tu rn s we re r equi red at t h at flux fo r -

t h e ai r gap s an d t h e a rm atu re pe r pai r o f p o le s

-
A n s 2 34 p erms , . .

Pro b 1 2 Th e m ac hine speci fied in th e t wo fo rego in g p ro blems

. .

r equi res at full l o ad 2 0 per cent mo re a mpe re tu rns fo r th e ai r gap an d - -

a rm atu re o n acc o u nt o f t h e in d uced v o ltage bein g 12 pe r c ent high e r

,

t h an at no l o ad Th e a rm atu re reacti o n amo unt s t o 4 0 00 d em a gneti z i ng

-
.

am pe re tu rns pe r p o le W h at i s th e lea kage fact o r at full l o ad acc o rdin g

-
.
,

t o t h e calculate d lea kage p erme ance a nd acc o rd in g t o that o b tain ed

f ro m the tes t ? A ns .

Pro b 1 3 A cl o sed elect ric ci r cui t c o n si s tin g of a b atte ry a nd o f

. .

a ba r e c o n d uc to r i s i mm e rs e d in a sli gh tly c o n d uctin g liqui d so th at pa r t ,

o f t he cu rr en t fl ows th ro u gh t h e liqui d In d icate th e c ommo n p o int s .

an d the d iff e ren ce b etween thi s a rran gem en t a nd a m a gnetic ci rcui t

with lea ka ge Usin g the elect ric a l anal o gy sho w th at a rm atu re r eacti o n
.
,

inc reas e s t h e lea ka ge fact or; al so explain t h e fact t h at in o rd e r t o c o m ,

pen sate fo r the a cti o n o f M dema gnet i ing am pe re tu rns o n th e a rm atu re z -

,

m o re th an M additi o nal am pe re tu rn s a r e requi red o n the p o le piece s - -

.

Pro b 1 4 In so me b o o ks the pe rm ean ce between t wo p o le faces

. .
-

( Fi g 3 0 ) i s calcul a ted b y a ssu m in g the line s o f fo rce t o b e c o nce nt ric

.

semici rcles a s sho wn by the do tted lines Sho w t hat s uch a pe rm eance .

i s sm alle r t h an th at acc ord in g t o form ula (5 7) an d the refo re sho ul d no t

be u sed H int : Co mpa r e t h e len gt hs o f t wo c o rre sp o n d in g lines o f
.

fo r c e .
 CR A P VI ] .
E XC ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S -
1 15

Pro b .and C D ( Fi g 3 1) rep r esen t t h e c ro ss secti o n s

15 . L et A B .
-

o f t wo Opp o s ite p o le face s o f a n el ect rom a g net i ncl ined at an an le

-
g 2 0 ,

t o o ne ano t h e r Sho w t h at o f t h e t hree ass um pti o n s wit h r e gard t o t h e

.

shap e o f the line s o f f orce in th e air between the p o les (a ) i s mor e c o rre c t
th an (b) and (b) i s m o re c o rre ct t ha n (c) ; in o the r w o rds t h e as s um pti o n ,

gives a higher pe rm ea nce t h an (b) o r (c) H i nt : tan 0 0 sin 0 . .

Pro b 1 6 Sho w t h at the pe rm eance acc o rdin g to Fi g 3 1a betwee n

. .
.
,
o ne o f t he face s a nd t h e plane M N o f s y mm et ry i s e qu l t o
a ,

FI G . 31 .
—
The ma gnetic path s between the p o les o f an electroma gnet (th ree
assu mpti o ns ) .

fo rc e L e t no w Fi g 3 1a re p res e nt a c ro ss s ecti o n o f t wo Opp os i ng po le

. .
-

co res in an elect ric m ac hi n e the m m f b etween A a nd C being z e ro

,
. . .
,

and u nifo rml y i nc reasing t o a va lue M betw een t he po in ts B a nd D .

Sho w t h at t h e e q uivale nt p ermeance o f t he pat h re ferred t o t h e m m f , . . .

M i s eq ua l t o
N o ra If i t i s desi red t o u s e regula rly t he forego in g fo rm ul a in es t i
.

m ating the lea ka ge facto r th e val ue s o i th e exp ressio n in t he bra c kets

,

c a n be pl o tted a s a c u r ve fo r t he value s o f ( l/ Ow) a s a b se iss ae S i m il a r .

fo rm ul a can be ded uc ed and cu rves pl o tted fo r t he pe rm e a nce o f th e

flan k lea ka ge between ad jac en t po l es Th e paths o f th e l in es o f fo rce .

o ver t h e p o le s ca n be a ss u med t o be c o n ce nt ric q uadra n ts a nd be twee n

the po les t o ha ve a sh a pe si m i l a r t o tha t ind icated in Fi g 3 1a . .

4 1 T he Perm eanc e
. lucta nc e o f Irr egula r Pa th s I n
a nd R e .

using the m eth ods desc ribed ab o ve fo r t he c alculati o n o f the

ampere tu rns fo r the ai r gap the teeth and t he c o res and in est i
- -
, , ,
1 16 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA s r . 41

mating the leakage fact o r the reader has seen the difficulties ,

in vo lved in the c o mputati o n o f t hepermeance o f an irregular path .

I n the parts o f a magnetic field n o t o c c upied by the exciting

win dings the general principle applies that the lines o f f o rce and
,

the equip o tential surf aces assume such shapes and directi o ns that
the t o tal pe r meance bec o mes a maximum o r the reluctance a ,

minimum W hen this c o nditi o n is fulfilled the energy o f the

.
,

magnetic field bec o me sa maximum as is explained in A rt 5 7 , . .

W hen the field needs t o be c o nsidered in t wo dimensi o ns o nly ,

that is in the case whe re we have l o ng cylindrical surfaces the

,

pr o perties o f c o nj ugate functi ons can be used fo r determining the

equati o ns o f the lines o f fo rce and o f the equip o tential sur f aces ;
see the re f erences in A rt 3 7 ab o ve Ho weve r the purely mathe
. .
,

mat ic a l difficulties o f the meth o d are su c h as t o make the analytical

calc ul ati on o f permean ces f easible in the simplest cases o nly .

I n m o st practical cases especially in three dimensi o nal p ro b

,
-

lems rec o urse must be had t o the graphical meth o d o f trial and
,

appr o ximati o n in o rder t o o btain the max i mum permeance

, .

The field is mapped o ut int o small cells by means o f lines o f f o rce

and equip o tential surfaces drawing them t o the best o f o ne s ,
’

j udgment ; the t o tal permeance is calculated by pr o perly c o m

bin ing the permean ces o f the cells in series and in parallel Then .

the assumed directi o ns a r e so mewhat m o dified and the permeance ,

is calculated again etc until by successive trials the p o siti o ns o f

,
.
,

the lines o f fo rce a re f o und with which the permeance bec o mes a
maximum .

The w o rk o f trials is made m o re systematic by f o ll o wing a pro

c edure suggested by L o rd R ayleigh I magine infinitely thin sheets .

o f a material o f infinite permeab ility t o be interp o sed at intervals

int o the field under c onsiderati o n in p o siti o ns appr o ximately ,

c o inciding with the equip o tential su rfaces I f these sheets e x actly .

c o incided with s o me actual equip o tential surfaces the t o tal ,

permeance o f the paths w o uld no t be changed there being no ,

tenden cy fo r the flux t o pass al ong the equip otential su rfaces I n .

any o the r p o siti o n o f the infinitely c o nducting sheets the t o tal ,

permeance o f the field is increased because thr o ugh these sheets ,

the flux densities bec o me m o re un ifo rmly distributed M o re o ver .

,

these sheets bec o me new equip o tential surfaces o f the system ,

because no m m f is required t o establish a flux al o ng a path o f

. . .

infinite pe r meance Thus by drawing in the given field a system

.
,
Cw .
v1] E X C ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S -
1 17

of surfaces app ro xim ately in the d i r ecti ons o f the t rue equip o
t ent ial surf a ces and assumin g these a rbitra ry su rfaces t o b e the
,

t rue equip o tenti al surf aces the t rue reluctance o f the path is
,

reduc ed I n o the r w o rds by calculatin g the reluctances o f the

.
,

lamin a between the inc o rrect equip o tential su rfaces and adding
these reluct an ces in series one o btains a reluctance which is l o we r
,

than the t rue reluctan ce o f the path This gives a l o wer limit fo r .

t he required reluctance (o r an uppe r limit fo r the pe r meance ) o f

the path .

I magine no w the vari o us tubes o f f o rce o f the o riginal field

wrapped up in in finitely thin sheets o f a material o f zero permea b il
ity This d oes no t change the reluctance o f the paths because
.
,

the re a re no paths between the tubes B ut if these wrappin gs a re .

no t exactly in the directi o n o f the lines o f f o r ce the reluctan ce o f ,

t he field is inc rea sed because the densities bec o me less unif o rm
, ,

the non permeable wrappings f o rcing the lines o f f o rce f ro m their

-

natural p o siti ons Thus by drawin g in a given field a sy stem o f

.
,

surf aces appro ximately in the di recti o ns o f the lines o f fo rce cal ,

c ula t ing the r eluctan ces o f the individual tubes and adding them ,

in pa rallel a r eluctance is o btained w hich is highe r than the t rue

,

reluctance o f the path This gives an uppe r li mit fo r the relue

.

tance (o r a l ewe r limit fo r the pe r meance) o f the path under

c o nsiderati o n .

Therefo re the practical pro cedure is as fo ll o ws : Divide the

,

field t o the best o f y o u r j udgment into cells by equip o tential ,

surfaces and by tubes o f fo rce and calculate the reluctan ce o f the

,

field in t wo ways : fi rst by adding the cells in pa r allel and the

,

resultant la m in a in series ; sec o ndly by adding the cells in se ries ,

and the resultan t tubes in parallel The first result is l o we r than .

the sec o nd R eadj ust the p o siti o n o f the lines o f fo rce and o f the
.

equip o tential su rf aces until the t wo results a re sufficiently cl o se t o

o ne an o ther ; an ave r age o f the t wo las t result s give s the t rue

reluctance o f t he field .

O ne diffi culty in actually foll o wing o ut the fo re go ing m etho d

is that the changes in the assumed di recti o ns o f the field tha t will
give the best result a re no t always o bvi o us Dr Th Le hmann has . . .

introduced an impro vement which g reatly facilitate s t he lay in g o ut

of a fi W e shall explain this meth o d in applicati o n t o a t wo
1
eld .

G raphisc he M ethod z u r B c t immung d l( ra ft li i nvc rla ufes in dc r

s s es ri c

L uft E lektrotec hnis c he Z it c hrift Vo l 30

e s p 99 5 ,
. . .
118 T HE M AGN E T I C C I RCU IT lA R T . 41

dimensi onal field th o ugh the o reti c ally it is applicable t o three

,

dimensi o nal pro blems als o A c c o rdin g t o L ehmann lines o f f o rce

.
,

an d level surfa c es are drawn at su c h distances that they en c l o se

cells o f equal reluctan c e C o nsider a slice o r a cell in a t wo

.
, ,

dimensi o nal field 2 centimeters thick in the third dimensi o n

,
)

( where v= 1 t
/p ) and o f su c h a f o rm that the average length l of
t he cell in the dire c ti o n o f the lines o f f o rce is equal t o its average
width w in the perpendicular directi o n The relu c tan ce o f su c h a .

c ell is always equal t o o ne rel n o matter whether the cell itself is ,

l a rge o r small This f o ll o ws fr o m the fundamental f o rm ula fo r

.

t he reluctance whi c h in this case bec o mes Gt = vl/ (v ) 1

, .

The j udgment o f the eye helps t o arrange cells o f a width equal

t o the length , in the pr o per p o siti o n with respect t o each o ther and
t o the adj o in ing ir o n ; the n e x t appr o x imati o n is apparent fr o m
the diagram by inspecting the lac k o f equality in the average
,

width and length o f the cells L o rd R a y leigh s c o nditi o n is .

’

secured by this mean s since the c o mbinati o n o f cells o f equal

,

reluctance leads t o but o ne result whethe r they are c o mbined ,

fi rst in parallel o r fi rst in series A fter a few trials the space is .

pr o perly ruled and it simply remains t o c o unt the number o f cells

,

in series and in parallel Dr L ehmann sh o ws a few applicati ons

. .

o f his meth o d t o practical cases o f electrical machinery and the ,

reader is re f erred t o the o riginal arti c le fo r further details .

The f o reg o ing meth o ds apply o nly t o the regi o ns o utside the
exciting c urrent because o nly in such parts o f the field the maxi
,

mum permeance c o rresp o nds t o the maximum st o red elec t ro ma g

netic energy W ithin the space o c c upied by the e x citing windings
.

the c o nditi o n fo r the ma x imum o f energy is diff erent (see A rt .

and is o f a fo rm whi c h hardly permits o f the c o nvenient applicati o n

o f a graphi c al meth o d Ho wever in m o st practical cases the
.
,

directi o ns o f the lines o f f o rce within the exciting windings are

appr o ximately kn o wn a priori: o r else the windings themselves ,

c a n be a ssumed fo r the purp o ses o f c o mputati o n t o be c o ncentrated

, ,

within a very small space F o r instance the field winding can be

.
,

assumed t o c onsist o f an infinitely thin layer cl o se t o the p o le waist -

.

Then the c o nditi o n that the permeance is a ma x imum is f ulfilled in

p r actically the wh o le field and the field is mapped o ut on this basis
, .

Pro b 1 8 Sketc h t h e fiel d bet ween th e a rmatu re a nd a p o l e piece

. .
-

o r som e p ro p or ti o n o f t o o th s l o t a nd a ir ga p an d d ete rm ine the l o we r

-
, ,

an d upp e r limit s o f t he reluctance by L ord R a y leigh s m eth o d ’

.
C RA P . VI ] EX C ITI NG A M PE RE T URN S — 119

Pro b 1 9 Fo r so m e rati o o f sl o t wid th t o ai r gap draw th e to o t h

. .
-

f ringe fiel d t o the pe rpe nd ic ula r s u rface o f t he p o le ad j u s t th e n u m be r ,

a nd S pac ing o f t h e line s o f f or ce by Dr L ehm an n s m et h od a n d s ee ho w

’
.
,

cl o sely y o u can c he c k t he c o rres pond in g p o in t o n Ca rter s cu rve ( Fi g ’

.

Pro b 20 F ro m th e gi ven drawin g o f a m a c h ine d eterm ine th e

. .
,

pe rm ean c e o f t h e f ri nge f ro m th e p o le tip t o t he a rm atu re by L e hm a n n s

-
’

method ; c ons ult if ne ce ss a ry Dr L ehm ann s o ri ginal a r ticle

, , .
’
.

Pro b 2 1 M a p o ut th e lea kage fiel d be tween the Opp o sing po l e tip s

. .
-

an d c o res o f a give n m ac hin e an d d ete rm in e i ts equiv alent pe rmea nce by

,

L ehm ann s m et hod ass uming th e fiel d c o ils t o be t hin and cl o se t o th e c o re

’
, .

41a . Flu x R efr acti o n W hen mapping o ut a field

T he L a w of .

in air the lines o f fo r ce must be drawn so as t o enter the adj o ining

,

i ron alm o st n o rmally t o its su rface even if they a re c o nt inued in ,

the iro n alm o st parallel t o its su rface The lines o f fo rce change .

their di recti o n at the dividing su rface suddenly ( Fig and in .

so d o ing they o bey the so called la w of fl ux r efra c tio n; namely

-
,

tan fi
i / tan 00 :
t
{i /p a

Since n o
is many times smaller than jug the angle 0 is usually very , 0

small , unless 0, is ve ry nearly 90 degrees I t may be said in gen .

e ral that the l o we r the permeabili t y

of a medium the nearer the lines
o f f o r ce are t o the n o rmal at its
limi t ing surfaces I n this way the .
,

path between t w o given p o ints is

sh o rtened in the medium o f l o wer E q uipment ,
permeability and is lengthened in u f w s r fl s
“
t he m edium o f higher pe r meability .

Thus the t o tal permeance o f the

,

ci rcuit is made a maximum .

T o deduc e the ab o ve stated law -

of ref racti o n c o nside r a tube o f

,

path in the dire c t io n pe rpendicula r

m r r c ti o n o f

“
t o the plane o f the pape r bei gn o ne F iii The ef a .
—

fl ux
centimete r Le t B and B be t he
. , ,l

flux densities and H and H the , , o

c o rresp o nding m a gnetic intensities in t he t wo m edia T wo .

c onditio n s must be satisfied namely fi rst the d ro p o f m m f , , ,

. . .
120 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 41

alo ng a c is the same as that al o ng bd and sec o ndly the t o tal , ,

flux t hr o ugh c d is equal t o that t hr o ugh a b O r .

H a
-
ac = H, -bd,

B a
-C d= B i
-a b .

Dividing equati o n by the o ther and rearranging the terms

o ne , ,

eq .
(5 8) is o btained .

Pro b 22 Sho w th at th e t o tal r ef racti o n whic h i s in so m e ca ses

. .

expe rienced by r ay s o f li gh t i s i m p o ssi ble in th e ca s e o f m agnetic lines

o f f or ce .

Pro b 2 3 P a rt o f a fl ux em e rge s fro m th e flan k o f a t o o t h int o t h e

. .

sl o t at an an gle o f 1 t o th e n o rm al W h at i s th e an gle w hic h th e line s

°
.

o f f or ce m a ke wit h t h e s i d e o f t h e s l o t in t h e i ro n a ss u m in g t h e r elative
,

pe rm eabi lity o f the i ro n t o be 01 0 0 ? A n s 9 0 0 = .3

°
,
°
 C HA P TE R VI I

T HE MA GNE T O M O T I VE F O R CE O F D I S TR I B U TE D
W I N DI N G S

42 . T he M M F . . . of ph a se Dis
a Di r ect- c urr ent or S in gl e -

tri b uted W in ding I n the t wo p receding chapters it is sh o wn ho w

.

t o calculate the ampe re turns required fo r a given flux in an elec

-

t ric machine W hen the excitin g winding is c onc entra ted that is
.
, ,

when all the tu rns pe r p o le emb race the wh o le fl ux the number o f ,

ampe re turns is equ al t o the pro duct o f the actual amperes fl o wing
-

thro ugh the wind ing times the numbe r o f tu rns Such is the case .

in a t r ansfo rmer in a direct cur rent m achine and in a syn ch ro n o us

,
-
,

machine with s alient p o les I n s o me cases h o wever the exciting .

, ,

windings are distributed al ong the air gap so that o nly a pa rt o f the -
,

fl ux is linked with all the tu rns and the actual ampe re tu rns have ,
-

t o be multiplied by a fact o r in o rder t o o btain the e ff ective m m f . . .

S uch is the case in an inducti o n m o t o r and in an alte rnat o r with ,

no n salient p o les
- M o re o ver o ne has t o c o nside r the m m f o f
.
, . . .

distributed a r matu re windings when calculating the pe rfo rmance

o f a mac hine under l o ad because the a rm atu r e currents m o dify the
,

no l o ad flux
-
I n t his chapter the m m fs o f dist ributed wind ings
. . . .

a re t reated mainly in applicati o n t o the pe rfo rm ance o f the induc

ti o n m o to r ; in pa rticular t o the calculati o n o f the no l o ad cu rrent
,
-

and the reacti o n o f the sec o ndary currents The armatu re reacti o n .

in synchro n o us and in di rect cu rrent machines is analy z ed in t he -

next t wo chapte rs .

Distrib uted W ind ing for A lter na tor F ield A c ro ss s ecti o n o f a .

-

fo ur p o le field st ructu re with no n s alient p o les fo r a tu rbo alte rna

- - -

t o r is sh o wn in Fig 3 3 a The flux is g raded ( Fig 33 5) in spite o f

. . .

a c o nstant ai r gap bec ause the to tal ampe re turns act o nly up o n
-
,
-

the pa rt a o f a p o le ; t wo thi rd s o f the ampe re tu rn s act up o n t he

- -

pa rt s b b and o ne thi rd upo n the pa rts c c The m m f and t he

,
-
,
. . . .

flux in the pa rt s d d are equal t o ze ro Thus theo retically the

,
.
, ,

flux den sity in t he ai r gap s ho uld va ry acc o rding t o a stepped

-

12 1
122 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT [A r m 4 2

F I G 3 3a. .
A fo ur p ole rev olvin g fieldst ruc t ure with n o n salient p o les
- - .

curve ( Fig 3 3 b) ; in reality the c o rners are sm o o thed o ut by the

.
,

fringes The t o tal number o f ampere turns per p o le must be such

.
-

as t o create the assumed

ma x imum flux density
B m in the air gap a x
-

un der the middle part

o f the p o le The sl o ts .

are placed with due re

gard t o the mechanical
strength o f the st rue
ture a n d so as t a
F I G 33b T he fl ux den sity d i st ributi o n f or
—
g
e ,

fi
. .

d l S t rl b u
.

u x denS I t y
the field h own in F ig 33
' "

s . a .

ti o n appro a c hing a s ine

wave The mid dle pa rt o f the curve is left flat because ve ry little
. ,
CR AP . VI I ] M MF. . O F D IS T RIB UTE D W I ND I NG S 123

flux w o uld be gained by placing a narr o w c o il near the center o f

the p o le at a c o nsiderable expense in c o pper and in p o wer l o ss fo r
, ,

excitati o n The to tal flux which is pro p o rti o nal t o the a rea o f the
.
,

cu rve in Fig 3 3 b must be o f t he magnitude requi red by eq (3 1)

.
,
.

fo r the induced e m f I f greater accuracy is desired the cu rve in

. . .
,

Fig 33 b is reso lved int o its fundamental sine wave and higher
.

harm o nics ; the a rea o f the fundamental curve mus t then give
the flux (D which ente rs int o eq .

S ingle pha se Di s tributed W inding

-
L e t us c o nside r no w the .

stat o r windin g o f an inducti o n m o t o r and in pa rti c ular the m m f , . . .

c reated by the current in o ne phase W e begin wi t h t he simplest .

case o f a winding placed in o ne sl o t per p o le pe r phase ( Fig .

The reluctances o f the

stat o r c o re an d o f the
r o t o r c o re a re small as
c o mpa red with that o f
the air gap and the
-

teeth and a re taken

,

int o acc o unt by in

c reas in g t he reluc t anc e
o f the a c tive la y er o f

the machine (air gap -

and teeth) I f P and .

Q are the centers o f

the sl o ts in which the
F ro 3 4 The m m f of a sin gle phas e unislot —
-

o pp o site sides o f a c o il
. . . .

win ding re so lved in to it s harmo nic s .

are placed the m m f ,

. . .

distributi on alo ng the air gap is that sh o wn by the b ro ken l ine -

R P P Q QS I n o the r w o rds the m m f ac ro ss the active layer

’ ’
.
,
. . .
,

at any instant is c o nstant o ver a p o le pitch and is alte rnat ely

, ,

p o sitive and negative unde r c o nsecutive p oles .

Le t n be the numbe r o f tu rns per p o le and i the instant s ,

ne o ns cu rrent ; then the height P P o f the rectangle is equal t o ni ’

.

I t is unde rst o o d o f c o urse that such an m m f ac t ing al o ne d o es . . .

no t pr o duce the sinus o idal dist ributi o n o f the flux density assumed
in the p revi o us chapte rs : I n a single phase m o to r the sinuso idal -

distribu t i o n is due t o the sim ultane o us acti o n o f the stato r and

ro t o r cur rents and als o t o the fact that t he w ind ings a r dis t rib
,
e

ut ed in seve ral sl o ts pe r p o le I n a p o lyphase m achine the simul .

t aneo us acti o n o f the t wo o r t hree phases als o helps t o secu re a

124 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T 42

sin us o id al distributi o n A s l o ng as the c o il P Q acts al o ne the .

,

m m f has a re c t angular distributi o n in spa c e and if the c u r

. . .
, ,

rent in the c o il varies with the time acc o rding t o the sine law the ,

height o f the rectangle o r the m m f acr o ss the a c tive layer als o ,

. . .
,

varies ac c o rding t o the sine law I n what fo ll o ws it is imp o rtant .

t o distin guish between variati o ns o f the m m fs in space i s al o ng . . .

,
. .
,

t he air gap and th o se o ccurring in time as the c urrent in a winding

-
, ,

varies .

F o r the purp o ses o f analysis the r ectangular distributi o n o f the

m m f c an be replaced by an infinite number o f sinuso idal dist rib u
. . .

ti o ns ( Fig a c c o rding t o F o urier s series

.
1
The advantages o f ’
.

su c h a devel o pment o ver the o rgin al rectangle P P Q Q are as fol ’ ’

l o ws
(a ) The s ine wave is a familiar standard by which all o ther
shapes o f peri o dic curves are j udged .

( )
b W hen adding the m m fs due t o the c o ils in different sl o ts . . .
,

o r bel o nging t o different phases it is much m o re c o nvenient t o add ,

sine waves than t o add rectangles displaced in space and va rying

with the time .

()
0 I n the actual o perati o n o f an inducti o n m o t o r o r generat o r
t he higher harm o nics in the m m f wave are t o a c o nsiderable . . .

extent wiped o ut by the c o rresp onding currents in the r o t o r so that ,

the rectan gular distributi o n is actually changed t o a nearly sinu

s o ida l o ne (see A rt 4 5 bel o w) . .

L et h be the height o f the rectangle ; we assume that fo r all the

p o ints al ong the air gap the sum o f the o rdinates o f all the sine —

waves is equal t o h; o r

h= A 1 sin ar t A 3 sin 3 x+ A 5 sin

—
5 x + et c .

Here a: is the angle in electrical degrees c o unted al o ng the air gap ,

-
,

and A I A 3 A 5 are the amplitudes o f the waves t o be deter

, , , ,

mined as f un c ti o ns o f h N o c o sine harm o nies enter int o this fo r .

mula be c ause the m m f distributi o n is symmetrical with respect

,
. . .

t o the center line 0 0 o f the ex c iting c o il T o determine the ampli’

.

tude o f the nt h harm o ni c A multiply b o th sides o f eq (59) by n, .

sin nx d (nx) and integrate b o th sides between the limits x= 0 and

,

F or the gene ral m eth od of expandin g a pe ri odic functi o n int o a serie s o f

1

s ine s and c o s ine s see the auth or s E xperimea E lec tric a l E ngineering Vo l 2
’

, , .
,

pp 22 2 t o 2 2 7
. .
CRAP . VI 11 O F D I ST R I B U TE D W I ND I NG S 125

x = 7r . A ll the
terms o n the right hand side vanish except the o ne -
,

c ontain ing sin nx and we have

2
,

2h= 1} n7rA n,

f ro m which
A n
4 h/ (nrz)

Thus the required se ries is

,

h= 4 h/ 7r (sin :c -
l
-
i sin 3 23 4 }1 sin -
+ etc .
) (6 1)

Th is means that the amplitude o f the fun damental wave is

times la rge r than the height h o f the o rig inal rectangle ; the ampli
tude of the third harm o nic is equal t o o ne third o f that o f the fun -

da ment al wave ; the amplitude o f the fifth harm o nic is o ne fi ft h o f -

that o f the f undamental wave etc I n p ractical applicati o ns the , .

fundamental wave is usually all we desi re t o fo ll o w but in s o me ,

sp eci al cases a few of the ha r m o nics a re imp o rtant l .

L et no w the w in din g o f a phas e be distributed in S sl o ts per

p o le ( Figs 15 and the distance between the adj acent sl o ts
.

being a elect rical deg rees The c o nduct o rs in every pai r o f sl o ts .

d istant by a p o le pitch pr o duce a rectan gular dist ributi o n o f the

m m f like the one sh o wn in Fig 3 4 o r what is the same an equiv
. . . .
, , ,

alent se r ies o f sine wave distributi o ns The m m fs p ro duced

-
. . . .

by the diff erent c o ils a re supe rimp o sed and since a sum o f sin e , ,

waves having equal bases is also a sine wave the resultant m m f ,

. . .

al s o c o nsists o f a fundamental sine wave and o f highe r ha r m o nics .

The fund amental waves o f the m m fs o f the several c o ils a re dis . . .

placed by an angle o f or elect rical degrees with respect t o one

an o the r s o that the amplitude o f the resultant wave is no t quite
,

S times la r ge r than that o f each c o mp o nent wave The reducti o n .

c o efficient o r the sl o t fact o r k is the sa m e as that fo r the induced

, , ,,

e m f (A rt
. . . because in b o th cas es we have an additi o n o f sine
.

waves displaced by a elect rical deg rees (see also p ro b 20 in A rt , . .

This m ethod o f t rea ting the m m fs o f di st ributed wi ndin gs by re o lv

1 . . . s

ing the recta n gula r cu rve int o it s hi ghe r ha rmo nic s is d ue t o A B l o ndel . .

See his a rticle entitled Quelques p ro p ri ét és gén érale des cham ps ma gn e s

tiques to u rnants L E cl i ag E lec t riq ue Vo l 4

,
" ’ '
p 248 S ome auth ors
a r e , . . .

c o n ide r the actual

s tepped c urves o f t h m m f or flux di st ributi o n a
s e . . .
,

p rocedu re rathe r cum be some a nd in t he end less accu ra t in view o f the

r ,
e,

fact tha t the hi ghe r ha rmo nic s a re t o a c o n side rable exte nt wiped out by the
cu rre nt s in the ro t or .
 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 42

the same reaso n the value o f the winding pitch fact o r

Fo r ,
-
,

kw deduced in A rt 2 9 h o lds fo r the m m fs as well as fo r the

, .
, . . .

in duced e m fs . . .

W hen addin g the waves o f the higher harm o nics due t o seve r al
c o ils one must remember that an angle o f a electrical degrees fo r
,

the fundamental wave is equivalent t o 3 a elect rical degrees fo r the

third harm o nic Sex fo r the fifth harm onic etc Therefo re when
, , .
,

using the f o rmula (2 9) and Fig 19 di ff erent values o f or and o f pe r .

,

cent pitch must be used fo r each harm onic and in this c onnecti o n ,

the reader is advised t o review A rt 30 I n the practical pr o blems . .

given bel o w the highe r harm onics o f the a r mature m m f are dis . . .

regarded alt o gether The results so o btai ned are in a su fficient

.

agreement with the results o f experiments t o warrant the great

simplificati on so achieved F o r the c o mpleteness o f the treatment .
,

and as an applicati on o f the general meth o d an analysis o f the ,

eff ect o f the higher harm onics o f an m m f is given in A rt 4 5 . . . .

bel o w Ho wever this a rticle may be o mitted if desired with o ut

.
, , ,

impai ring the c ontinuity o f the treatment in the rest o f the b o o k .

R es olution of a P ulsa ting m m f into T wo G liding m m fs The . . . . . .

reader is aware fr o m elementary study that the pulsating m m fs . . .

pr o duced by t wo o r three phases c o mbine int o o ne gliding (revo lv

‘
ing) m m f in the air gap I t is theref o re c o nvenient t o c o nside r
. . .
-
.

even a single phase pulsating m m f as a c o mb inati on o f m m fs

-
. . . . . .

gliding al ong the air gap in o pp o site directi o ns I n this wise the
-
.
,

m m fs due t o diff erent phases are later c o mbined in a simple

. . .

manner This meth o d o f treatment is similar t o that used in

.

mechanics when an o scillat o ry m o ti on is reso lved int o t w o r o tary

,

m o ti ons in o pp o site directi on s A lso in the an alysis o f p o la ri zed .

light a similar meth od of treatment is used .

Take the first harm onic o f the m m f (Fig 3 4 ) and assume the . . . .

current in the exciting c o il t o vary with the time acc o rding t o the
sine law ; then the amplitude o f the m m f wave als o varies with . . .

the time acc o rding t o the sine law I magine t wo m m f waves o f . . . .

,

half the maximum amplitude o f the p ulsating wave gliding uni ,

fo rmly al ong the air gap in o pp o site directi o ns ; the superp o siti o n
-

o f these waves gives the o riginal pul sating wave O ne can see .

th is by drawing such waves on t wo pieces o f transparent paper and

placing them in vari o us p o siti o ns o ver a sketch sh o wing the pul
sating wave I t will be fo und that the sum o f the c o rresp o nding
.

o r dinates o f the r ev o lving waves gives the o rdinate o f the pulsating

CR AP VI I]
. M M F . H O F D I S T R I B U TE D W I ND I N G S 127

wave at the same p o int O r else represent the t w o glidin g waves .

,

by t wo vect o rs Of equal magn itude M revo lving in o pp o site d i rce ,

ti o ns The resultan t vect o r is a pulsating o ne in a c onstan t direc

.

ti on and varies harm o n ically between the values i 2 M

, .

The analytical pr o o f is as fo ll o ws : Le t the exciting cu rrent

r each its maxi m um at the m o ment t = 0 Then if the am plitude o f .
,

the m m f wave at this instant is equal t o A the amplitude at any

. . .
,

o the r in stan t t is equal t o A c o s 2 7rf t Therefo re the m m f c o r .

, . . .

resp o ndin g t o a p o int distant a: fro m P and at a time t is equal t o

A c o s 2 7rf t sin x B y a familia r t rig o n o met rical t r ansf o rmati o n
.

we have
A sin :c c o s 27rf t s j
a A sin (:c + 27rf t) + } A sin (a:4 —
27rft) .
( 62 )

The right hand side o f this equati o n represen t s t wo sine waves o f

-
,

the amplitude 5A gliding syn chro n o usly al ong the air gap that is
1
,
-
, ,

c o ve rin g one p o le pitch durin g each alte rnati on o f the cur rent .

The wave 4A sin (x + 27rf t) glides t o the left because with inc rea s , ,

in g t the value o f a: must be reduced in o rder t o get the same phase

,

o f the m m f wave that is t o keep the value o f (x + 27r

. . .
, f t) c o nstant
, .

The o ther wave glides t o the right because with inc reasin g t the , , ,

value o f a: m ust be in creased in o rder t o o btain any c onstant value

o f (x
—
2rtf t) A similar res o lu t i o n int o t w o glidin g waves can be
.

made fo r each higher harm o nic o f the pulsatin g m m f wave ; the . . .

h ighe r the o rder o f a harm on ic the l o wer the linea r speed of its t wo
gliding wave c o mp onen t s .

I n p r actice it is usually required t o kn o w the relati onship

between the e ff ective value i o f t he magneti zing cu rrent the num ,

be r o f tu rns n per p o le per phase a nd the crest value o f o ne o f t he ,

“
waves Fro m t he preceding explanati o n this rela
.

t io nship fo r the fundamental wave is

M kb ni 5 :
0 9 kb ni,
.

whe re M is the amplitude o f ea c h o f the t wo gliding ni x/2

rep resents the maximum height h o f t he o riginal re ctan gle and t he ,

fact o r 5 is intro du c ed becaus e the ampli t ude o f each gliding wave

is o ne half o f that o f the c o rresp o nding pulsa t ing wave The b readth
-
.

fact o r k] is the same as that u sed fo r t he indu c ed e m fs (A rts 27 t o

,
. . . .

S imilar expressi o ns can be wri t t en fo r ea c h higher ha r m o ni c ,

re m embering tha t t heir amplitudes dec reas acc o rding t o eq e

.
128 T I DE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [AR T . 43

an d that a diffe rent value o f kb m ust be used fo r each harm onic .

The value o f M is calculated so as t o pr o duce the r equ ired revolv

ing flux as is explained in C hapters I V V an d VI Fro m eq (63)
, , , . .

either n o r i o r thei r pr o duct can be determined

,
.

Pro b 1 . singl e ph a se f u r p o le ind uc ti on m o to r has 24 stato r sl o ts

. A -
o -
,

t w o thi rds o f whic h a r e o ccupie d by t h e w ind ing ; t h e re a r e 18 c o n

-

d uc t o rs p er sl o t The ave rag e reluctance o f the active layer i s

. r el .

pe r s qua re c en t imete r W h at c urrent i s necess a ry t o p rod uce a pul sating

.

fl ux o f s uc h a valu e t h at t h e m axi m u m flux d en sity d ue t o t h e fi rs t

ha rmonic i s 5 wh en th e sec o n d a ry ci rcuit i s Op e n ?
A ns am p . .

Pro b 2 Show tha t in the p re c eding p robl em th e d i ff e renc e b etwee n

. .

the actual fl ux p er p o l e and it s fun dam ental i s less th an 2 pe r cent .

Pro b 3 Sh ow th a t if in Fi g 34 th e an gle 2: i s c o unted from th e

. .
,
.

c rest o f th e firs t h a rm onic t he e xpan si o n int o t h e F o u rie r s e ries i s s i m ila r

,

t o eq . exc ept t h a t c o sines ta ke pl ac e o f the sines a nd the terms ,

a re altern a te l y p o sitive and neg a t iv e .

4 3 T he M M F
. . . . of P o lypha se W in di ngs . Conside r a t wo
phase winding of the stat o r of an inducti on m o t o r (Fig . 3 5a ) ; let
2 A rmatu e r 1

F I G 3 5a . .
—
A two phase windin g
-
.

the cu r rent in phase 1 lead that in phase 2 by 1T o r by 90 electrical L

degrees A l ittle reflecti o n wi ll sh o w that the resulta nt m m f o f

. . . .

the t wo phases glides fr o m right t o left : L et the cu rrent in phase 1

reach its maximum at the instant t = o at this instant the current
in the c o il 2 is z er o and the m m f wave is distributed unif o rmly, . . .

under the c oil ; at the instant i T the cu r rent in phase 1 is z er o

1 t = -

and the m m f is distributed under the c o il 2 A t inte r mediate

. . . .

instants b oth c o ils c ontribute t o the resultant s o that its

maximum o ccupies a p o siti on inte rm ediate between the centers

0 1 and 0 2 o f the c o ils 1 and 2 .

The actual rectangular distributi o n o f the m m f due t o each . . .

phase can be replaced by a fundamental sinus o idal one and its

higher ha r m onics as in Fig 3 4 The pulsating fundamental m m f
,
. . . . .

o f each phase can be replaced by t w o waves o f half the ampli

tude gliding synchr o n o usly in o pp o site directi ons L et the wave

,
.
CR AP . VI I ] M M F
. . . O F D I S T R I B U TE D W I ND I NG S 129

due t o phase 1 and glidin g t o the left be den o ted by L I and that
, , ,

due t o phase 2 by L 2 L et t he c o rresp o nd ing waves gliding t o the

.

right be den o ted by R ; and R 2 Disrega rdin g the higher har .

m o ni es the resultant m m f is due t o the c o m b ined ac t i o n o f the

, . . .

f o ur gliding waves L I L 2 R I an d R 2 A t the instant t = o the , , .

c rest o f the wave L I is at the p o int 0 1 ; at the instant t = §T the

c rest o f the wave L 2 is at the center 0 2 o f the c o il 2 C onsequently .
,

at the instant t O the crest o f the wave L 2 is 90 elect rical degrees

=

t o the right o f 0 2 o r it is at 0 1 Thus the waves L I and L 2 actu

, .
,

ally c o in cide in space and fo rm one wave o f d o uble the amplitude

, .

The crest o f the wave R I is at the p o int 0 1 when t = O ; the cres t

o f R 2 is at the p o int 0 2 when t = i T The refo re at t = 0 the c rest .
,

o f R 2 is 90 electrical degrees t o the left o f the p o int 0 2 and the ,

waves R I and R 2 travel at a distance o f 180 electrical degrees fro m

each o the r B ut t w o such waves cancel each o ther at all p o in t s
.

a n d at all m o ments so that there is n o resultant R wave

, Thus .

the resultant fundamental wave o f m m f in a t w o phase machine . . .

-

is gliding I t s amplitude is twice as la rge as that o f either o f the

.

c o mp o nent glid ing m m fs o f the t w o phases which c o m p onen t s

. . .
,

F ro 3 5b . .
—
A th ree pha se wi nding
-
.

a re expressed by eq I f the cu rrent in phase 2 we re lead ing

.

with respect t o that in phase 1 the L fluxes wo uld c ancel each ,

o the r and the r esultant flux w o uld travel f ro m left t o right .

C o nsider no w a th ree phas e windin g ( Fig 3 5 b) and call t he -

.

m m fs which glide t o the left and which a re due t o t he separa t e

. . .
,

phases by L 1 L 2 and L 3 respec t ivelv L et the waves whi c h

, , , .

t ravel t o the right be den o ted by R 1 R 2 and R 3 A ss ume t he cu r , , .

rent in phase 2 t o be lagging by 120 electrical deg rees o r by ,

with respe c t t o that in phase 1 and the cu rrent in phas e 3 t o be ,

laggin g by §T with respect t o that in phase 2 B y a reas oning .

simila r t o tha t given fo r the t wo phase winding ab o ve it c an be -

sh o wn that the th ree L waves c o incide in thei r p o siti o n in spa c e ,

and give o ne gliding wave o f th ree times the a m plitude o f ea c h

wave T he th ree R waves a re relatively dis placed by 240 elec
.
1 30 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 43

t ri c aldegrees o r what is the same by 120 electrical degrees ;

, , ,

hence t heir m m fs mutually cancel at each p o int al ong the

,
. . .

air gap This c an be pr o ved by d rawing three sine waves dis

-
.

placed by 120 degrees and adding their o rdinates p o in t by p o int ;

o r else o ne can replace each wave by a vect o r and sh o w that the ,

sum o f the three vect o rs is z er o because they f o rm an equilateral

trian gle .

The reas on ing given fo r the t wo and three phase windings can -

be extended t o an y number o f symmetrical phases say m pro , ,

vided t hat the windin gs a r e displaced in space by 3 60 / m electrical

degrees and als o pr o vided that the cur rents in these windings are
,

displaced in time by l / mt h o f a cycle The gliding fun damental .

waves due t o ea c h phase which go in one directi o n are in phase

with each o ther and when added give a wave m times larger
, , ,

than that e x pressed by eq while the fundamental waves .

go in g in the o pp o site directi o n are displaced in space by 720 / m

electrical degrees and their c o mbined m m f is z er o The dirce
, . . . .

ti o n in which the resultant m m f travels is f ro m the leading t o . . .

the lagging phases o f the w inding Thus for any symmetrical .

,

m phase winding
-

M 0 9kbmni,
.
(64 )
whe re M den o tes the amplitude o f the fundamental sine wave o f
the resultant gliding n is the number o f tu rns per p o le per

phase and i is the effective value of the cu rrent in each phase

, .

Pro b 4 It is desi red t o buil d a 60 ho rse p ower 550 vo lt 4 p o l e

. .
-
,
—
,
-
,

Y c o nn ected ind ucti o n m o t o r us in g a s tat o r punc h ing wit h 4 s l o t s pe r

-
,

p o le pe r p ha se an d a win d i ng pitc h o f o ne h un dre d pe r cent The requi red

, .

m axi mum m m f pe r p o le i s esti m ated at 15 5 0 ampe re tu rn s W h at i s

. . .
-
.

the t o tal requi r ed n u mb e r Of s tat o r tu rns (fo r a ll t h e p has es) if t h e m ag

net izing cu rr ent m u s t no t e xce ed 2 5 p er ce nt o f t h e full l o a d cu rrent ? -

The es ti m ated full l o ad e ffi ci enc y i s 9 2 p er c ent t h e p owe r fact o r at

-
,

full l o a d i s abo ut 9 0 pe r cen t ? A ns N o t le ss t han 5 0 4 . .

Pro b 5 W hat i s t h e r equi red nu mber o f tu rns in th e p recedin g

. .

p roblem if th e s tat or win d in g i s t o b e d elta c o nnected an d t o have a

,
-

win din g pitc h o f ab o ut 75 pe r cent ? A ns N o t le ss t h an 9 36 . .

Pro b 6 W hat i s th e a mplitud e o f t h e fi rst ha rmo nic o f th e t o tal

. .

a rma t urere acti o n in a 100 kva 4 4 0 v o lt 6 p o le t wo p h a s e alte r nat o r

-
,
-

,
-

,
-

w ith no n salient p o le s ?
-
T h e s tat o r h a s 72 sl o ts ; t h e c o il s lie in s l o t s 1
a nd 9 ; the nu m be r o f c o n d uct ors pe r s l o t i s C In p ractice the a rm a s . ,

tu re reacti o n m u st no t excee d a c er tain li mit an d t hi s help s t o d ete rm ine ,

the pe rmi ssible value o f C A n s 4 8 00 0 a mp tu rn s

s ,
.
8
-
.
C RA P . VI I ] M M F . . . O F D I S TR I B U TE D W I ND I NG S 13 1

Pro b Plo t the a ctua l stepped c urves of m m f dist ri but ion

. 7 . . . .

fo r a t wo p has e wind in g wit h t hr ee s l o ts per p o le p er p h ase fo r t h e fo l

-
,

l o w i ng instants : t 0 t 1 UT an d
= = ’
Co mpa re th e ma xim um a nd , ,

th e ave rage m m f o f t he actual dis t ri b uti o n with t ho se o f t h e firs t

. . .

ha rmo nic .
‘

Pr o b 8 So lve t he p re ceding p roblem fo r a three phas e winding

. .
-

with 2 s l o ts per p o l e p er p h as e and a winding pi tc h o f 3 Ta ke t wo ,

.

inst an ts t= o an d t= T 1§ T an d sho w t ha t fo r t he ins ta nts

, ,

etc t he m m f d is t ri b uti on is the sam e as fo r t 0 while fo r

.
,
.
= . .
b
T g T , ,

etc t he m m f d is t ri b uti o n is t he same as fo r t = T I E T

.
,
. . . .

Pro b 9 Pro ve dire ctly t hat t wo e qual pu lsating s ine waves o f m m f

. . . . .

o r flux dis p l ac ed b y 9 0 el e ct rical degrees in s pac e a n d in t im e relatively

,

t o eac h o t her gi v e a g li ding s ine wave t he am plitud e o f whi c h is equal

, ,

t o t h at o f ea c h pul s ating wave So luti o n : Th e left h and si de o f eq .

- .

( )
62 gi v es t h e valu e o f t he m m f at a p o i n t x a nd at a n ins ta n t t due . . .
,

t o p hase 1 ; t he m m f p ro d uc ed at t he s am e p o int an d at t he s ame ins tan t . . .

by th e p hase 2 is A sin (:c + i m) c o s (2 ft 5 ) Add ing t he t wo e xpress i ons 7r —

7r .

gi ves A sin (2: + 2 ft) w hic h i s a left go in g wav e o f a m plitude A 7t

,
-
.

Pro b 1 0 Pro ve as i n th e p rec edin g p rob lem th at th e three p ul sa ting

. .
, , ,

sine waves o f m m f p ro d uc ed by a three phase winding give to gether . . .

-
,

a gliding th e am plitude of whic h i s 5 0 per c ent l arger than tha t

o f ea c h p ulsa ting w av e .

Pro b 11 Pro ve by the method gi ven in p roble m 9 abo ve tha t m

. .

p ulsa t ing m m f wa ves dis p l ac ed in s pac e and in t ime by an elec t ri c al

. . .

angle 2 / m p rod uc e a gli d in g m m f t he am plitude o f whic h is 5m times

rt . . .

la rger t h an th at o f e ac h p uls ating wa ve See Arn o ld W ec hs els tr om .

,

tec hnik, Vo l 3 ( 1 9 08 ) . p . 30 2 .

44 . a L o a ded I n ducti o n M achine E q (64)

T he M M F s in . . . .
2
.

gives the magnetizing current i o f an inducti o n m o to r at no l o ad -

,

i e when the r o t o r is running at practically synch ro n o us speed so

. .
, ,

that the sec o nda ry currents are negligible W hen the m o t o r is .

l o aded the useful fl ux which c ro sses the ai r gap is due t o the c o m

,
-

b ined acti o n o f the p rimary and the sec o nda ry cu rrents I n com .

merc ia l m o t o rs the flux at full l o ad is but a few pe r cent bel o w that

at no l o ad the d iff e rence being due t o the i m pedance d ro p in the
,

Pro blems 7 and 8 a re intended t o acquaint the student with the u sual
1

meth od o f calc ulati o n o f t h m m f o f di t ributed w indin gs a nd t o sh ow the e . . s . s

advanta ge o f B l o ndel s meth od u ed in the text F o nu me ro us s t epped '

s . r

cu rves a nd calcula ti o ns see B o y de la T o u r T he I ndu tio n M oto r Cha pter I V , ,

c , .

The t rea tment in this a rticle p re supp oses a gene ral kn owledge o f t he
’

equivalent pe rformance dia gram o f inducti o n machines ; t he pu rp o e o f s

the a rticle b ein g t o ded uce t h ex ct nu me rical rela t i o n Thi a rt icle a nd e a s . s

the o ne fo ll o wi ng can be o mit t ed with o ut i mpai rin g t he c o ntinuity o f t reat

ment in the rest o f the te xt .
13 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 44

prima ry windin g the same as in a transfo r me r The ref o re the

, .
,

net number o f exciting ampere turns M is app r o ximately the -

, ,

same as at no l o ad This means that the ge o metric su m o f .

the m m fs pr o duced by the primary and the sec o ndary currents at

. . .

an y l o ad is nearly equal t o the m m f due t o the primary winding . . .

al o ne at no l o ad I n this respect the inducti on m o t o r is sim ilar t o

.

a transfo rmer .

(a ) C a lc ula tion of the S ec onda ry C urrent Kno wing the p rimary .

full l o ad current t he sec o ndary full l o ad current c a n be caleu

-
,
-

lated fr o m the required c o unter the pr o cedure can be best

illustrated by an example I n the m o t or given in pr o b 4 ab o ve . .
,

the full l o ad current is estimated at 5 7 amp ; taking the directi o n

-
.

o f the vect o r o f the applied v o ltage as the axis o f reference the ,

full l o ad cur rent can be represented as

-
i2 4 8 amp The —
. .

magnetizing cur rent X 57 is practically in quadrature

,

with the applied v o ltage because it is in quad rature with the ,

induced c o unter the same as in a transfo rme r The f ull .

l o ad cur rent o f 5 7 amp c o ntains a c o mp onent which supplies the .

iro n l o ss in the stat o r ; we estimate it t o be equal t o ab o ut amp .

(2 per cent o f the input) Thus the c o mp onent o f the primary .

,

current the acti on of which must be c o mpensated by the sec ond

,

ary cur rents is j

,
2 4 8 ) 1
3 )
4 —
amp o r its
. .
,

abs olute value is amp This is called the c urrent tra nsmitted .

into the sec onda ry o r the sec onda ry c urrent reduc ed to the prima ry
,

circ uit This current pr o duces a maximum m m f o f

. X 0 958 . . . .

X 42 X 5 5 80 a mp tu rns -
.

L et the r o t o r be pr o vided with a th ree phase w inding with 5 -

,

sl ots pe r p ole per phase and let the winding pitch be 13 15 The , .

number o f sl o ts is selected so as t o be different f ro m that in the sta

t o r in o rder t o insu re a m o re unif o rm t o rque and t o reduce t he
, ,

fluctuati o ns in the reluctance o f the active layer W e have .

,

acc o rding t o eq that 5 580

. X 0 93 5 (ni) f r o m which .
,

ni = 2 2 l 0 a mp turns C ertain practical c onsiderati o ns

-
. fo r ,

instance the value o f the induced sec ondary v oltage usually

, ,

limit the ch o ice o f o ne o f these fact o rs ; then the o ther fact o r

als o bec o mes definite I f fo r instance the r o t o r is t o have 10
.
, ,

c onduct o rs per sl o t the sec ondary current will be ab o ut 8 9 amp

, .

The sec ondary i l o ss is determined by the desired percent slip ;

2r

kn o wing the sec o ndary current and the number o f tu rns the ,
,

necessary si ze o f the c onduct o r can easily be calculated .

CR AP V II ]
. O F D IS T R I B U TE D W I ND I NGS 133

S o m eti m e s theec onda ry windin g c o ns ists o f c oils individ ua lly

s

short cir c ui ted ; this is an inte r mediate type o f winding between

an o rdinary squirrel cage windin g and a th ree ph a se winding
- -

such as is used with slip rings Let the fo rego ing m o t o r be

-
.

p ro vided with such a wind ing o f the t wo laye r type and let the
,
-
,

r o t o r have 7 1 sl o ts 6 c o nduct o rs pe r sl o t the c o ils be ing placed

, ,

in sl o ts 1 and 14 I n fo r mula (64 ) m stands fo r the numbe r o f

.

sy m met rically dist ributed phases the cu rrent in each phase be ing ,

displaced in time by 27r/ m with respect t o that in the next phase .

I n the windin g under c o nside r ati o n each c o il r ep resents a phase , ,

and one has t o go o ve r a pai r o f p oles until one finds the next c o il
with the cu r rent in the same phase Thus in this case the num .
, ,

ber o f sec o ndary phases is equal t o the numbe r of sl o ts pe r pai r o f

p o les o r m= 3 5 5 E ach c o il has 3 tu rn s but there is o nly one c o il
,
. .
,

pe r pai r o f p o les so that n = , Substitutin g these value s int o

eq . and als o M = 55 80 kb
= o 9 l 2 we fin d,i = 12 8 a m p . As a , .

matter o f fact in this case it is not necessa ry t o decide what the

,

values o f n and m a re because eq (6 4) c o ntains only the p roduct

, .

mn which is the t o t al nu m be r o f tu rns pe r p o le

,
Thus in our cas e .
,

mn = (7 1 X 3 ) / 4 .

F o r mula (64) h olds also fo r a squi rrel c age winding t he nu m be r -

,

o f sec o ndary phases being equal t o the nu m ber o f ba rs pe r pai r o f

p oles Since there is but one ba r pe r phase each ba r can be c o n

.
,

i
s d ere d as o ne half o f-
a tu rn an d in f o rm ula ( )
64 n
,
=
= o 5 and kb
= 1 .
,

so that it bec o mes

(64 a )
where C 2 is the t o tal numbe r o f ro t o r ba rs and p is the numbe r o f ,

p o les O r else o ne m ay say that the t o tal nu m be r o f tu rns pe r

.
,

po le is equal t o o ne half the number o f ba rs pe r po le so that

-
,

This again gives eq (64a ) Fo r a di rect p roo f o f . .

fo r mula (64 a ) see pro ble m 15 bel o w A pplyin g this fo rm ula t o .

the same ro to r with 7 1 sl o ts we find that the c urrent pe r bar is

700 a m p .

b
( ) T he E q uiva lent S ec onda r y W inding R educ ed to the P rima r y
C ircuit W hen in ves tigating t he gene ral the o ry o f the inducti on
.

m o to r o r calculating the cha rac t e ristics o f a given m o to r it is c on ,

venient t o replace the actual ro t o r winding by an eq uivalent wind

ing identical with the p rima ry winding o f t he m o to r I n t his ca se .

the p ri m a ry cur rent t rans m itted int o the sec onda ry is equal t o t he
 13 4 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A R T . 44

actual se c o ndary c u rren t (o ne t o o ne r a ti o o f trans f o rmati on ) and ,

t he primary and t he se c o ndary v o ltages indu c ed by the use f ul flu x

a re als o equal E ach ele c tric circuit o f the stat o r then can be
.

c o mbined wi t h the c o rresp o nding r o t o r cir c uit I n this manner .

t he so c alled -
equivalent diagram o f the inducti o n m o t o r is
o btained a way o f representati o n which greatly simplifies the
1
,

the o ry o f t he ma c hine .

L et ig be the sec o ndary current in the c o ils o r bars o f the a c tual

r o t o r and i 2 that in the equivalent r o t o r The c o unter
,
'
.

o f b o t h r o t o rs must be the same this being the c o nditi o n o f their ,

equivalen c e so that ,

0 9 kb 2 m2 n2i2
.

fr o m which
ii / 52
” ”
m2 m
( / 1 ) (kb zne/ kb 1n 1 )

This is the rati o o f c urrent transf o rmati o n in an indu c ti o n m o t o r .

The rati o o f transf o rmati on o f the v o ltages is di ff erent namely , ,

62 7 62 kb l n l / kb 2 n2 (6 6 )

In an o rdinary transf o rmer nl / nz because there ,

=
kb 1 kb 2 = 1 and m2 m1 1
=
,
F o r this reas o n the ind ucti o n .
,

m o t o r is s o metimes regarded as a generalized transf o rmer .

Ta king the pr o duct mie fo r the actual and the equivalent r o t o r

it will be fo und that the t o tal electric p o wer input is the same in
b o th pr o vided t ha t t he same phase displacement is preserved in
,
'

the equivalent r o t o r as in the o riginal o ne The latter c o nditi o n is .

essential in o rder that the Operating characteristics o f the t w o

machines be the same This means (a ) that the t o tal i r l o ss o f
.
2

the equivalent r o t o r must be equal t o that o f the o riginal r o t o r in ,

o rder t o preserve the same slip and (b) that the leakage r eact ,

auces o f the t w o r o t o rs must affect the p o wer fact o r o f the

primary current in the same way .

L et r2 and T 2 be the resistances o f the actual and o f the e q uiva

,

lent r o t o r per p ole per phase W e have the c o nditi on that

, .

z
M glz rz (6 7)
1
C ha s . P S tein m et , A lterna ting
. z C urren t P heno mena p . 24 9 ;
E lements of E lec tric a l E ngineering p 263
. .
CR A P . VI I ] M M F
. . . O F D I S T R I B U TE D W I ND I NG S 13 5

S ubstituting the rati o o f i2 / i2 fr o m eq (6 5) we find

’
.

Fo r a transfo rme r this equati o n redu c es to the familiar expressi o n

I

The rati o o f the induc t an c es is the same as that o f t he resist

auces ; this can be pr o ved as f o ll o ws : I n o rder that the equivalent
winding may have the same e ff ect on the p o wer fact o r o f the m o t o r
as the actual win din g the equivalent win ding must d raw fr o m the
,

lin e an equal am o un t o f reactive vo lt amperes due t o its leakage -

,

in ductance The m agnetic energies st o red in the t wo r o to r wind

.

ings must the ref o r e be equ al and we have acc o rd ing t o eq ( 10 4) , , .

in A rt 58 .
,

m2 5&s 7m

whe re L 2 and U 2 are the leakage inductan ces o f the real and t he
equivalent r o t o r windings per p o le per phase The fo rm o f this , .

equati o n is the same as that o f eq (6 7) therefo re substituting .

,

again the r ati o o f i g/ iz fr o m eq (65) an expressi o n is o btained fo r

'
.

the r ati o o f L g/ L z identical with that given b y eq

’
namely .

L2
'
L
/ 2 ml m2 k l n l k
( / ) ( b / b 2) 2 n 2
(70 )

This result c o uld also be f o reseen f r o m the fa c t that the reactances

and the resistances ente r sym metrically in the equivalent diagram ,

and relati o n (6 8) h o lds the refo re fo r the reactances x2 and

B ut in the equivalent diagram the sec o ndary and the p rimary fre
q u en c y is the same s o that the r ati o o f the induct an ces is equal t o
,

that o f the reactan ces ; this gives eq .

I t must be clearly un derst o o d that the exp ressi o ns (6 8) and ( 70 )

refe r t o the resistances and inductan ces per pole per phas e W hen .

the windings o f a phase are a ll in series b o t h in t he stato r and in t he ,

ro t o r the same rati o h o lds o f c o urse fo r the resistances per phase ;

,

o the rwise the actual c o nnecti o ns must be taken in t o c o nside rati o n ,

keeping in mind that t he t o t al i r l o ss must be the same in the

2

equivalent winding as in the a c tual o ne I l aving o b t ained the re .

s ist a nc e o f the equivalent win din g per p o le the tu r ns a re c o nnec t ed ,

in the same way a s the stato r tu rns This fact m ust be remembe red .

in pa rticular when dealing w ith individually sh o rt c ir c uited c o il s -

See the auth or s '

E xperimenta l E lect rica l E ngineering, Vol . 2, p . 77 .
13 6 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R r . 45

in the r o t o r or with a squirrel cage winding I n these t wo cases

,
-
.

the in dividual c o ils o r bars in the ro t o r are all in parallel while the ,

stat o r c o ils o f a phas e are usually all in series o r in t wo parallel ,

gr o ups I n the case o f a squirrel cage winding the resistan ce r2

.
—

in c ludes that o f a bar o f t w o c ontacts with the end rings and o f ,

-
,

the equivalent resistance o f a secti on o f the t wo end rings 1 —

.

Pr o b 1 2 In a 3 0 0 h o rse p owe r
. . c nnected p o le in d ucti o n-
,
Y -
o , l4 -

mo t or the full l o ad cu rrent i s estim ated t o be 3 10 amp Th e p ri ma ry

-
.

win din g c o n s is t s o f 33 6 tu rn s place d in 168 sl o t s ; th e win d in g pitc h i s -

W h at is the mi ni m um n umb e r o f b a rs in t h e sq ui rrel cage s ec o n d -

a ry win d ing if th e cu rre nt pe r b a r m u st not exceed 8 00 a mp ? Th e

,
.

sec o n da ry c o unter is e qual t o ab o ut 9 0 pe r ce nt o f t h e p ri m a ry

mmf
. . .
A ns 2 0 8 . .

Pr o b 13 W h at m u st b e the resi stanc e o f each sec o n da ry ba r in th e

. .

p reced ing p rob le m (includ ing t h e equivalent re si stance o f the ad j o inin g

se gm ents o f the en d ri ngs an d al so o f th e c o n tacts) if th e slip at full l o a d
-

i s t o be abo ut 4 pe r cent ? Hint : T he pe r ce nt slip i s equal t o the i r .

z

l oss in t h e ro t o r exp resse d in pe r cent o f th e p o we r input int o th e sec o n d

,

a ry If x is t h e i r l o ss in the ro to r exp r ess ed in horse p o we r we h ave

.
z
,
-

that x = 0 0 4 (3 00 Hr) .
-
A n s 70 mic rohms
. . .

Pro b 1 4 T he m o t o r with the ind ivid ually sh o rt ci rc uited sec o nd

. .

a ry c o il s th at i s u sed as an illu s t rati o n in th e text ab o ve i s t o b e

‘

, ,

inves ti gate d with respect t o its pe rf o rm anc e B y wh at fact o r m u s t t h e .

actual re si s tan ce an d ind uctance o f eac h sec o n d a ry c o il b e m ultiplie d

in ord e r t o o btain t h e equivalen t r e si s tance an d in d uctance pe r p ri m a ry
phase ? A ls o b y wh at fact o r m u st the equivalent cu rrent b e m ultiplied
in o rde r t o o b ta in t he actual cu rren t in e ac h s ec o n d a ry c o il ?
A n s 29 7 ; .

Pr o b 1 5 Pro ve fo rm ula (64a ) d i rectly b y c o n sid e ri ng th e m m fs

. .
, . . .

o f th e in divi d ual ba rs So luti o n : A t a ny in s tan t t h e cu rrent s in t h e ba rs

.

un de r a p o le a re d i st rib ute d in spac e acc o rd in g t o t h e s ine law becau s e ,

t h e glid in g flux wh ic h i nd uces t h e se cu rrent s i s s inu so id al T h e ave rage .

cu rrent pe r b a r is i\/ fi x (2 / ) = 0 9i T h e nu mb e r o f tu rns p er p o le i s 7r . .

C / 2p an d all t h es e tu rns a re a ctive a t the c rest o f t he m m f wave

2 , . . . .

T herefo re M ,

45 T he High er Ha rm o nic s
. FS I n the preceding of the M M . . .

study the effect o f the highe r harm o nics in the m m f wave was dis
, . . .

regarded I n fact these harm o nics usually exe rt a negligible

.
,

influen ce up o n the o perati on o f a g o o d p o lyphase inducti o n m o t o r ,

under n o rmal c o nditi o ns These m m f harm o nics m o ve at l o wer . . . .

speeds than the fundamental field ; theref o re the flu x es which they ,

1
S ee the auth or s E lec tric C irc uit; al so E Arn o l d
’
.
,
Die W ec hselstromtec hnik,
Vol . 5, P a rt I p 57 . .
CR A P . VI I ] M M F . . . O F D I S T RI B U TE D W I ND I NG S 7

13 7

pr o duce cut the sec o ndary c o nduct o rs at c o mparatively high rela

tive speeds ; thus sec ondary currents are induced which wipe o ut ,

these harm o nics t o a c o nsiderable degree The re are practical cases .

,

h o wever in which so me o ne pa rticular ha r m onic bec o mes o f s o me

,

imp o rtan ce and aff ects the o perati o n o f the machine pa rticularly
, ,

at starting F o r this reaso n the fo ll o wing general o utline o f the

.

p ro pe rties o f the higher harm onics in the m m f is given 1

. . . .

I n a s ingle phase machine ( Fig 3 4 ) all the highe r harm onics o f

-
.

the m m f a re p ulsating at the same frequency as the fundamental

. . .

wave but the width o f the nt h harm o nic is o nly l / nt h o f that o f

,

the fundamental wave E ach pulsating harm o nic c an be replaced .

by t wo gliding ha rm o nics o f half the amplitude o ne left go ing the ,

-
,

o ther right g o ing The linear vel o city o f these glid ing m m fs is
-
. . . .

o nly 1 nt h o f that o f the fundamental gliding waves because they ,

c o ver in the time % T a distance equal o nly t o their o wn base P Q/ n ,

( 180 electrical degrees) W ith o ne sl o t per p o le the amplitudes o f .

,

the higher harm o nics decrease acc o rding t o eq but with m o re .

than o ne sl o t o r with a fracti o nal pitch winding they decrease

,
-

m o re rapidly because different values o f kb must be taken fo r each

,

ha rm o nic (see A rt 30 ab o ve ) . .

I n a t wo phase mach ine c o nside r (Fig 3 5a ) the gliding waves

-
, .

L and R o f the nt h ha rmo nic F o r this harm o nic the distance

'

.
D ,

between 0 1 an d 0 2 is equal t o i nn electrical degrees A t the .

instant t = 0 the crest o f the wave L is at the p o int 0 1 ; at the

in stant t = i T the crest o f the wave L 2 is at the p o int 0 2 There
>
n
.

f o re the t wo waves travel a t a relative distance o f 57: (n 1) elec

,
—

t ric a l deg rees c o nsidering the base o f the nt h harm o nic as equal
,

t o its o wn 180 elect ri cal deg rees I n a simila r manner the distance .
,

between the crests o f the t wo right g o ing waves is fo und t o be -

equal t o 57: (n + 1) elect r ical degrees W e thus o btain the fo ll o wing .

table o f the angula r distances between the waves due t o the t wo

phases :
O rde r o f the ha rmo nic . 1 3 5 7 9 11
Di stance between t he tw o L n waves 0 7: 2 7: 3 7: 4 7: 5 7:
Distance between t he t w R n waves o 7: 2 7: 3 7: 4 5 7: 6 7:

The waves which travel at a distance 0 , et c .

,
a re simply
added t o gethe r wh ile th o se at a distance ,
et c .
, c ancel each
‘ F or a mo re
deta iled t rea tment see Arn o ld c hs c ls tro mtec hnik Vo l , , .

3 Chapte r 13 and Vo l 5 pa rt I C hapte r 0

,
.
,
.
13 8 T HE M A G NET IC C I RCUIT [A R T . 45

o t her Thus in a
. phase ma c hine the 3 d 7t h 1 1t h etc
,
t wo -
, , , , .
,

harm o nics travel a ga inst the dir ec tio n o f the main while the
5 t h 9 t h 13 th etc harm o nics travel in the sa me dir ec tion as the
, , , .
,

fundamental th o ugh at l o wer peripher al speeds .

A pplyin g a similar reas o ning t o a three phase winding ( Fig -

.

3 5 b) we fi nd that the three L waves travel at a relative distance o f n

g (
a n w hi le the relative distance between the three R waves is n

1) electri c al deg rees W e thus o btain the f o ll o wing table o f .

the angular dis tances between the waves due t o the three phases :
Order o f the harm onic 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Di stance between the three L n waves 0 §7r a: 0 1 5 2 97;

“
0 2 5
5 7: 3 3 7,
.

Di stance between the three R n waves . 7

3
7: -
7: 0 3
9
3 7:
32
3 7: 0 2 5 7:
3 £32

The c o mp onent waves o f any ha rm o nic which travel at a distan c e , ,

z er o fr o m each o ther are simply added t o gether and give a resul , ,

tant wave o f three times the amplitude o f the c o mp on ent The .

t hree waves which travel at an angular dist a nc e o f 437: o r one of

its multiples fr o m each o ther give a sum equal t o z er o Thus in a .
,

three phase mach ine the l st 7t h 13 th etc harm o nics travel in

-
, , , , .
,

o ne directi o n wh ile the 5t h 1 1t h 17t h etc harm onics travel

, , , , .
,

against the directi o n o f the fun damental m m f The higher the . . .

o rder o f a harm o nic the l o wer its periphe ral speed The harm onics .

o f the o rder 3 9 15 etc are entirely absent , , ,

.
, .

Pr o b 1 6 W h at a re th e a mplitud es o f th e fifth a nd th e sevent h

. .

h a rm o nic s in p ercentage o f th at o f th e fun d amental wave fo r a three

, ,

ph as e win d ing place d in 2 s l o t s pe r p o le pe r pha se w hen th e win d in g ,

pitc h is 5 / 6 ? A ns an d pe r cen t respectively .

.

Pro b 1 7 Show th at in o rd e r t o elim inate th e nt h ha rmo nic in

. .
,

the m m f wave the win d ing pitc h m u st satisfy thi s c o n d iti o n ; n a mely
. . .
,
—

wh e re r i s defined in Fi g 16 a nd q i s e qual t o eithe r 0 .

, ,

1 2 3
, ,
etc,
H int : C o s h n m u s t
. b e = 0 v .

Pr o b 1 8 I nvestigate th e d i re cti o n o f m o ti o n o f th e va ri o u s h a r
. .

m o nies o f th e m m f in a symmet rical m pha se system . . .

-
.

Pro b 1 9 Sh ow th at o nly the nt h ha rmo nic in th e m m f wave

. . . . .
,

d ue t o the nt h h a rmo nic in th e excitin g cu rren t m o ves sync hro n o usly ,

with the fun d ame ntal gli din g an d the refo re d i st o rt s it pe rm a

nent ly .

Pro b 20 A p o o rly d e signed 2 ph ase 6 0 cycle in ductio n mo to r h a s

. .
-
,
—

4 p o l e s 1 sl o t pe r p h a s e pe r p o le an d a wind in g pitch o f 1 0 0 pe r c ent

, , .

A t what sub syn chro n o u s s peed i s it m o st li kely t o stic k ? H int : T h e

-

t or qu e d ue t o a ny h a rmo nic r eve rs e s a s t h e mo to r pa sses th ro u gh t h e

c o rre sp o nd ing s ub sync hro n o us speed A n s 36 0 r p m
—
. . . . .
 C HA P T E R VI I I

A R MA T UR E R E A CTIO N IN S Y N C HR O N O U S
M A C HIN E S

46 A rma tur e R
. cti o n and A rma tur e R eacta nc e in a Syn
ea

c h r o n ons M ach in eW hen a synch ro n o us machine ca rri es a l o ad

.
,

eithe r as a generat o r o r as a m o t o r the a r matu re cur rents bein g

, ,

so urces o f m o d ify the flux c reated by the field c o ils and ,

thus in fluence the pe rf o r m ance o f the machine Fig 36 sh o ws an . .

< 0 —
Dlrec t ton of R otati n o «s«
-

F ro 3 6 .
—
The flux dis t ributio n in a si ngle phase - syn ch rono us mac hine
under l oad .

instantane o us flux dist r ibuti o n in the simplest case o f a single

phase al t e rnato r with o ne sl o t pe r po le ; the armature c o nducto rs
,

a re marked a and b W ith the directi o ns o f the a rmature and field

.

cur rents indicated in the sketch t he flux is c ro wded t o wa rd the

,

right hand tips o f the p o les I n o rde r t o sh o w this imagin e t wo

- .
,

fictiti o us c o nduct o rs a and b with cu rrents equal and o pp o si t e

’ ’

13 9
14 0 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA RT . 46

to th o se in the actu a l c onduct o rs a and b respectively The addi .

ti o n o f these fictiti o us c o nduct o rs d o es no t m o dify the armature

m m f because they neutralize each o ther The c o nduct o r a
. . . .
’

may be c onside red as f o rming a turn with a while b f o rms a t urn ,

’

with b I t will be seen that the m m f o f the c o il d a assists that

. . . .
’

o f the field c o il A while the m m f o f the c o il bb is o pp o site t o that ’

. . .
,

o f the field c o il B .

The arm atur e cu r rent in the c o il a b not only dist o rts the n o
l o ad field but als o reduces the t o tal flux pe r p ole This may be
,
.

seen by c o nsidering the flux in the f o ur parts o f the air ga p marked -

,

x y x and y where x= x and y = y The sum o f the fluxes in

’ ’ ’ ’
.
, , , ,

the p o rti ons y and y is the same as with o ut the armature current ’
,

because the flux density in the part y is increased by the same

am o unt by which it is reduced in the part y (neglecting satura ’

ti o n ) B ut in the parts at and x the flux is reduced by the arma

.
’

t ure so that the t o tal result o ver the p o le pitch is a redu e -

ti o n in the value o f the no l o ad flux The p o siti o n o f the armature -

.

c onduct o rs and the directi on o f the armature currents have been

selected arbitrarily They can be ch o sen so that the flux will be .

cr o wded t o ward the left hand tips o f the p oles o r so that the t o tal -
,

flu x will be increased by the armature instead o f bein g

reduced The influence o f the armature currents in m o difyin g the
.
,

value o f the field flux and dist o rting it is called the a rma ture rea c ,

tio n .The armature reacti on is measured in ampere tu rns since -

,

it is a ma gnet o m otive f o rce .

I n additi o n t o the general dist o rti o n o f the field by the arma

ture currents there is a l o cal dist o rti o n ar o und each armature
,

c onduct o r This d ist o rti on d o es not extend int o the p o le sh o es

.
,

but is limited t o the sl o ts and the air gap ; it is indicated in Fig 3 6 -

.

by ripples in the flux ar o und a and b These ripples may be .

regarded as a result of the superp o siti o n up o n the main flux of the

l o cal flu x es (P and (Pb excited by the armature currents W hile
a .

these l o cal fluxes sh o wn by the d o tted lines have no real existence

, , ,

e x cept ar o un d the end c o nnecti o ns o f the armature c onduct o rs ,

it is c o nvenient t o c onsider them sepa r ately They are purely .

alternating fluxes in phase with the currents with which they are
,

linked so that they induce in the armature windings alte rnating

,

e m fs in a lagging phase quadrature with the currents

. . . .

The e ff ect o f these l o cal fluxes up on the v o ltage o f the machine

is represented by a ce rtain a rma ture rea c ta nce because the effect is ,
C RAP V III ] RE AC TI O N I N
. S Y NCHR O N O US M ACH I N E S 14 1

the same as if t he a rm atu re winding c reated no leakage fluxes

ar o und it but a sepa r ate reactance c o il were c o nnected in se ries
,

with each a r mature lead The calculati o n o f the armature react

.

an ce o r o f the l o cal fluxes is treated in A rt 6 7 the subj ec t o f t his

, , .
,

chapte r being armature reac t i o n o nly that is the eff ect o f the l o ad , ,

Up o n the main magnetic circ uit I n the nume rical pro blems o f t his
.

chapter fo r the s o luti o n o f which it is necessa ry t o kn o w the value

,

o f the armatu r e r eactance this value is given , I t is no t quite .

c o rrect st rictly speaking t o sepa rate the l o cal dist o rti o n o f the
, ,

main flux as a phen o men o n by itself ; m o re o ver the separa t i o n is ,

so mewhat indefinite and arbitrary Ho weve r the flux so separated .

,

is c o mpa r atively small and the treatment of the a r matu re reacti o n

,

pr o pe r is the reby g reatly simplified .

The dist ributi o n sh o wn in Fig 3 6 va ries fr o m instant t o inst a nt

.

because the relative p o siti o n o f the a r mature changes with refer

ence t o the p o les as well as the value o f the armature current
, .

B esides there a re usu a lly t wo o r th r ee armatu re phases and sev

, ,

eral sl o ts pe r p o le pe r phase I t w ould be o ut o f the questi o n t o

.

calculate the actual fluxes fo r each instant and t o take int o acc o unt
thei r t rue in fluen ce up o n the e m f induced in the armature I n . . . .

p ractice ce rtain appro ximate ave r age values o f armatu re reacti o n

,

and o f a r matu re reactance a re empl oyed which pe rmit o ne t o ,

predict the actual pe rfo rm ance of a m achine with a sufficient

accu r acy .

I n the case o f a synch ron o us gene r at o r (alte rn at o r) the p ro ble m

us ually p resents itself in the f o ll o wing fo rm : I t is required t o pre
dete r mine the field a m pe re tu rn s necessa ry fo r a p resc ribed te r
-

m in al vo ltage at a given l o ad Kn o win g the resistance and the

.

leakage reactan ce o f the a rm atu re the v o ltage dr o p in the a r ma ,

ture is added ge o met rically t o the terminal vo ltage ; this gives the
induced v o ltage in the machine Kn o wing fro m the no l o ad satu ra
.
-

ti o n cu rve the required net excitati o n at this vo ltage and c o r rect ,

ing it fo r the e ffect o f the a r mature reacti o n the necessa ry field ,

ampe re tu rns a re o btained The res ults o f such calculati o ns fo r

-
.

diff e rent values o f the a r matu re cu rrent and fo r vari o us p o wer

facto rs pl o tted a s cu rves a re c alled the loa d c ha rac teristics o f the
, ,

alte rnato r .

I n the case o f a svnc hro no us m o t o r the te rm inal v o ltage is usu

ally given and it is required t o dete r mine t he field ex c i t a t i o n su c h
,

that at a given mechanical o utput t he inpu t t o t he a r matu re be at

, ,
14 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A m . 46

a given p o wer fact o r ; a leading p o wer f act o r is usually presc ribed

- -
,

in o rder t o raise the lagging p o wer fact o r o f the wh o le plant The -

.

pr o blem is s o lved in like m anner t o that o f the generat o r by ,

taking int o acc o unt the pro per signs when calc ulating the reactance
dr o p an d the armature reacti o n The results pl o tted in the f o rm .
,

o f curves are called the pha se c ha r a c teristic s o r V c ur ves o f a -

, ,

syn chr o n o us m o t o r l .

I t w ill be seen fr o m Fig 3 6 that the cr o wding o f the flux t o o ne .

p o le tip by the armature currents is primarily due t o the fact that

-
, ,

the p o les sh o wn there are pr o j ecting o r salient so that the relue ,

tance al o ng the air gap is variable W ith non salient p o les the -
.
-

flux is simply shifted sidewise with o ut being dist o rted Therefo re .

,

bef o re g o ing int o the details o f the calculati on o f armatu re reacti o n

in machines with salient p oles we shall first c onsider (in the next
a rticle ) the case o f a machine with non salient p o les -
.

Pro b 1 Draw the d ist rib uti o n o f the flu x simila r t o th a t shown

. .
,

in Fi g 36 w hen t he a rm atu r e c o n d uct o rs a re o pp o s it e t h e c e nte rs o f t h e

.
,

p o l es an d when they a re so m ewhe re b e twee n t he ad j ac ent p o le tip s

,
-
.

Pro b 2 E xplain the de tail s o f th e flux d istributi o n in Fig 36 by

. . .
,

means o f a hydra ulic anal o gy a ss umin g A an d B t o rep re sent t wo m ai n ,

c ent rifugal pumps and a a nd b t o be t wo sm aller pump s pl a c ed in t h e

,

st ream .

Pr o b 3 L et eac h fi eld c o il in Fig 3 6 h ave N tu rns and le t th e

. . .
,

exciting cu rren t be I let t he numb er o f c ond ucto rs at a be C a nd t he s,

instantaneo u s value of t h e a rm atu re cu rrent i W h at i s t he to tal flux .

pe r p o le if t he a verage p erm eance o f th e m ac hine pe r p o l e i s (P pe rms

,

p er el ec tri cal r ad ian and t he a ngl es 0 a nd :c a re in elect rical rad ians ?

,

A ns (2 N 1 0 i n m axwell s . .

Pro b 4 L et a synchro no u s m ac hi ne b e l o aded in such a way th at

. .

th e a rm ature cu rr ent r eac h e s it s m axim um wh e n t h e c o n d uct o rs a an d b

( Fi g 3 6) a r e o pp o s ite t h e c e nte rs o f t he p o le s in o t h e r wo rds t h e cu rren t
.
, ,

i s in phase wit h th e e m f wh ic h wo uld be in d uc ed at no l o ad P ro ve . . . .

th at (neglecting s atu rati o n ) th e a vera ge fl ux pe r p o le d u rin g a c o mplete

cycle i s t h e s am e a s w itho ut t h e a rm a t u r e reacti o n b ut i s c rowd e d t o ,

the lead i ng tip o f th e p o le i e in t he d i recti o n o f ro tati o n in t he ca se o f , . .

,

a mo t or an d t o t he t railing tip o r again s t the d i recti o n o f ro tati o n wh en

, ,

the m ac h ine i s wo rki ng a s a ge ne rat o r Hi nt : Th e flux i s wea ken ed a s .

m uc h in th e p ositi o n a: o f the c o n d uct o rs as it is st ren gth ened in th e

symm et rical p o siti o n x the disto rti o n is in the same d i re ct ion in bo th '

p o si ti o n s .

Se the auth or s E xperiment l E l t i l E ngin Vol 2 p 12 1 ;

1 ’
e ing a ec r c a eer ,
.
,
.

al so his E says o n S ynch ro n o u s M achine ry G n l E l tric R eview

s
”
,
e era ec ,

19 1 1, p 2 14 . .
CR AP . V III ] RE AC TI O N I N S YNCHR O N O U S M AC HI N E S 143

Pro b 5 L et a sy n c hrono us ma c hine be l o ad ed in s uc h a way t hat

. .

t h e a rm at ure cu rrent reac he s its ma xim um whe n t h e c ond uct o rs a and b

( Fi g 36 ) a re mi d way between t he p o le s in o t h e r w o rds wh en the cu rrent
.
, ,

i s d is plac ed by 9 0 ele ct rical d egre e s wi t h respec t t o the e m f ind uce d . . .

at no l o ad Pro ve t h at th e a vera ge dis to rtio n d u ring a c om pl ete cycle

.

i s z e ro b ut t hat the flux i s wea ken ed if th e a rm atu re cu rren t l a gs beh in d

,

th e i nd uced an d is s t ren gt he ned by a lead ing cu rre n t Hin t : .

T h e flux i s wea ken ed in b o th o f th e symm et rical p o s iti ons 1: and x o f ,

’
,

th e c o n d uct o rs b ut t h e d is t o rti o n is i n Opp o site d i re cti o n s

, .

Pro b 6 In a singl e p h ase synchro n o u s m ach i ne th e a rm atu re

. .
-

cu rrent reac hes it s m axim u m wh en the a rm atu re c ond ucto rs a re d i s

plac ed by an an gle d wit h re spect t o th e cen te rs o f the p o l es ; p ro ve th at
r
’

the field i s d i s t o rted by th e c o m p o n e nt i c o s (I o f th e c u rren t and i s :

wea kened o r s t rengthened by th e c o mp onent i sin 90 .

47 . T he Per f o rman c e Dia gr a m o f a Syn ch r o n o u s M a c hin e with

N o n- Sa li ent P o l es in a machine with non salient p o les the . L et , -
,

field windin g be placed in several sl o ts pe r p o le so that the field ,

m m f in the active laye r o f the machine is appr o ximately dist rib

. . .

ut ed acc o rding t o the sine law C onside r the machine t o be a .

p o lyphase generat o r supplying a pa rtly inductive l o ad The a mpli .

tude o f the first harm o nic o f the armatu re reacti o n has the value
given by eq (64 ) in A rt 43 and revo lves synchr on o usly with the
. .
,

field as is explained the re S ince the sum o f t wo s ine waves .

is also a sine wave the resultant m m f is also distribute d in the ,

. . .

active laye r o f the machine acc o rding t o the sine law .

T o deduce the phase displacement in space between the t wo , ,

sine waves c onsider the c o il a b (Fig 3 6) t o be o ne o f the phases o f

,
.

t he p o lyphase a r matu re winding F o r reas o ns o f symmetry the .

,

maxi mum m m f p ro duced by a p o lyphase windin g is at t he cente r

. . .

o f the c o il in which at that pa rticula r m o ment the cu r rent is at a

maximum A ssu m e first th at the cur rent in the pha se a b reaches its
.

maxi mum when the c o nduct o rs a and b a re o pp o site t he cente rs o f

the p o les The m aximum a r matu re m m f at that instant is dis
. . . .

placed by 90 electrical deg rees with respect t o the c enter lines

o f the p o les The di recti o n o f the armatu re cur re nt is determined
.

by the well kn o wn r ule and it is fo und t o be such that the a r ma

-
,

t u re m m f la gs behind that o f the p o le c onsidering the directi o n

. . .
,

o f ro tati o n o f the p o le s as p o sitive S ince b o th m m fs revo lve . . . .

synchro n o usly this angle between t he t wo m m f c rests is pre , . . .

The an gle 90 is di ffe rent from t he exte r nal p ha se-a ngle d; between the
‘

cu rrent and t he te rminal v olta ge ; see Fig 3 7 . .

144 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R r '
. 47

served all the time Thus in a p o lyphase generat o r the armature .

, ,

m m f lags behind the field m m f by 90 electrical degrees in

. . . . . .

spa c e when the currents are in phase with the v o ltages induced at
,

no l o ad
-
This statement is in ac c o rd with that in pr o blem 4 in the
.

preceding article because if each phase shifts the flux against the , ,

directi o n o f ro tati o n all the phases t o gether simply inc rease the ,

result .

L et no w the currents in the armature windings be lagging

90 electrical degrees behin d the c o rresp o nding e m fs induced . . .

at no l o ad This simply means that the armatu r e m m f is shi f ted

-
. . . .

fu rther ba c k by 90 degrees as c o mpared t o the case c o nsidered

befo re ; theref o re the angle between the field m m f and the , . . .

armatu re m m f is 180 elect rical degrees and the t wo m m fs are

. . .
, . . .

simply in phase o pp o siti on This is in acc o r d with the state m ent .

in p ro b 5 . .

F r o m the t wo preceding cases it fo ll o ws that when in a syn ,

chro n ons m achine with no n salient p o les the cu rrents lag by an -

angle gt electrical degrees (Figs 3 7 and 3 8) with respect t o the .

induced vo ltage at no l o ad the armature m m f wave lags by an -

,
. . .

angle o f 90 (l electrical degrees behind the field m m f wave I n

; . . . .

the case o f a generat o r with leading currents the angle 5b is negative ;

in a synchr o n o us m o t o r 35 is larger than 90 degrees .

L et in Fig 3 7 i be the vect o r o f the current in one o f the phases

,
.
, ,

an d let e be the c o rresp o nding terminal v o ltage the phase angle ,

between the t w o being qfi A dding t o e in the usual way the o hmic .

d r o p ir in the armature in phase with i and the reactive dr o p ix , ,

in leadin g quadrature with i the induced vo ltage E in the same ,

phase is o btain ed 1
The resultant useful flux (D which induces .
, ,

this e m f leads E by 90 degrees in time ; (0 is in phase with the

. . .

net o r resultant m m f M which pr o duces it The m m f M is a . . .

n . . . .
n

sum o f the field m m f M f and o f the a rmatu r e r eacti o n M . . . a

ac c ount o f skin e ffect and eddy cu rrents in the a rm atu re c o nduct ors
On ,

the eff ective re si stance r t o alte rnatin g cu rrents is c on side rably hi gher than that
calculated or m easu red with di rect cu rrent The actual am o unt o f inc rease .

depen ds up o n the characte r o f the win din g the si z e o f the c o nduct ors the , ,

shape o f the sl o t s the frequency etc s o that n o definite rule can be given
, ,
.
,
.

F ort unately the ohm ic dro p c o n stitute s but a small pe rcenta ge o f the v o lta ge
,

of a m achine so that a c on side rable e rror c omm itted in estim atin g the value
,

of the ir d rop affect s the v olta ge relati on s b ut very little See A B Field . . .
,
”
E ddy Cu rrent s in L ar ge S l o t w o und Co nduct ors T ra ns A mer I nst -
,
. . .

E lect E ngrs Vo l 2 4
. p 76 1 .
,
. . .
C RAP . V III ] RE AC TI O N I N SY NCHRO N O US M ACH I N E S 14 5

exp ressed by eq (64 ) The triangle O F G rep resents the relati o ns in

.

space while the figure G A B D is a time diagr am The ref o re the

,
.
,

t w o figures a re indepe ndent o f o ne an o ther ; but it is c o nvenient

t o c o mbine t hem int o o ne by using the c o mm o n vect o rs dl and i
, .

FI G 37 . .
—
The pe rformance dia gra m o f a sync hro n o us ra tor
gene ,
with
no w sa lient po les .

W ith respect the t riangle O FG the vecto r i rep re sen t s t he po si

to ,

t i o n o f the c rest o f the a rmatu re m m f rela t ively t o the c rest 0 0

. . .

o f t he field the a ngle between t he t wo b eing 90 + c as is

’7
,

explained abo ve Thus the vec t o r M is in phase with i

.
, 0 .
14 6 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A rm 4 7

W hen i an d are given the vect o r E is easily f o und if the

e ,

resistance and t he reactance o f the arma t ure wind ing are kn o wn .

The required net excita t i o n M is then taken fr o m the no l o ad , n,

-

sa t ura t i o n c urve o f t he machine and M is figured o ut fr o m eq , a .

Then the required field ampere turns M f are f o und fr o m -

, ,

t he diagram either graphically o r analytically

,
.

The diagram sh o wn in Fig 3 7 is kn o wn as the P otier dia gra m . .

S t ric t ly speaking i t is c o rrect o nly fo r ma c hines with n o n salient

,
-

p o les but as an appro ximate semi empirical meth o d it is s o me

,
-

t imes used fo r machines with pr o j ecting p o les in pla c e o f the m o re ,

c o rrect diagram sh o wn in Fig 4 0 Fig 3 7 represents the c o ndi . . .

t i o ns in the c ase o f a generat o r with lagging currents W hen the .

c urrent is leading the vect o r i is drawn t o the left o f the vect o r e ,

with the c o rresp o nding changes in the o ther vect o rs .

A similar diagram fo r a syn chr o n o us m o t o r which draws a

leading current fr o m the line is sh o wn in Fig 3 8 The vect o r e . .
’

represents the line vo ltage and e is the equal and o pp o site v o ltage
,

which is the terminal vo ltage o f the m achine c o nsidered as a gen

crat o r The rest o f the diagra m is the same as in Fig 3 7 A lead
. . .

ing current with respect t o the line v o ltage e is a lagging cur rent ’

wi t h respect t o the generat o r term in al vo ltage e so that the field ,

is weakened by the armature reacti o n in b o th cases (M < M f in n

b o th figures) The energy c o mp o nent i l o f the current is reversed

.

in the m o t o r there f o re the field is shi f ted in the o pp o site direc

,

ti o n ; M leads M f in the m o t o r diagram and lags behind it in the

n

generat o r diagram The case o f a synchr o n o us m o t o r with a

.

lagging current can be easily analy z ed by anal o gy with the ab o ve

described cases .

I n pra c tice it is usually preferred t o represent the r elati o ns

,

sh o wn in Figs 3 7 and 3 8 analytically rather than t o actually c o n

.
,

struct a diagram The f o ll o wing relati o ns h o ld fo r b o th the gen

.

e ra t o r and the m o t o r P r o j ecting all the sides o f the p o lygo n

.

C A E D o n the direc t i o n e and o n the directi o n perpendic ular t o

and leading 6 by 90 degrees we have ,

E cos e + ir c o s ( 5 + ix
1 sin 96 ,

E sin gb ,
= ix c o s
l
c> a ,

where 96 is the angle between the vect o rs e and E c o unted p o sitive

, ,

when E leads e as in Fig 3 7 The s u bs c rip t 2 suggests that the

, . .
CR A P V I I I]
.
RE AC TI O N IN S YNC HRO N O US M ACHI N E S 14 7

an gle (15 is due t o the impedance o f the a rmatu re The exp ressi o ns
, .

i c o s qi and i sin 95 represe nt the energy c o mp o nent an d the rea c t

ive c o mp o nent o f the cu rrent respec t ively ; a r e designated in

F I G 38
. .
—
The pe rformance dia gram o f a synch ro n o us mo tor with ,

no w sa lie nt po les
- .

Figs 3 7 and 3 8 by i ,
. an d ig . Den o t ing the right han d sides o f the
-

eqs (7 1) and (72) b y

.
e; a nd ez fo r t he sake o f b revi t y we have
,

cl

(52 - in: —
i2 r .
1 48 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA a r . 47

S quaring eqs (7 1) and (72) and adding them t o gether gives

.

E = N/ el
2
e2
2 1
.

Dividing eq (7 2) . by (7 1) results in
tan ¢ z
=
(7 6 )

C o nsequently , the angle between E and i bec o mes kn o wn ; namely ,

+ 915 (7 6 a )
where gb is called the interna l phase angle Kn o wing E the c o r
’
.
,

resp o nding e xc itati o n M is taken fr o m the no l o ad saturati o n

n
-

curve o f the machine ; fr o m the triangle O F G we have then :

M,2
W M0 2
sin (77)
where gb is kn o wn fr o m eq (7 6 a ) I n numerical applicati ons it is
'
. .

c o nvenient t o e x press all the M s in kil o ampere turns ’

-
.

The diagram sh o wn in Fig 3 8 and the equati o ns devel o ped .

ab o ve can be used fo r determining no t o nly the phase c ha ra c teris

tics o f a synchr o n o us m o t o r but its o verl o ad capacity at a given
,

field current as well This latter pr o blem is o f extreme imp o rtance

.

in the design o f synchr o n o us m o t o rs The input int o the machine .

,

per phase is ei c o s d) ; the part ir o f the line vo ltage is l o st in the

,
—

armature the part ix c o rresp onds t o the magnetic energy which is

,

peri o di c ally st o red in the machine and returned t o the line , with o ut
pe rf o rming any w o rk The remainder E c o rresp o nds t o the use
.
, ,

ful w o rk d o ne by the machine plus the ir o n l o ss and f ricti o n I f , .

the armature p o ssessed n o resistance and n o leakage reactance the

terminal vo ltage w o uld be equal t o E in magnitude and in phase
p o siti o n Thus the e x pressi o n E i c o s gb c o rrected fo r the c o re
.
,
—
'
,

l o ss in the armature ir o n represents the input int o the rev olving

,

structure per phase The o verl o ad capacity o f the machine is

, .

determined by the p o ssible ma x imum o f t his e x pressi o n .

The pr o blem is c o mplicated by the fact that the relati o n

between E and M is e x pressed by the no l o ad saturati o n curve
n
-
,

whi c h is di ffic ult t o represent by an equati on The pr o blem is .

In num e rical applicati o n s it i s more c onvenient t o use the approximate

formula
E :
er (7 5 a )
obtained by the bin omial expan i o n of expre i o n s ss s ince all o ther te rm s
can be ne glected when i sm all c om pared t o c
e2 s as l.
CR A P . V III ] R E AC TI O N I N S YNCHR O N O US M ACH I NE S 149

the ref o re s o lved by t rials assuming a ce rtain reas o nable value o f ,

’
E an d calculating the expressi o n
,
E i c o s gb unt il a value o f E —
,

is fo und fo r which this expressi o n c o r rected fo r the c o re l o ss f ric

, , ,

ti on and windage bec o mes a maximum The p ro blem o f fin din g

, , .

i and oS fo r an assumed E is a defin ite o ne because the f o ur equa

’
,

ti o ns (76a ) and (77) c o ntain o nly f o ur un kn o wn quanti

ties i qS gb and qS I n stead o f s o lving the p ro blem by trials an
, , , z,
'
.
,

analytical relati o n can be assumed between E and M n o n the use ,

ful pa rt o f the n o l o ad saturati o n cu r ve fo r instan ce a straight line

-
,

(not pass ing thr o ugh the o rigin ) a pa r ab o la etc The pro blem is , , .

then s o lved by equating the first derivative o f the p roduct

E i c o s qS t o z er o having previ o usly expressed E i and c o s 95
' ’
, , ,

th ro ugh so me o ne independent variable B o th meth o ds have .

been wo rked o ut fo r a synch ro n o us m o t o r with salient p o les l The .

relati ons are simplified fo r a machine with n on salient p o les -

.

The fo rego ing the o ry o f the armature reacti o n d o es no t apply

di rectly t o single phase machines The pulsatin g armatu r e rea o
-
.

ti o n in such a machin e can be reso lved into t wo revo lving reacti ons ,

as in A rt 4 2 The reacti on which revo lves in the same di recti o n

. .

with the main field is taken int o acc o un t as in a p o lyphase machine .

The inverse reacti o n is partly wiped o ut by the eddy currents pro

duc ed in the metal pa rts o f the r ev o lving structure ; it is the refo re
difficult t o express the e ff ect o f this reacti o n the o retically The .

treatment in this b o o k is limited t o p o lyphase m achines which a re ,

used in practice alm o st exclusively 2

.

P ro b 7 I n th e 100 kva
. . 4 4 0 v o lt 6 p ole t w o phase al tern a to r -
,
-
,
-
,

gi ven in Pro blem 6 Art 43 the amp l itu de o f the fi rs t harmo n ic o f the
, .
,

a rmat ur e reacti o n w a s 48 00 0 am p ere t u rns W h at is th e p er c en t ,

- .

vo ltag e regulati o n o f the ma c hine a t a p ower fac to r o f 8 0 p er cent -

l agging if ,t ha t i s if t he a rm atu re has o ne c onducto r per sl o t ?

T he a rma ture rea ctan ce i s o hm and the a rm atu re res i s ta n c e is ,

o hm bo th p er phase , The no lo ad sa tu ra tion c urve o f the .

-

m ac hine is as fo ll ows :
e - 400 44 0 490 5 25 5 5 0 vo lts .

M u =6 7 . kilo amp turns .

-
.

Ans 22 per cent . .

‘
Sec the auth or s E ssays o n S ynch ro no us M achine ry G enera l E lec tric
'

R eview 19 1 1 J uly and S eptem b er

, , .

I n re ga rd t o the a rmatu e rea cti o n in si ngle p hase mac hi nes see E r -

, .

A rn o ld Die W ec h el tr mt ec hnik Vo l 4
,
s pp 3 2 3 0 ; Pic helma y er
s o , . .
-
,

Dy na mo ba u pp 25 1 2 59 ; M a x W engner, T heoretis chc a nd E xperi

.
—

mentd lc Unle rsuc hungen a n der S y nchro nc n E inpha sen-M aschinc ( O lden b o u rg,
.
150 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 48

Pro b 8 T h e m achine specified abo ve i s t o be u sed a s a syn c hro n o us

. .

mo t or De te rm ine grap hically th e requi red fiel d excitati o n when the

.

useful o utput o n the s haft i s t o be 700 kw an d in additi o n the m ac hine .

,

m us t draw from the li ne 6 00 lead i ng reactive kva Th e efficiency o f the .

m ac hin e at th e ab o ve m en ti o ned l o ad i s es tim ated t o be ab o ut 9 1 pe r -

c ent .
A ns kil o a mpe re tu rns .
-
.

Pro b 9 Draw t o the s am e s cale a s th e d iagram s h o wn in Fi g 3 7

. . .
,

an o th e r s im ila r d iagram fo r th e s am e value o f t h e current an d o f the ,

p ha s e an gl e 95 except that th e cu rren t i s t o b e lead ing Ass um e a ,

.

rea so nable s hape o f the satu rati o n c ur ve in d ete rm in ing th e n ew value o f

M n . S h o w th at a m uc h sm alle r excitin g cu rr en t i s r e q ui red wit h t h e
sa m e kva o utp ut th an in th e c a s e o f a laggin g cu rren t
.
,
.

Pro b 1 0 So lve p ro blem 9 fo r th e mo t o r d ia gram sho wn in Fig 38

. . .
,

ass um ing the cu rrent t o b e lagging wit h respect t o th e line vo ltage .

Pr o b 1 1 F o r a given alte rna to r show ho w t o dete rm ine th e v o ltage

. .
,

e ( Fi g analytically o r grap h ically wh en M f i a nd 75 a re given ;

.
, , ,

explai n wh en s uc h a c ase a ri se s in p ractice .

Pro b 1 2 F o r a given sync hro no u s mo t o r show how t o d ete rm in e

. .
,

the reactive c om p o ne nt i o f th e cu rrent ( Fi g an alytically o r gr ap hic 2

.

all y when M f e an d i a re given ; e xplain when s uc h a ca s e a ri se s in

, , ,

p ractice .

Pro b 1 3 W o rk o ut t h e d etail s o f th e ab o ve menti o ned meth o d

. .
-

fo r t h e d ete rminati o n o f t h e o ve r l o ad capacity o f a syn c hro n o u s mo t or

by t ri al s H in t : In t ro d uce t h e c om p o nent s o f e an d i in p h as e an d in
.
,

quadratu re w ith E ; rew rite eqs ( 7 1) an d ( 72 ) by p ro j ectin g t he fi gu re .

O A B D o n t h e d i recti o n o f E an d o n that pe rpen d icula r t o E Us e no .

an gle s in th e f orm ul ae an d n eglect th e sm all te rms c o ntai ning r wh e re , ,

they lead t o c o mplicated equati o n s o f h i gh e r de gree s .

48 T he Di r ect a nd T
. ra nsverse A rm atu re R eacti o n in a Synch r o
n o us M achine with Sali ent P o les I n a machine with n on salient .
-

p o les the armature reacti o n shi f ts the field flux but hardly dist o rts
its shape I n a machine with pr o j ecting p o les the flu x generally
.
,

speaking is b o th altered in val ue and cr o wded t o ward o ne p o le

,

tip ( Fig I t is c o nvenient there f o re t o res o lve the travelin g

.
, ,

wave o f the armature m m f int o t w o waves o ne wh o se crests c o in . . .

,

cide with the center lines o f the p oles the o ther displaced by 90 ,

electrical degrees with respect t o it The first c o mp o nent o f the

armature m m f pro duces o nly a direct e ff ect up o n the field . . .

flux that is it either strengthens o r weakens the flu x with o ut dis

, , ,

t o rt ing it The sec o nd c o mp onent pro duces a transverse .

acti o n o nly viz it shifts the flux t o ward o ne o r the o ther p o le tip
, .
,
-
,

with o ut altering its value (that is neglecting the saturati on ) , .

W e have seen bef o re that an armature current which reaches ,

its ma x imum when the c onduct o r is o pp o site the center o f the

C RAP V II I] RE AC TI O N I N SY NCHR O N O US
.
M ACH I NE S 15 1

p o le dist o rts the flux ; while a cu rrent in quadrature with the

,

f o r mer exe rts a dir ect reacti o n o nly I t is natural therefo re t o .

, ,

res o lve the actual current in each phase int o t w o c o mp o nents in ,

time quadrature with each o ther and in such a way that each ,

c o mp o nent reaches its maximum in o ne o f t he ab o ve menti o ned -

p rincipal p o siti o ns o f the c o nducto r with respect t o the field p o les -

.

L et the c urr ent in each phase be i and let it reach its maximum at ,

an angle gt after the induced no l o ad v o ltage is a maximum ( Fig

: -
.

Then the t wo c o mp o nents o f the current a re

’

id = i sin

=
i¢ i c os

The c o m p onent id p ro duces a direct a r matu re r eacti o n o nly ,

an d the c o mp o nent i t a transverse reacti o n o nly

l
.

F o r practical calculati o ns and in o rder t o get a c o nc rete picture ,

o f the armature reacti o n it is c o nvenient t o rep resent the armatu r e

,

reacti on as sh o wn in Fig 3 9 N amely the direct reac t i o n due t o

. .
, ,

the c o mp o nents id o f the a r mature currents is replaced by an equiv ,

alent numbe r o f c o ncent r ated ampe re tu rns M d o n the p o le ; The -

value o f M d is selected so that its acti o n in reducing o r strength

ening the flux is equal t o the t rue acti o n o f the armature c ur rents .

The t ransve rse reacti o n due t o the c o mp onent i, o f t he a r matu re

,

cu rrents is replaced by a certain number o f ampere turns M 7 o n

,
-
, ,

the fi c titio us poles (S ) (N ) sh o wn by d o tted lines between the real

, , ,

p o les F o r simplicity and fo r o ther reas ons given in A rt 5 1 the

.
,
.
,

fictiti o us po les a re assumed t o be o f a sh ape identi c al with that o f

the re al p o les The number o f exciting ampere tu rn s M is so
.
-

ch o sen that the e ff ect o f the fictiti o us p o les is appro ximately the
,

same as that o f the dist o rting ampere t ri m s o n the armatu re -

.

The flux o f the fictiti o us p o les strengthens t he flux o f t he real

p o les o n o ne side and weakens it by the same am o unt o n the o the r
side so that t he fictiti o us p o les actually dist o rt the main flux
,

with o ut alte ring its value S t rictly speaking the c o mplete acti o n
.
,

o f the dist o rting ampere tu rns o n the a r mature cann o t be i m ita te d

-

‘ The resoluti o n o f t he a rmatu re reacti o n in a synch ro n o us mac hine

int o a di rec t and a t ransve rse reac ti o n was fi rs t d o ne by A B l ondel See . .

l I ndus trie E lec triq uc 18 9 9 p 4 8 1 ; a ls o his boo k M o tc urs S y nc hro nc s

'
.
, ,

and two pape rs o f his in t he T ra ns I ntern E lectr C o ngres s S t L o ui s 190 4

. . .
, .
, ,

Vol 1 pp 6 20 a nd 6 3 5
.
,
. .
15 2 T HE M AGN E T I C C I RCUIT [A R T . 48

by fi c ti t i o us p o les o f the same shape as the main p o les because ,

harm o ni c s o f app re c iable magnitude are thereby negle c ted Ho w .

ever a c tual experience sh o ws that the perf o rmance o i a ma c hine

, ,

cal c ul ated in this way c an be made t o che c k very well with the ,

o bserved pe rf o rman c e by pr o perly selecting the c o e fficients o f the ,

dire c t and the transverse reacti o n I n a generat o r the flu x is .

,

cr o wded aga inst the directi o n o f r o tati o n o f the p o les ( Fig .

c o nsequently the fictiti o us p o les lag behind the real p o les as

, ,

sh o wn in Fig 3 9 I n a synchro n o us m o t o r they lead the real

. .

p o les by 90 electric al degrees .

I f the rati o o f the p o le arc t o p o le pitch were equal t o unity -

,

as with n o n salient p o les the wh o le wave o f the demagnetizing

-
,

A u l di t ib u t i
ct on u
Flirx dist ri b tio n
flux u pl
a s r

of tra ns verse f
d ue to i c tit io s o e

Direc t io n o f
R t ti o a on

F I G 39 . .
—
The di rect and t ran sve rse a rmatu re reacti o n s in a synch ro n o u s
m achine rep re sented by fictiti o u s p o le s and field windin gs
, .

m m f o f the armature w o uld be acting up o n the pole and the

. . .
,

equivalent c o ncentrated m m f M d o n the p o le w o uld have t o be . . .

equ a l t o the average value o f the actual distributed armature

m m f W e w o uld have then
. . .

M d = (2 mm a
sin , (78)
where the maximum armature m m f is determined by eq . . . .

A rt 43 and 2 . is the rati o o f the average t o the ma x imum

,

o rdinate o f a sine wave I n reality o nly a part o f the armature .

,

the one near its amplitude acts up o n the p o les the acti o n , ,

o f l o wer parts o f the wave being practically z er o because o f the

gaps between the p o les Theref o re the rati o between the ma x i .

,

mum m m f M sin and the average equivalent m m f M d is

. . . . . .
C RA P VI I I ] RE AC TI O N I N
. S YNCHRO N O U S M ACH I N E S 153

larger than F o r the o rdina ry shapes o f pr o j ecting p o les ,

experiment and calculati o n (see A rt 50 bel o w ) sh o w that this .

rati o varies betwe en an d U s ing an average o f these

limits ins t ead o f in eq (78 ) and substituting fo r M its exp res
.

si o n fro m eq (64 ) we o btain the f o ll o wing pra c ti c al f o rmula fo r

.

estimating the armature demagneti z in g ampe re turns per p o le in a -

synchr on o us machine with pr o j ecting p o les :

M = 0 7 5 k mni sin
d b .
(7 9)

I n t hisfo rm ula i sin r]; is the c o mp o nent id o f the armature current ,

per phase I n actual machines the numerical c o e ffi c ien t in this

.

fo rmula varies between and depending o n the shape o f

the p o les and the rati o o f p o le arc t o p o le pitch - -
.

B y a simila r reas o ning if the rati o o f p o le arc t o p o le pitch were

,
- -

equal t o unity the equivalent number o f excit ing ampere tu rns on

,
-

the fictiti o us p o les w o uld be

Mt = c os

S ince the r ati o o f p o le a r c t o p o le pitch o n the fictiti o us p o les

- -

is less than un ity the nume rical c o efficient sh o uld be larger than
,

2/ 7r . B ut o n the o ther hand the permeance o f the air gap under

, ,
-

the fictiti o us p o les is much higher than the actual permeance o f

the machine in the gaps between the p o les so that a much smalle r ,

number o f ampere turns M 7 is sufficient t o p ro duce the sa me

-

dist o rtin g flux The c o mb ined eff ect o f these t wo fact o rs is t o

.

reduce the c o e fficient in fo rmula (80 ) t o a value c o nsiderably

bel o w F o r the usual shapes o f pr oj ecting p o les experiment ,

and calculati o n (See A rt 5 1 bel o w ) sh o w that this r ati o varies

.

between and U sing an ave r age o f these limits instead

of in eq and substituting fo r M its exp ressi o n fro m eq
. .

we o btain the fo ll o wing pra c tical fo rm ula fo r estimating

the d isto rt ing am pere turns pe r p o le in a synch ro n o us machine
-
,

with p r oj ecting po les

M ¢= 0 30 kbmni . CO S ( ) I .

In this fo rm ula i c o e is the c o mp onent i o f the a rm atu re cu r ,

rent per phase I n s o me a c tually bu ilt machines the c o efficient

,
.

in this fo rmula c o mes o ut l o we r than but in p relimina ry cal

154 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 49

c ula t io nsit is advisable t o use at least W hen a syn c hr o n o us

m o t o r is w o rkin g near the limit o f its o verl o ad capacity the infl u ,

ence o f the dist o rtin g ampere turns is parti c ularly imp o rtant and
-
,

in estimat ing the o verl o ad c apacity o f a synchr o n o us m o t o r it is

better t o be o n the sa f e side and t o take the value o f the numerical
c o e fficient in e q (8 1) s o mewhat higher than
. The value o f
this c oeffi cient varies with in wider limits than that o f the c o rre
spo nding c o e fficient

in f o rmula
but f o rtunately it , ,

aff ec ts the perfo rm

ance t o a lesser de
gree (see A rt .

49 T he B l o n del .

P er f o r mance Dia
g r a m o f a Syn
c hro no us M achine

with Sa lient P o les .

Having replaced the

actual armature
rea c ti o n by t w o
m m f s M d and M , . . .

(Fig 3 9) the elec .

t ro m a gnet ic rela
ti o ns in the machin e
bec o me th os e indi
c a t ed in Figs 4 0 and .

41 Fig 4 0 refers . .

t o a generat o r and
is anal o g o us t o Fig .

F I G 40
. . The pe rfo m ance diagra m of a ynch ro 3 7 ; F ig 4 1 refers
—
r s .

no u g n r t with li n t p oles
s e e a o r, t o a m o t o r and is
sa e .

anal o go us t o Fig .

38 . The p o lygo n O A B D whi c h represents the relati o n between

,

the terminal and the induced v o ltages is the same as bef o re but , ,

the induced vo ltage E is no w c o nsidered as a resultant o f the

v o ltages E and E , induced by the real a nd the fictiti o us p o les
n

respectively 1
I n the generat o r the fictiti o us p o les lag behind
.

The ub c ript n tand for net t o a gree with the m m f M used late r
1
s s s s , . . . n

o n ; the ub c ript t stand for trans ve rse

s s s .
C RAP V III ]
. R E ACTI O N I N SY NCHRO N O US M ACH I N E S 15 5

the real o nes in a m o t o r they lead the real p o les Hence in

, .
,

generat o r diagr am E , lags 90 degrees behind E w hile in

, n,

m o t o r diag ram it leads E by 90 degrees n .

I n the case o f a gene rat o r the pr o blem usually is t o find

field excitati o n M f nec es
sary fo r maintaining a
required te rminal vo ltage
c with a gi v
, en cu rrent i
and at a given p o wer
fact o r c os Fi rst the ,

figu re C A E D is c o n
structed o r else the ,

values o f E and gb a re ’

de t e rmined f ro m eqs .

and (76 a ) .

I n o rde r t o fi nd the
ampe re tu rns requi red o n
-

the main p oles it is nec es

sary t o de t ermine the
v oltage E induced by n

them F o r this purp o se

.

the angle [3 must first be

kn o wn fo r ,

En :
E cos fl.
(82)
A an inte r mediate step
s ,

it is necessary t o express
E , thro ugh the ampere
tu rns M 7 which a re the ,

cause o f E 3 The m m f . . . .

M is small as c o mpa red

t o the t o tal number o f
ampe re tu rns on the real
- 8 —
e

p o les ; hence the l o wer ,

““
straight pa rt o f the no
l o ad sa t Fa me cu rve O f F ro 4 1 The pe rf ormance d iag ram of
/

yn —
a s
the ma C hme can be used
. .

ch ro n o ns m t r with li nt po le o o ,
sa e s.

t o exp re ss the relati o n

between M , and E , Le t v b e the vo ltage c o rrespo nding t o
.

o ne ampe re t um o n the l o we r pa rt o f t he no l o ad satu ra t i o n

- -
15 6 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 49

c urve ; t hen E , = M tv . Substituting the value o f M 7 fr o m eq .

we have
cos

where
E ’
= 0 3 0 k mniv
, .
b ( )
8 4

E,
’
is a kn o wn quantity intr o duced fo r the sake o f brevity The .

angle (0 in fo rmula (83 ) is expressed thr o ugh qS and fl because ’

, ,

f r o m Fig 40 .
,

A n o ther relati o n between E , and B

,
is o btained fr o m the triangle
O DG , fr o m which
Et=E sin 8
,
.

A c o m parison o f eqs (83 ) and (8 6 ) gives that

.

E t
’
c os =E sin 8
,
.

E xpanding and dividing thr o ugh o ut by cos B relati o n

b
’
c os g
+ sin qS

f r o m w hich the angle 5 can be determined and then ,

En calculated
by eq .

The ne x t step is t o take fr o m the no l o ad saturati o n curve the —

value M o f the net excitati o n necessary on the main p o les in o rder

n

t o induce the v o ltage E The real excitati o n M f must be larger

n
.
,

because part o f it is neutralized by the direct arm a ture ra c t ion M d .

W e thus have
M f= M n +M d, (88)
where M d is calculated fr o m eq the angle ( l being kn o wn
.
,
r

f r o m eq . W hen the l o ad is thr o wn o ff the o nly e x citati o n ,

left is M f ; let it c o rresp o nd t o a v o ltage e on the no l o ad satura a

-

ti o n curve Fr o m e and e the per cent volt a ge regula t ion o f the

.
a ‘

machine is determined fr o m its definiti o n as the rati o (e e) e a

—
.

The same general meth o d and the same equati o ns apply in the
case o f Fig 4 1 when one is required t o determin e a p o int on o ne o f
.
,

the phase characteristics o f a syn c hr o n o us m o t o r The beginner .

must be careful with the si gn minus in the case o f the m o t o r .

C RAP V III ] RE AC TI O N I N SYNCHR O N O U S
. M ACH I N E S 1 57

S ince qb degrees the an gle fl and the vo ltage E , a re negative

'
90 ,
.

The angle gt als o is usually negative The cas es o f a leadin g

, .

current in the generat o r an d o f a laggin g cu rr ent in the m o t o r are

o btained by assigning the pr o pe r value and sign t o the an gle

F o r the applicati o n o f the B l o ndel diagram t o the deter m inati o n

o f the o verl o ad capacity o f a syn ch r o n o us m o t o r see the reference

g iven near the end o f A rt 4 7 . .

A synchr o n o us m o t o r is s o meti m es o pe rated at no l o ad and at ,

such a value o f the field cu rrent that the machine draws reactive
leading kil o v o lt amperes f ro m the line thus imp ro ving the
-
,

p o wer fact o r o f the system I n such a case the machine is called a

-
.

s y nc hr o nous c onden s er o r better a ph a s e a dj uster The diagram in

, , .

Fig 4 1 is greatly simplified in this case because the energy c o m

.

p o nent o f the current c an be neglected as well as the d ro p ir , ,

an d the e m f E t W e then have i = i2 = id an d

. . . .
,

The direct ar m ature reacti o n is determined fro m eq (7 9) in which .

90 W hen the m o t o r is unde rexcited an d d raws a lagging

.

cu rrent fro m the line i is t o be c o nsidered negative o r , ,

degrees The same simplified diagram applies t o a p o lyphase

.

r o ta ry c o nve rte r o pe r ated fr o m the alte rnating cur rent side at no

,
-
,

l o ad .

Pro b 14 It i s requi red t o calc ul a te the fi eld cu rren t and per cen t
. .

vo lta ge regulati on o f a l 2 p o le 15 0 kva 2 300 v o lt 60 cycle Y c o n necte d

-
,
.
,
—
,
-
,
-

al te rnat or at a p o we r fact o r o f 8 5 pe r cen t lagging T h e m ac hi ne has

,
.

t wo s l o t s per p o le pe r p h a se and i s p ro vi ded wit h a fu ll pitc h winding

,
-
,

the n u mber o f tu rn s pe r p o le pe r p hase bein g 18 T h e a rm atu re resi s t .

an c e pe r phase o f Y i s o hm t h e reactance i s o hm The n u m be r , .

o f fiel d t urns p er po le i s 2 00 The no l o ad satu rati on cu rve is pl o tted .

-

fo r th e line v o lta ge ( no t t h e ph ase v o lta ge ) and at fi rs t is a s t rai gh t lin e ,

s uc h that at 18 00 vo lts th e fiel d cu rren t is 17 4 amp The wo rking pa rt .

o f t h e no l o a d s aturati o n cu r ve is as fo ll ows
-

Kil o vo lts
Fiel d cu rrent amp ,
22 25 27 30 34 40
A ns 3 1 amp ; per c ent . . .

Pr o b 1 5 Show t ha t in the fo rego ing ma ch ine th e sho rt ci rcuit

. .
-

cu rren t i s e q ual t o ab o ut t wo an d a h alf ti me s the rated cu rren t at t he ,

field excitati on wh ic h gives the ra t ed v o lta ge at no l o ad Hin t : T he - .

short ci rc uit cu rve is a s t raigh t line so th at o ne can fi rs t calc ulate t he

-

fi eld cu rren t fo r any ass um ed value o f th e a rmatu re cu rre n t and e - 0 .

Pro b 1 6 F ro m th e res ults o f th e calculati o ns o f th e p re cedin g

. .

pro ble m sho w tha t t he c ro ss m ag neti z i ng eff ect a nd th e o h mic dro p a re

-

negli gi ble un der sho rt c irc ult in the m ac hin e und e r c onsid e rati on
-
, .
15 8 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A m 50

Ass umin g that r i s u sually sm all as c ompa red t o 33 d esc ri be a sim ple ,

meth od fo r calculatin g the sh or t ci rcuit cu r ve u sin g o nly the r eactance -

,

o f t h e m achine an d the d e m a g neti z in g a m pe r e tu r n s Of the a rm atu r e -

.

In p ractice the i nfluence o f th e n eglecte d fact ors i s acc o unted fo r in s h or t

,

ci rcuit calculati o n s by ta kin g s in d in f orm ula ( 79 ) a s equal t o between

an d in stead Of unity .

Pr o b 1 7 Pl o t the nO l o ad ph ase ch a racte ri stic Of th e m ach ine

. .
-

Speci fied in p ro ble m 14 w h en it i s u s e d a s a m o t o r ,

T h e i ro n l o ss an d .

f ricti o n amo unt t o kw .

A ns Field ampe res .

Arm atu re am pe re s 30 30 .

Pro b 1 8 Th e m ac h i ne speci fied in p rob le m 14 i s t o b e u sed a s a

. .

mo to r at a c o n stant input o f 15 0 kw Pl o t it s ph ase c h a racte ri stic s

,
.
,

i s the cu r ve s Of the a rm atu r e cu rr e nt an d Of p o w e r fact o r a gains t t h e

. .
,
-

fiel d cu rre nt a s ab sci ssae .

A ns Fiel d am pe re s .

Arm atu re ampe res .

P o we r fact or 1 00-

Pr o b 1 9 W rite c o mplete in st ructi o ns fo r th e p red eterminati o n Of

. .

the reg ulati o n o f alte rnat o rs an d Of th e ph ase c h a racte ri stic s Of syn c hro
n o u s m o t ors b y B l o n d el s m ethod The in s t ructi o ns m u s t give o nly
,
’
.

the s ucce ssive s tep s in t he calculati o n s wit ho ut any t he ory o r explana , ,

ti o n s W rite d i recti o n s an d fo rm ul ae o n the left han d si d e Of t h e sh eet

.
—

an d a nu m e rical illu s t rati o n o n th e ri gh t h an d s ide Opp os ite it -

.

Pro b 2 0 Calculate th e o ve rl o ad capacitie s o f t he f orego in g mo t o r

. .

at fiel d cu rrent s o f 2 5 am p an d 35 am p by th e t w o m et ho ds d e s c ribed . .

,

in th e a rticle s refe red t o nea r t he end o f Ar t 4 7 . .

Pr o b 21 Show th at fo r a m a ch ine with no n salient p o le s B l o ndel s

. .
-
’

an d P o tie r s d iagrams a re id entical

’
.

50 . T he C alculati o n of t he Valu e of t he C o efli c ient of Di r ect

R acti o n in E q
e The average value o f the rati o o f the
.

e ff ective armature m m f o ver a p ole face t o the maximum m m f . . .

-
. . .

at the cente r Of the p ole is given in A rt 4 8 with o ut pr o o f The . .

f o ll o wing c o mputati o ns sh o w the reas o nable the o retical limits O f

this rati o I f the armature .
( direct reacti o n ) at the center
o f the N p o le (Fig 3 9 ) is M its value at s o me o ther p o int al o ng
.
,

the air gap is M c o s x where a: is measured in electrical radians

-
,
, .

L e t the permeance O f the active layer o f the machine per electrical

radian be 6 at the center o f the p o le and let this permeance vary
)
,

al o ng the periphery o f the armature acc o rding t o a law so

that at a p o int determ ined by the abscissa a: the permean c e per

Thi s and the next a rticle can be omitted if de si red with o ut impai rin g
1
, ,

the c o ntinuity O f t reatm ent .

CR AP V III ] RE ACTI O N I N SY NCHR O N O US
. M ACH I NE S 15 9

elect rical radian is (Pf(x) The functio n f (x) must be perio dic and
.

such that f(0 ) 1 and = 0 f,

1 etc because the pe rme , ,
.
,

ance reaches its maximum value under the cen t ers Of the p o les
and is p ractically nil midway between the p o les .

The direct a rmature acting al one with o ut any excita ,

ti o n o n the p o les w o uld p ro duce in each half Of a p o le a fl ux

,

H a

M c o s a:

The magnet o m o tive fo rce M d placed o n the real p o les acting ,

al o ne m ust pr o duce the same to tal flux so that

, ,

E quating the t w o p receding exp ressi ons we get

c os xf (x) dx= M d

The rati o Of M d t o M can be calculated fro m this equati o n by ,

assuming a pro per law f (x) acc o rding t o which the permean ce o f
the active layer varies with :c in p o les Of the usual shapes Ha v , .

in g a drawing Of the armature and o f a p o le the magnetic field c a n ,

be mapped o ut by t he j udgment o f the eye assisted if necessary ,

by Le hmann s meth o d (A rt 4 1 ab o ve ) A curve can then be

’
. .

pl o tted giving the relative pe r meances per un it peripheral length

, ,

aga inst a: as a b sc issze Thus the functi o n f(x) is given graphically

.
, ,

and the t w o integrals which ente r int o eq (8 9) can be dete r mined .

graphi cally o r be calculated by S imps o n s R ule O r else

’
.
,

f (:r) can be expanded int o a F o urie r se r ies and the inte grati o n

pe rf o r med analytically S uch calculati o ns pe rfo r med o n p o les o f

.

the usual pro p o rti o ns give values o f M a/ M o f between and

It is als o p o ssible t o assume fo r f (x) a few simple analytical

expressi o ns and integrate eq (8 9) di rectly Take fo r instance
, . .

(
f )x = c o s
2
:r B y pl o t.t ing this fun cti o n again st a: as a b s c iss r
e t he

reader will see t hat the f un c ti o n bec o mes zero midway bet wee n
the p o les is equal t o unity o pp o site t he cen t e rs o f the p o les a nd
, ,

has a reaso nable gene ral shape at inte rm ediate p o ints S ub s t i .

tu t ing c os x fo r f (:r) int o eq (8 9) and inte g ra t ing gives 3M

2
.
,

inM d f ro m which M d/ M
,
160 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 51

n o ther extreme assumpti on is that O f p o les with o ut cha mf er

A ,

with a c o ns t ant air gap N eglecting the fringe at the p o le tips

-
.
-
,

f (:r) = 1 fr o m 3: = 0 t o x = 0 and f (x) = 0 f r o m 3: = 0 t o 3: I nte ,

g rating eq (8 9) between the limits 0 an d 0 we o btain

.

M /
a M (sin ow .
(90 )
The p o les usually c o ver between 60 and 70 per cent o f the periph
ery F o r
. the preceding equati o n gives M d/ M
and fo r M d/ M

Pro b 22 L et the p ermean c e Of t he active laye r d ec rease f ro m th e

. .

c ent er o f t he p o l es acc o rd in g t o t he s t rai gh t line law so t h at -

,

f (x) 1

W h at i s t h e rati o o f M d / M A ns .

Pro b 2 3 Th e pe rm ean ce o f th e active laye r dec rea ses acc ord in g

. .

t o a pa r ab o lic law t h at i s a s th e s qua r e o f t h e d i s ta nce f r o m t h e cente r

, ,

Of th e p o le s W hat i s the rati o o f M d / M

. A ns .

Pr o b 24 The law f (x) = c o s x assumed in th e text abo ve presup

. .
2

p o s es th at th e p erm eance va rie s acc o rd in g t o a sine law o f do uble

f requency wit h a c ons tan t te rm b e cau s e c o s x = } + 3; c o s 2 x In reality ,
7 .
,

th e pe rm ean ce va rie s m o re s l owly un d e r th e p o les an d m o re rapi d ly

between the p o le s t h an t hi s law p r esupp o se s ( Fi g A c orrecti o n c a n .

b e bro u gh t in by addin g an o th e r h a rmo nic Of twice th e f requency t o the

forego ing exp ressi o n th u s m a king it un symm et rical an d o f the f orm
=
,

f (x) a + b c o s 2 x + c c o s 4 x Sho w th at f (x) 2 c o s x c o s x c o ntain s

= .
“ 2
,
—

th e la rges t relative am o un t o f th e fo u rth ha rm o nic c o n si stent wit h the ,

p hysical c o nd iti ons o f th e p roblem a nd c om pa re grap hically this cu rve ,

with f (x) = c o s x ’
.

Pro b 2 5 W hat i s th e value o f M d / M fo r th e f orm o f fl ex) given in

. .

t h e p recedin g p roble m ? A ns .

Pro b 2 6 Pl o t th e cu r ve f (x) fo r a give n m achine esti matin g th e

. .
,

pe rm ean ce s by L e hm ann s m eth od an d d ete rm in e th e value o f t h e c o ef

’
,

fic ient in fo rm ula

5 1 T he C alculati o n
. Tr ansverse
of t heVa lue of t he C o e fficient of

R eacti o n in E q The average value . o f the rati o o f the

ma x imum dist o rting armature m m f t o the equivalent number Of . . .

ampere turns M 7 on the fictiti o us p o les is given in A rt 4 8 with o ut

-
, , .

pr o o f The f o ll o wing c o mputati o ns sh o w the reas o nable the o ret

.

ical limits O f this rati o The pr o ble mis m o re c o mplicated than .

that o f finding the rati o O f M d/ M because there the field ampere ,

t urns the actual demagnetizing armature

,
and the eq uiva
lent ampere turns M d are all acting o n the same permeance O f the
-
C RAP V III ] RE AC TI O N I N S YNCHRO N O U S
. M ACH I N E S 16 1

active layer and the wave fo rm Of the flux is very little aff ected by
,

t he direct armature reac t i o n I n the case Of the transve rse rea c

.

ti o n h o wever the wave fo rm o f the flux pro duced by the actual

, ,

cr o ss magneti z ing ampere tu rns o f the armatu re is entirely diff er

- -

ent fr o m that pr o duced by the c o il M , acting o n the ficti t i o us p o le

( Fig. N amely the actual curve o f the transverse flux has a
,

large saddle in the middle due t o the large reluctance Of the ,

space between the real p o les The flux distributi o n pr o duced by.

the fictiti o us p o les is practically the same as tha t unde r the m ain
p o les the t w o sets o f p o les being of the same shape
, .

The additi o n o f the vect o rs E , and E in Figs 40 and 4 1 is legit; n

.

im s te o nly when E , is induced by a flux Of the same density dis

t rib ut io n as E and this is the reaso n fo r representing the t rans
n,

ve rse reacti o n as due t o fictiti o us p o les o f the same shape as the real
p o les Therefo re fo r the purp o ses o f c o mputati on the flux dis
.
, ,

t rib ut ion pr o duced by the actual dist o rting ampere turns on the
,
-

a rmature is res o lved int o a distributi on o f the same fo rm as that

,

pr o duced by the main p o les and int o higher harm o nics The m m f . . . .

M , is calculated so as t o pr o duce the first distributi o n o nly Thi s .

fundamental curve is no t sinuso idal but w ill have a shape depend ,

ing on the shape o f the p o le sh o es The eff ect Of the sin us o idal .

highe r ha rm o nics o n the value o f E , is disregarded o r it can be ,

taken int o acc o unt by c o rrecting the value Of the c o efficient in

f o rmula (8 1) f ro m the results Of tests .

The first harm o nic o f the armature dist o rti o n m m f is M sin 33 . . .

,

because this m m f reaches its maximum between the real p o les ;

. . .

:c is measu r ed as bef o re fr o m the cente rs o f the real p o les The .

pe r meance o f the active layer with r efe rence t o the re a l p oles can
, ,

be represented as befo re by The flux density pro duced by

the t ransverse rea c ti o n o f the ar m atu re at a p o int defined by the
abscissa x is therefo re pro p o rti o nal t o M sin :c The per
meance o f the active laye r with refe rence t o the fictiti o us p o les is
The flux density unde r the fictiti o us p o les fo ll o ws
t he refo re the law M ,0 A s is explained bef o re the t wo
’
,

distributi o ns o f the flux density di ffe r widely fro m o ne an o ther ,

and the real distributi on is res o lved int o the fi c titi o us distribu t i o n ,

and higher sinus o idal ha rm o nics ; the pro minent thi rd ha r m o nic is
clea rly seen in Fig 3 9 Thus we have o mitting
. .
, ,

M sin xf (:r) sin 3 1 4 15

-7
sin 5 x + et c .
( 9 1)
16 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 51

In rder t o determine M the usual meth o d is t o mulit ply b o th

o

sides O f t his equa t i o n by sin a: and integrate between 0 and n ,

because then all upper harm o nics give terms equal t o zer o I n .

t his particular case the limits Of integrati o n can be narr o wed d o wn

t o 0 and $ 77 because the sy m met ry O f the curve is such that the
,

segment between 0 and 12 7: is simila r t o all the rest Thus we .

-
.
,

get
“
sin 2 =M , sin mf (r

Fro m this equati o n the rati o M ,/ M can be calculated by the

meth ods sh o wn in A rt 50 i s by assuming reas o nable f o rms o f
.
,
. .
,

the fun cti on Taking again f (:c) c o s sr and integratin g eq

2
.

( 9 2) we get { gnM fr o m which M ,/ M Taking the

o t her extreme case viz f (x) = 1 fro m m= 0 t o x = 0 and f (x) = 0
,
.
, ,

fro m x = 0 t o :c gives after integrati o n ,

M , / M {40 —

l
~
sin 2 0 }/ sin 0 .
( 9 3)

For M , / M for It
will be n oted that the cr ss magnetizing acti on of the armature o -

increases c o nsiderably with the increasing rati o o f p o le arc t o p o le -

pitch while the direct reacti o n sl o wly diminishes with the inc rease
,

o f this rati o I n machines intended primarily fo r lighting pur

.

p o ses it is advisable t o use a rathe r small r ati o O f p o le arc t o p o le -

pitch in o rder t o reduce transverse reacti o n which affects the vo lt

,

age regulati o n a t high values o f p o wer fact o r in pa rticular -

.

Pro b 2 7 W hat i s th e value o f M , / M for the fo rm Of f (x) given in

. .

p ro ble m 24 ; nam ely f or f ( x) = 2 c o s :r c o s x?

,
A ns 2 —
4
.

Pro b 2 8 D ete rm i ne th e nu m e rical value Of the c o efficient in fo rm ula

. .

(8 1) fo r t h e m achine u sed in p ro ble m 2 6 .

1
The se values a re hi ghe r than th o se de rived by E Arn o ld The fact . .

that Arn old s value s for the c oe fficient O f t ran sve rsal reacti o n are l ow ha s
’

been p o inted o ut by S um ec in E lektrotec hnik und M a sc hinenba u 19 0 6 p , , .

6 7 ; al so by J A S ch outen in his a rticle

. . U ebe r den Spannun gsabfall meh r
,

r sy nch ro ne r M a sc hinen ektro tec hnisc he Z eitsc hrif t Vo l 3 1

”
p h a s ige E l , ,
.

p 8 77
. .
 C HA P T E R IX

A R MA T UR E R E A CTIO N IN D I R E C T -C U R R E N T
M A C HI N E S

52 . T he Di r ec t Tr ansver se A r ma ture R ea cti o n s L et

a nd .

Fig 4 2 represent the devel o ped cro ss secti o n o f a part o f a direct

.
-

cu rrent machin e either a generat o r o r a m o to r F o r the sake o f

,
.

simplicity the b rushes are sh o wn makin g c o ntact directly with the

armature c onduct o rs o mitting the c o mmutat o r E lectrically
, .

this is eq uvialent t o the actual c o nditi o ns because the c o m mutat o r ,

segments are s o ldered t o the end c o nnecti ons o f the same c o ndue -

t o rs The b rushes a re shifted by a distan ce d fr o m the ge o met ri c al

.

neut ral t o insu re a satisfact o ry c o m mutati o n ; 8 being exp ressed

,

in centimete rs meas ured al on g the a r m at ure pe ri phe ry the same

, ,

as the p o le pitch r -
.

The actu al a r matu re c onduct o rs and cu rrents a re replaced fo r ,

each p o le pitch by a c urr ent sheet o r belt o f the same st rength

-
, , , .

L et fo r instan ce the p o le pitch be 4 0 cm and let the machine

, ,
-
.
,

have 120 armatu re c o nduct o rs pe r p o le I f the cur rent pe r c o n .

ducto r is 100 amp the t o tal numbe r o f ampe re c o nducto rs per

.
,
-

p o le is the t o tal cu rrent o f the equiv alent belt which c o n ,

sist s o f o ne wide c o nduct o r must be amp o r 3 0 0 amp pe r

, .
, .

linea r cm Of the p o l e pitch The latter value o r the number o f

.
-
.
,

a rmatu re ampe re c o nducto rs pe r centimete r o f pe riphe ry is so me

-
,

times called the s pecifi c elec tric loa ding O i the machine The mag .

netic acti o n o f t he eq uvia lent cu rrent sheet o n the magnetic flux o f

the machine is p ractically the same as that o f the actual a r ma t u re
c o nduct o rs because in a di rect current machine the sl o ts a re c o m
,
-

p a ra t ively nu m e r o us and small The cu rrent in the c r o.ss ha t ched -

belts is supp o sed t o flo w fro m the reade r int o the pape r and the c ur ,

rent in the bel t s ma rked with d o ts t o ward the reade r W ith t he —

.

di recti o ns o f the flux and o f the cur rent sh o wn in t he fi g ure t he ,

di recti o ns o f ro tati o n o f the m achine when w o rking as a generato r

and as a m o t o r a re th o se sh o wn by the a rro w head s (sec A rt -
.

163
164 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 52

The p o la rity of the b r ushes cann o t be indicated with o ut kno wing

t he actual c o nn ec t i o ns in the winding I t is preferable theref o re .
, ,

fo r o ur p urp o ses t o designate the brushes as E and W (east and

west) acc o rding t o their p o siti o n with respect t o the p o les Of the
,

mac hine the O bserver l o o king fro m the c o mmutat o r side The
,
.

wh o le interp o lar regi o ns t o the right o f the n o rth p o les can be called
the eastern regi o ns th o se t o the left the western regi o ns ; the same
,

n o tati o n can be als o applied t o the c o mmutating p o les .

The armature currents e x ert a t wo f o ld acti o n up o n the main -

field o f the machine : they partly dist o rt it and partly weaken it , .

F o r the purp o ses Of the o ry and calculati o n it is c o nvenient t o

separate these t wo acti ons the same as in the case O f the synchr o
,

M otor

FI G . 42 .
—
The di rect and t ran sverse armature reacti on s in a
di rect cu rrent m achine
-
.

n o us machine in the preceding chapter L et the sheets o f cu rrent .

be divided int o parts den o ted by the letters D and T with sub
scripts c o rresp o nding t o their l o cati o n with re f erence t o the p o les
and b rushes The belts den o ted by D a re c o mp rised within the
.

spa c e 3 o ne each side o f the ge o metrical neutrals ; th o se den o ted

,

by T are ( ir 5) centimeters wide

a —
.

The belts D exert a d irect dema gnetizing acti o n up o n the p oles .

N amely the belts D D can be c o nsidered as t w o sides o f a c o il the

, n n

axis O f which is al o ng the center line C C The m m f Of this n

’
n
’
. . . .

c o il o pp o ses that o f the field c o il o n the n o rth p o le I n the same .

way the m m f o f the c o il Ds o pp o se s the acti o n o f the field c o il

, . . .

o n the s o uth p o le The f o reg o ing is t rue no m atter what the

.

actual c o nnecti on s o f the armature c o nduct o rs are pr o vided that ,

the winding pitch is nearly 10 0 pe r cent W ith a fracti onal pitch

-
.
-
CRAP IX] AR M AT URE RE AC TI O N I N D C
. . . M ACH I N E S 16 5

win ding the cu rrents within each D belt flo w pa rtly in the o pp o site
di recti o n s and neutrali z e each o the r s acti o n ’
.

L et the specific electric l o ading o f the machine as defin ed ,

ab o ve be (A C ) Then with a full pitch winding the dema gnet iz

,
.
,
-
,

ing a m pe re tu rn s per p o le a re
- 1

M r (94)
The belts T T c o nstitute t o gethe r a c o il the c ente r o f which is
, ,

al o ng the axis the adj acent belts T wT u fo r m a c o il with its ,

axis al o ng O wO w The m m f dist ributi on o f these c o ils is indi

'
. . . .

c a t ed by the br o ken line A B C which sh o ws that the T belts pro ,

duce a tra nsverse armatu re reacti o n The lin e A B C is al so the .

cu rve o f the flux density dist ributi o n which w o uld be p rod uced by
the tran sversal reacti o n al one if the active laye r o f the m achin e ,

we re the same thr o ugh o ut (non salient p o les) O n acc o unt Of a -

.

much highe r reluctan ce o f the paths in the in te rp o la r regi o ns the

flux density the re is much l o we r and is sh o wn by the d o tted lin es ,
.

The actual distributi on Of the field in a l o aded machine is Obtained

c o nside r ing fr o m p o int t o p o int the field and a rm ature m m fs . . .

actin g up o n the individual m agnetic paths .

The tr ansve r se reacti o n Opp o ses the field m m f unde r one half . . .
-

o f each p o le and assists it unde r the o the r half so that the main ,

field is di st o rted I n a gene r at o r the field is shifted in the direc

.

ti o n o f r o tati o n in a m o t o r it is c ro wded against the di re cti on o f

,

r o tati o n o f the a r matu re This is the same as what happens in

.

syn chr o n o us machines when the a rm ature is re vo lving and the

,

p o les stati ona ry ( see Fig .

The b rushes mus t be shifted in the sa m e di recti on in which the

flux is shifted because the magnetic neutral is displaced with
,

respect t o t he ge o m et ric neut ral Usually the b rushes a re shifted .

,

bey o nd the magnetic neu t ral in o rde r t o o bta in a p ro pe r flux den ,

s it y fo r c o mmutati o n N amely t o assist the reve rsa l o f the cu r

.
,

rent ia the c o ndu c to rs which a re sh o rt c i r cuited by the b rushes -

,

these c o nducto rs must b e b ro ught int o the fringe o f a field o f such

a d i rec t i o n a s assists the c o m m uta t i o n I n the c ase o f a gene r .

ato r thi s mean s the field unde r the in fluence o f which t he c ondu e
‘
The e ff ec t o f the c o ils sh ort c i rcuite d unde r the b rushes is no t c o ns ide red
-

sepa rate ly f or the sa ke o f s i mplicity

,
F or a n a nal ysis o f the reac ti o n o f t he
.

sh ort c i rc uite d c o ils upo n the fiel d soc E

- A rno ld Die G leic hsb o mmasd t ine '
.
, ,

Vo l 1
. C hap 2 3 . .
166 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 53

t o rs me after the c o mmutati o n I n a m o t o r the armature cur

co .

rent fl o w s against the induced it is there f o re the field which

cuts the c o ndu c to rs befo r e the c o mmutati o n that assists the rever
sal O f t he c urrent This explain s the directi o n O f the shift Of the
.

brushes in the t w o cases The student sh o uld make this clea r t o .

hi mself by c o nsiderin g in detail the directi ons o f the cu rrents and

O f the induced v o ltages in a pa rticular case .

The maximum m m f per p o le pr o duced by the dist o rting . . .

belts is equal t o (A C ) (5 : but since this m m f acts al ong the 7

. . .

interp o lar space o f high reluctan ce its e ff ect is no t large (except in

machin es with c o m mutating p o les) O f much m o re imp o rtance .

is the acti o n o f the dist o rting belts under the main p o les A t each .

p o le tip the armature m m f is

-
. . .

M =
2 (A C) -
%w ,

where w is the width o f the p ole sh o e This m m f decreases . . . .

acc o rding t o the straight line law t o the center Of each p o le and
is o f o pp o site signs at the t wo tips Of the same p ole .

Pro b 1 D eterm ine t he p o la ri ty o f th e br ush es in Fig 4 2 fo r a

. . .

p rogre ss ive an d a r et ro gre ss ive windin g in t h e cas e Of a gene r at o r a nd ,

o f a m o t or .

Pro b 2 In d icat e th e D an d th e T belts in a f racti o nal pitc h win d in g

. .
-

(a ) wit h the br us he s in t h e ge o m et ric neut ral a nd (b) wit h t he br ush es ,

shifted by 3 .

Pro b 3 A 5 00 kw 2 30 vo lt 10 p o le d i rect c urrent m ac hine h a s

. . .
, , ,
-

a f ull pitc h m ultiple win d in g placed in 16 5 s l o t s The re a re 8 c o n

-
.

duc t ors pe r s l o t an d t wo tu rns pe r c o mm utat o r s e gm ent

, W h at a r e .

the d em agneti z in g am pe re tu r n s pe r p o l e wh en th e b r ush es ar e sh ifted

—

by 4 c omm utat or s egm ent s ? A n s 34 70 . .

Pr o b 4 W hat i s the amplitud e o f th e bro ke n line A B C in th e

. .

p reced in g mac h ine ? A n s 108 5 0 am p tu r n s .

-
.

Pro b 5 F o r a given m ach ine draw th e cu r ves o f the flux density

. .
,

dis t ributi o n un d e r a p o le at no l o a d an d at full l o a d b y c o ns i d e r in g

,
-
,

the m m fs actin g upO n the ind ivi d ual pat hs a nd t h e reluct a nc e Of the
. . .
°
,

pat hs .
1

53 . Fiel d A mper e tu m s in a Di r ect

T he C alculati o n of t he -

c urr ent M achin e un de r L o a d The net ampere turns pe r p o le are .

-

determined fr o m the n o l o ad saturati o n curve o f the machine fo r -

F or detail s and exam ples O f such cu rves see P ic helma y er

1
,
D y na mo ba u
p 17 6 ; Pa rshall and Ho bart E lec tric M a c hine D esign
.
,
. p . 159 ;
Arn old D ie G leic hs tro mma c hine Vo l 1
,
p 324 ,
. . .
CRAP IX ] AR M AT URE RE AC TI O N I N D C
.
. . M ACH I N E S 16 7

the necessa ry induced vo ltage I n a gene r at o r the induced vo ltage .

is equal t o the specified terminal vo ltage plus the inte rnal ir d r o p

in the mach ine I n a m o t o r the induced v o ltage is less than the
.

line vo ltage by the am o unt o f the inte rnal v o ltage d ro p The .

actual ampere tu rn s t o be pr o vided o n the field p o les are large r

-

than the net excitati on by the am o unt nec essary fo r the c o mpensa
ti o n o f the a r mature reacti o n .

The direct r eacti on is c o mpensated fo r by add ing t o each field

c o il the ampe r e tu rn s given by eq -
F o r instan ce in .
,

pr o b 3 ab o ve 3 4 70 ampe re tu rn s per p o le must be added t o the

.
,
-

requi red net excitati o n in o rde r t o c o mpensate fo r the e ff ect o f the

,

direct armatu re reacti o n The necessary shift o f the brushes is .

.

o nly r o ughly estimated fr o m o ne s experience with previ o usly

’

built machines th o ugh it c o uld be determ ined m o re accurately

,

fr o m the distributi o n o f flux density in the p o le tip fringe The -

.

p oles usually c o ver n o t o ver 70 per cent o f the armature periphery ,

so that the distance between the ge o met r ic neutral and the p o le

tip is ab o ut 15 per cent o f the p o le pitch I n preliminary esti .

mates the brush shif t may be taken t o be ab o ut 10 per cent o f the

,

p o le pitch ; this b rings the brushes no t quite t o the p o le tips -

th o ugh well within thei r fringe I n actual o perati o n a smaller .

shift may be expected I n machines pr o vided with c o mmutatin g

.

p o les and in m o to rs intended fo r r o tati o n in b o th directi o ns the

, ,

b rushes a r e usually in the ge o met ric neut ral so that the dema g ,

net iz in g acti o n is z er o .

I n a mac hine with a lo w satu r ati o n in the teeth and in the p o le

tips the cr o ss magneti z ing m m f o f the armature d o es no t a ff ect
,
-
. . .

the m agnitude o f the t o tal fl ux pe r p o le because the flux is ,

increased on o ne half Of the p o le as much as it is reduced on the

-

o the r half I t is sh o wn in A rt 3 1 that the induced e m f o f a

. . . . .

direct cu r rent machine is independent o f the flux distributi o n

-
,

pro vided that the t o tal flux is the same so that no ext ra field ,

ampere tu rns a re necessa ry in such a m achine t o c o m pensate fo r

-

the dist o rti o n o f the flux .

Ho weve r the teeth and the p o le tip s a re usually satu rated t o

,
-

a c onside rable extent so that the flux is inc reased on o ne side o f

,

the p ole le ss than it is redu c ed o n the o ther side Thus the useful .
,

flux is no t only dist o rted by t he transverse a r matu re reactio n but ,

is also weakened This latte r e ff ect has t o b c c o unterbal anced by

.

additi onal ampe re tu rns o n the field p o les I n m o st case s these

-
.
168 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A R T . 53

additi o nal ampere turns are estimated empirically on the basis

-
,

Of o ne s pre vi o us experience because the am o unt is no t large and

’
, ,

a c o rre c t c o mputati o n is rather tedi o us l .

The the o retical relati o n between the dist o rting ampere turn s -

an d the field ampere turns required f o r their c o mpensati o n is sh o wn

-

in Fig 4 3 L et 0 X represent the n o l o ad saturati on curve O f the

. .
-

machine fo r its active layer o nly that is fo r the air gap the teeth , ,
-
, ,

an d the p o le sh o e i f the latter is su fficiently saturated The

,
.

o rdinates represent the in duced e m f between the brushes o r t o . . .

, ,

an o ther scale the use f ul flu x per p o le ; the absciss ae give the c o rre
,

s po nd ing v a lues O f the field ampere turns per p o le disregarding -

,

the reluctance o f the field p o les field y o ke and armature c o re , ,

.

Amp ere-t u rns a nd pl f o e a c e areas

FI G . 43 .
—
A c o n st ructi o n for dete rm inin g the field m m f needed for the . . .

c ompen sati on o f the t ransverse reacti on .

In o ther w o rds the absciss ae give the values of the diff e rence o f
,

magnetic p o tential a c r o ss the active layer o f the machine at no ,

l o ad I t is pro per t o c o nsider here the m m f s acr o ss the active

. . . .

layer o nly because the dist o rting acti o n o f the armature e x tends
,

o nly o ver this layer N O matter ho w irregular the flu x dist rib u

.

ti o n in the air gap and in the teeth m ay be the flux density in the
-
,

p o le c o res and in the y o ke is practically unif o rm (c o mpare Fig .

F or Ho ba rt s empi rical cu rves for e stimatin g the field excitati o n requi red
1 ’

for ove rc om in g the a rmatu re di st orti o n see the S ta nda rd Ha ndbook un de r ,

Generat ors di rect cu rrent a mpe re tu rn s e stim ate

,
-
”
,
-
,
.
CRA P I X ] AR M A T URE RE AC TI O N I N D C
. . . M ACHI N E S 16 9

Fo rthe sake Of simplicity we replace the actual p o le sh o e by ,

an equivalent o ne with o ut cha mfer o f rectangular shape and

, , ,

with a negligible p o le tip f r ing ing The o rdina t es o f the cu r ve 0 X

-
.

represent t o an o the r scale the ave r age flux density o n the surface
o f the p o le sh o e because this density is pro p o rti o nal t o the t o tal
,

useful flux o r t o the induced vo ltage L e t a b be the flux density

, .

c o rresp o nding t o the r equired induced and let 0 a = M be

the necessa r y net with o ut the t ransve r se reacti o n Let a c .

and a d rep resent the dist o rting ampe re tu rns M 2 at the p o le tips -
, ,
-
,

as given by eq then 0 c and 0 d a r e the resultant m m fs at

. . . .

the p o le tips The flux density at the p o le tips Of the l o aded

-
.
-

machin e is then equal t o c g and dh respectively .

S in ce the dist o rting ampere tu rn s vary di rectly as the distance -

fr o m the center Of the p o le and the a rea Of strips o f equal width ,

is the same the absciss a fro m a represent t o scale either distances

,
.

al o ng the p o le face o r areas o n the p o le face m easured fr o m the

, ,

cente r Of the p o le Thus the pa r t gh Of the cur ve C X represents

.
,

als o the d istributi o n of the flux density unde r the p o le in the ,

l o aded machine L ikewise the line ef rep resents the dist ributi o n
.
,

o f the flux density unde r the p o le at no l o ad -

.

S ince the o rdinates represent t o scale the flux densities and the
abscissa: the areas o f the different pa rts unde r the p o les the area ,

under the flux density distributi o n curve als o represents t o sc a le

the t o tal flux pe r p o le The t o tal flux at no l o ad is represented by
.

the area o f the rea c t angle c efd and t o the same scale the flux in the , ,

l o aded machine is rep resented by the a rea c ghd I f the saturati o n .

cu rve were a straight line the t wo a reas w o uld be equ al so tha t , ,

the dist o rti o n w o uld no t m o dify the value o f the t o tal flux per p o le .

I n reality, the a rea geb is larger than the area bhf and the di ff er ,

ence between the t wo represents the reducti o n in the flux due t o ,

the transve rse a r matu re reac t i on .

L et no w the field excitati o n be increased by an unkn o wn am o unt

’
da to the value O a = M in o rder t o c o mpensate fo r the ab o ve
’ ’
,

explained dec rease in the flux A ll the p o ints in Fig 4 3 are shifted . .

by the sa m e am o un t and a re den o ted by the same lette rs with t he

,
”
sign p ri me The new flux in the l o ad ed ma c hine is rep resented
.

by the a rea c g h d the p o int a be ing the cente r o f t he line c d = cd

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
.

I f the p o int a ha s been p ro pe rly selected we must have the c o n

'

diti o n that the

a rea c efd = a rea
170 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 53

t ha t is t he flux c o rresp o nding t o the excitati o n Q at no l o ad is

,
,
-

t he same a s the flux c o rresp o n ding t o the e x citati o n O when the a

’

machine is l o aded The pr o blem is then kn o wing the p o int a and

.

the dis t ance a t = c d t o fin d the p o int a such that equati o n (9 6)

’ ’

is satisfied The t w o areas have the c o mm o n part c g bfd and

.
’ ’
,

t he parts c ee c and dff d are equal t o each o ther

’ ’
Theref o re ’ ’
.
,

eq ( 9 6) is satisfied if the
.

a rea be 9 = area bf h ’ ’
.

The p o siti on o f the p o int a is f o un d either by trials o r as the ’

,

intersecti o n Of the curves rr a nd ss the o rdinates o f the c urve rr ’ ’ ’

represent the area be gf fo r vari o us assumed p o siti o n s o f the p o int

’

a
’
and the o rdinates o f the curve ss represent the c o rresp o nding
,
’

values Of the area bf h ’ ’

.

Thus the t o tal field ampere turns required fo r a direct current

,
- -

generat o r under l o ad are f o und as f o ll o ws (a ) T O the specified

terminal vo ltage add the vo ltage dr o p in the armature under the ,

brushes and in the windings (if any) which are in series with the
,

armature viz ; the series field winding the c o mpensating winding

,
.
, ,

and the interp o le winding This will give the induced v o ltage E . .

( ) Fr o m the no l o ad saturati o n curve find the excitati o n c o rre

b -

spo nding t o E (c ) E stimate the am o unt Of the brush shift (if

.

an y ) and calc ulate the c o rresp o nding demagnetizing ampere turn s -

acc o rdin g t o e q (d) Determine the ampere turn s a a ( Fig 4 3)

.
-
’
.

required fo r the c o mpensati on O f the armature dist o rti o n (e) .

A dd the ampere turns calculated under (b) (c ) and (d) -

I n the ,
.

case O f a m o t o r subtract the vo ltage dr o p in the machine fro m

the terminal v o ltage t o fi n d the induced e m f E but o therwise , . . .
,

pr o ceed as befo re .

I f the machine is shunt w o und o r series w o und the field wind - -

,

ing is designed so as t o pr o vide the necessary maximum number o f

ampere tu rn s at a required margin in the field rheo stat fo r the
-

specified v o ltage o r speed variati o ns W hen the machine is c o m .

p o und w o und the shunt winding al o ne must supply the required

,

number o f ampere turns at no l o ad The series ampere turns is - -

.
-
,

then the difference between the t o tal m m f required at f u ll l o ad

, . . .
-

and that supplied by the shunt field W hen a generat o r is o ver -

.

c o mp o unded the shunt excitati o n is larger at full l o ad than it is at

,

no l o ad and all o wance must be made fo r this fact

, .
C RA P . 1x1 AR M A T URE RE AC TI O N IN D C . . M ACH I NE S 17 1

the case o f a variable speed m o t o r the pr o blem O f predict

In -
,

ing the e x act speed at a given l o ad can be so lved by successive

appro ximati o ns o nly First this speed is de t ermined neglecting .
,

the transve rse armature reacti o n alt o gether o r assigning t o it a ,

reaso nable value Then the c o nstructi o n sh o wn in Fig 4 3 is

.
, .

pe rf o rmed fo r a few speeds near t he appr o ximate value and thus ,

a m o re c o rrect value o f the speed is fo und by trials O r else .

di ff erent values o f speed are assumed first and the c o rresp o ndin g ,

values o f the armature cu r rent are f o und fo r each speed These .

armature currents must be such that c o nsidering the t o tal arma ,

ture reacti o n the field m m f is j ust sufficient t o pro duce the

,
. . .

required c o unter in the armature The deta ils o f the so lu .

ti o n are left t o the student t o investigate He must clearl y .

understand that the pr o blem can be so lved o nl y fo r a given o r an

assumed speed because o f the n ecessity Of using the active layer
,

characteristic O X ( Fig .

Pr o b 6 I n a d i r ect cu rr ent m ac h in e it i s d esi red t o h ave a full

. .
-

l o a d a flux d ens ity Of no t le ss th an 3 5 00 m axw ell s pe r sq c m at the . .

p o le tip at wh ic h the c o mm utati o n ta kes place ; th e m m f ac ro ss th e

-
. . .

active lay e r is 75 00 am p t ur n s th e ai r gap is 1 1 mm th e ai r gap .

-
,
-
.
,
-

fac to r T h e rati o Of t h e i deal p o le w id th t o th e p o le pitc h is

W h at a r e t he pe rm iss i ble am pe re tu rns o n t he a rm atu re pe r p o le ? -
,

So luti o n : The n e t m m f ac ro ss t he active laye rs at t h e p o le tip un d e r

. . .
-

c o n s id e rati o n is a mp tu rns H en ce -
.

M 2 X 0 7 r = 7500
. A ns .

Pr o b T h e s pec ific elect ric l o ad in g in a d i rect c u rren t m ac hine

. 7 .
-

i s 2 5 0 a mp c o nd ucto rs pe r cen t im ete r ; th e ave ra ge flux d ens ity o n

-

the p o l e face i s
-
kl p er sq c m at no l o ad and at the ra t ed full l o a d
. . .
,

te rm inal v o ltage ; th e wid th o f th e equivalen t id eal p o le i s 32 c m Th e .

es tim ated in te rnal v o lta ge dro p at full l o ad i s abo ut 5 pe r cen t Of th e

te rm inal v o ltage Calculate th e am p ere t u rn s pe r p o l e requi red t o
.
-

c o m pen sa te fo r th e t ran s ve rse a rm atu re reacti o n ; t he ac tive l ay e r

c ha racte ris t i c ( Fig 4 3) is as fo ll o ws : .

M 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 kil o a m pe re- tu rns ;

B = 5 40 . kl pe r s q c m
. . .

A ns . 950 .

Pro b 8 F o r th e p reced in g m ach ine calcul a te th e t o ta l requi red

. .
,

e xcitati o n at full l o a d pe r p o le ; th e b rus h sh ift i s 8 pe r cen t Of th e

,

po l e pitc h ; th e p o le pitc h - 46 c m ; 2000 a m pe re tu rns a re requi red

- -
r .
-

fo r th e pa rt s o f t h e mac h i ne o uts id e the active laye r .

A ns a mp tu r n s . .
-
.

Pro b 9 A sh un t wo und mo to r is des igned s o a t o o pe r te at a

. .
-
s a

c ertain s p eed at full l o ad Sho w ho w t o p red ict i ts s pee d a t fro l o ad .

-
.
 1 72 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 54

Pr o b 1 0 S h o w . in a c om p o
. w o un d mo t o r t h e t o tal
ho w, u nd -
,

requir ed field excitati o n m us t be d ivid e d between t h e shunt an d se ries

win d in gs i n ord e r t o Obta in a p res c ribed s pee d regulati o n between n o
l o ad and full l o ad .

Pro b 1 1 Assum e the cu r ve O K in Fig 43 t o be given in th e f orm

. . .

o f an an alytic equati on Sho w that the un kn o wn excitati o n

,

O =M
a
'
is d ete rm ined by the equati o n 2 M f (M ) = E (M + M )
’
,
’
2
F(M ’
whe re th e functi o n F is s uc h that dF (M ) / dM
M = 0 a is the excitati o n c orr esp o n d in g t o the given value Of e O r B = a b
o .

Pro b 1 2 A pply t he f orm ula o f t h e p reced in g p ro ble m t o the ca s e

. .

when the active laye r c ha racte ri stic can be rep res ented by (a ) the l og
a rith m ic c u r ve y = a lo g ( 1 + bx) ; ( )
b the h ype r b o la =
y gx/ (h (0 ) a
pa r t o f the pa rab o la (y = 2 p (x m) c o ntin ued a s a tan gent s t ra i ght
2 —

o ,

line passing t hro ugh t h e o r i gi n .

54 C o mmutating Po l es a nd C o mpensating W in dings

. The .

t w o limiting fact o rs in pr o p o rti o ning a direct current machine are -

,

first the sparking under the brushes and sec ondly the armature
, , ,

reacti on I n o rder t o reverse a c onsiderable armature current

.

in a c o il during the sh o rt interval Of time that the c o il is under a

brush an external field o f a pr o per dire c ti o n and magnitude is
,

necessary I n o rdinary machines (Fig 4 2) this field is O btained

. .

by shifting the brushes so as t o bring the sh o rt circuited armature -

c onduct o rs un der a p o le f ringe Ho wever with this meth o d the .

,

specific electric l o ading and the armature ampere turn s must be -

kept bel o w a certain limit with re f erence t o the ampere turn s o n -

the field ; o therwise the armature reacti o n w o uld weaken the field
t o such an e x tent as t o reduce the flu x density in the fringe bel o w
the required value Theref o re in many m o dern machines instead
.
, ,

O f m o ving the brushes t o the p oles part O f the p oles so t o say are , , ,

br o ught t o the brushes (Fig These additi o nal p oles are .

called c ommuta ting poles o r interpoles Their p o larity is under .

st o o d with re f erence t o Fig 4 2 : Sin ce the E brush had t o be shifted .

t o ward the n o rth p ole no w a n o rth interp ole is placed o ver each E ,

b rush .

The armature belts T T create a str o ng m m f al o ng the a x is e, e, . . .

Of the c o mm utating p o le N in the wr o ng directi o n Theref o re C, .

,

the winding o n each interp o le must be pr o vided first with a num

ber o f ampere turns equal and O pp o site t o that O f the armature
-

.
,

and sec o ndly with en o ugh additi o nal ampere turn s t o establish -

the req u ired c o mmutating fl ux These additi o nal ampere turn s .

-

are cal c ulated o nly fo r the air gap , armature teeth and the p o le -
,

b o dy itself The m m f required f o r the armature c o re and the

. . . .
CR AP . IX ] AR M A T URE RE AC TI O N I N D C . . M ACH I N E S 173

y o ke o f the machine is negligible because the c o mmutating flux is ,

small as c o mpared with the main flux and is displaced with respect
t o it by ninety elect rical degrees The winding on the interp o les .

is c o nnected in series with the main circuit o f the machine because ,

t he arma t ure m m f is pr o p o rti o nal t o the a r matu re current and

. . .
,

also because t he den si t y o f the reversing field must be pr o p o rti o n al

t o the current un derg o ing c o mmutati o n .

The flux density under the inte rp o les is dete r mined fr o m the
c o nditi o n that the e m f induced in the a r mature c onduc t o rs by
. . .

t he c o mmutat ing flux be equal and o pp o site t o the e m f due t o . . .

the inductance o f the a r mature c o il s underg o ing c o mmutati o n .

F o r practical purp o ses the inductan ce can be o nly r o ughly esti ,

mate d (see A rt 6 8 bel o w ) bu t o n the other hand an accur ate cal

.
,

C o mp nsa ing e t Co mmu tating

M ain pol e

G ene atorr

W
M otor
—
a

F ro 4 4 . .
—
I nte rpo les and a c om pen sa t ing windin g in a d irec t c urrent m achine - .

culati o n is not necessa ry because the number o f ampe re tu rns on ,

-

the in te rp ole is easily adj usted by a shun t aro und its winding as ,

in the case o f a se ries winding on th e main p o les O r else the .

c o mmutating flux can be in c reased by shimmin g up the

in te rp o les The m m f required fo r establishin g a requ ired
. . . .

c o m mutating flux is calculated in the sa me manne r as in the case

o f the main flux viz the saturati o n cu r ves ( Figs 2 and 3 ) a re
'

. .
, ,

used fo r the p o le b o dy and the teeth while the reluctan ce o f the ,

air gap is estimated as is explained in A rts 3 6 and 37 The

-
. .

c o mmutating p o les must be o f such a wid t h that all the c o ils

unde r g o ing c o mmutati o n a re unde r thei r influence .

A c o mpa ratively large leakage fact o r say between and ,

o r o ve r is usually assumed fo r the c o m mutating p o les o n acc o unt

, ,

o f the pr o ximi t y o f the main p o les I t is ad visable t o c o ncent rate .

t he winding nea r the tip o f the inte rp o le in o rde r t o reduce the ,

 174 T HE M AGN E TI C CI R C UI T lA R T . 54

magnetic leakage The leak a ge fact o r o f the main p o les is als o

.

so mewhat in creased by the presen ce o f the interp o les ; this is o ne

o f their disadvantages S o me o ther disadvantages are : the ven
.

t ila t io n o f t he field c o ils is m o re di ffi c ult and a smaller rati o o f ,

p o le arc t o p o le pi t ch must be used Ho wever the advantages .

,

gained by the use o f c o mmutating p oles are such that their use
is rapidly bec o ming universal .

The interp o le winding rem o ves the e ffect o f the tran sverse
belts T T in the c o mmutating z o ne but d o es n o t neutrali ze their
, , ,

dist o rting e ff ect under the main p o les Hence the dist o rti o n and .
,

its acc o mpanying reducti on o f the main flux are pra c tically the
same as with o ut the interp oles T o rem o ve this disto rti o n a c om .

p e ns a ti ng wi nding ( Fig c o nnected in series with

. the main cir
cuit o f the machine is so metimes placed o n the main p o les The
, .

c o nnecti o ns are such that the c o mpensating winding o pp o ses the

ma gneti zin g acti o n o f the armature winding B y pr o perly select .

ing the spe c ific electric l o ading o f the c o mpensating winding the
transverse armature reacti o n under the p o les can be rem o ved ,

ei t her c o mpletely o r in part This winding was invented inde .

pendently by Déri in E ur o pe and by P r o fesso r H J R yan in this . .

c o un try ; o n acc o un t o f its expense it is used in r are cases ,

o nly .

W hen a c o mpensating winding is used in additi on t o the inte r

p oles the number o f ampere turn s on the interp o les is c onsider
,
-

ably reduced because the c o mpensating winding can be made t o

,

neutrali z e the larger p o rti o n o r all o f the armature reacti o n I n .

such a machine a mu c h highe r specific l o ading can be all o wed than

in an o rdinary machine o f the same dimensi ons Theref o re such .
,

c o mpensated machines are particularly well adapted fo r rapidly

fluctuatin g l o ad s and fo r sudden o ve rl o ads o r reve r sals o f r o tati on
,

in the case o f a m o t o r .

Pr o b 1 3 F rom th e fo ll o wing d ata d et erm i ne th e a mp ere t u r n s

. .
-

requi red o n eac h c omm utatin g p o le o f a tu rb o gene rat o r : Th e c om -

m utatin g p o les a re mad e o f cast steel ; th e ave rage flux de n s ity o n

the face o f the inte rp o le i s 600 0 m axwell s pe r s q c m ; the p o le face . .
-

a rea 25 0 sq c m ; the p o le c ro ss secti o n 16 0 sq c m ; th e rad ial len gt h

. .
-

‘
. .

o f t h e inte rp o le 2 7 c m ; t h e lea ka ge fact o r

. Th e ai r gap reluctance ,
-

is millirels t h e t rue t oo th de n sity 2 0 kilo lines pe r s q c m the height

,
. .
,

o f the t oo th m an d the a rm atu re a mpe re tu rn s pe r p o le 9 5 0 0

c .
,
-
.

A n s A b o ut .

Pro b 1 4 Th e rated cu rrent o f th e m ac hine in t h e p reced i ng p ro blem

. .
C HAP I X]
. AR M AT URE RE AC TI O N I N D C . . M ACH I N E S 175

is 1200 am p and in add iti on t o the in terp o l es t h e m ac h ine is t o be

.
,

p ro vi ded wit h a c o m p ensat ing wind ing Sho w t hat ea c h in terp o le .

sho ul d ha v e at leas t 8 t urns and eac h ma in p o le be p ro vided with 10

,

ba rs fo r th e c o mpensa t ing wind ing in o rd e r t o ne ut rali ze t h e a rmatur e ,

dis to rtion under the main po l es and pro vi de th e p ro pe r c o mm utating

fi eld.

Pro b 1 5 M ac hines p ro vided wit h in terp o les a re ve ry sensitive

. .

as t o t hei r b rush p o s iti on B y shifting t he br ushes even sligh tly f ro m

.

t he geo m et rical n eut ral t h e term in al vo ltage o f s uc h a gene rat o r c a n b e

va ri ed t o a c o ns id e rable extent I n the c ase o f a mo t o r th e s p eed can
.

be regulated by t hi s method wit ho ut ad j us ting th e field rh eo stat G ive

, .

an e xp lan ati on o f this c ompo unding eff ec t of t he brush shift

"
.

55 A r mature R
. cti on in a R ota ry C o nverter The actual
ea .

currents o f irregular fo rm which fl o w in the armature winding o f a

r o tary c o nverter may be c o nside red as the resul tants o f the dire c t
cur rent taken fro m the machine and o f the alternating c ur rents
taken in by the machine The resultant magne t izing acti o n up o n
.

the field is the same as if these t wo kind s o f cu r rents were fl o wing

thr o ugh t wo separate windings The re fo re the armature reacti o n .
,

in a r o tary c o nve rter can be calculated by pr o perly c o mbining the

a rm ature reacti ons o f a synch ro n o us m o t o r and o f a direct current -

generat o r .

The alte rnating current input int o a r o tary c o nve rte r m ay be

-

eithe r at a p o wer fact o r o f unity if the field excitati o n is pr o perly ,

adj usted o r the input may have a lagging o r a leading c o mp onent

, ,

the sa me as in the c ase o f a syn chr o n o us m o t o r The armature .

reacti o n due t o the energy c o mp o nent o f the input c onsists chiefly

in the dist o rt i o n o f the field a ga ins t the direc tion of rota tion o f the
,

a rm ature B ut the acti o n o f the direct current is t o dist o rt the

.

field in the direc tion of rota tion and since the t wo m m fs a re no t ,

. . .

much d ifferent fro m o ne an o ther the resultant transve r se arma ,

ture reacti o n is ve ry s m all The di rect reacti o n o f the direct cur.

rent depend s up o n the p o siti o n o f the b rushes and the di rect ,

reacti o n due t o the alte rnating cu r rents is determined by the

reactive c o mp o nent o f the input which c o mp o nent may va ry ,

within wide limits Thus the resul t ant direct reacti on o f a ro ta ry

.
,

c o nve rter m ay be adj usted t o alm o st any desi red value .

The o hmi c d ro p in the armatu re o f a ro tary c o nverte r has a

diffe rent exp ressi o n than in eit he r a d irect current o r a synchro -

n o us machine be c ause the fl r l o ss must be calculated fo r the actual

,

shape o f the supe ri m p o sed cu r rents R o ta ry c onve rte rs a re so me .

176 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 55

times pro vided with interp o les in o rder t o impr o ve the c o mmu ,

t a t io n an d t o use a higher specific electri c l o ad ing 1

.

F or furthe r details in re ga rd to the a rmatu re reacti o n in a

ve rte r see Arn old W e h l tr mt c hnik Vo l 4
,
c se s o Chap 2 8 ; P ichel
e , . .

m aye r Dyna m b u
,
o a p 2 76 ; S t nd rd H ndb k index unde r C n
. a a a oo ,
o

ve rte r ynchro n o u e ff ective a rm atu re re si tance

,
s s, Pa rshall Ho ba rt s ,

E l tric M
ec hin D es ign ( 190 6 ) p 3 7 7 ; L a mme and Newbu ry Inte rp o le in
ac e .
, s

S ynch ro n o us Co nve rte rs T r ns A mer I n t E le tr E ng

,
a . Vo l 29 . s . c . rs .
,
.

p . 162 5 .
 C HA PT E R X

E L E C TR O M A G N E TIC E NE R G Y A N D I N DU C TA N C E

56 . T he E n er gy Sto r ed in Fi el d E xperi
an E l ectr o ma gn etic .

ment sh o ws t hat no supply of energy is required t o maintain a

c o nstant magnetic field The p o wer input int o the exciting c o il o r
.

c o ils is in this case exactly equ al t o that c o nve rted int o the Pr heat
in t he c o nduct o rs an d this p o we r is the sa me whether a ma gne t ic
,

field is pro duced o r no t A n o ther fa miliar example is that o f a

.

permanent magnet which maintains a magnetic field with o ut any

,

supply o f energy fr o m the o utside and appa ren t ly with o ut any ,

dec rease in i t s in t e rnal energy N eve rtheless every magnetic field

.
,

has a ce rtain am o unt o f energy st o red within it th o ugh in a fo r m ,

ye t un kn o wn This is p r o ved by the fact that an expenditure o f

.

energy is required t o in c rease the field and o n the o the r hand , , ,

when the flux is reduced so m e ene rgy is retu rned into the ,

exci t ing electric circ uit .

The c o nve rsi o n o f electric into magnetic energy and vic e

ver sa is a c c o mplished thr o ugh the e m f induced by the va ry . . .

in g flux L e t a magnetic flux be excited by a c o il C C ( Fig 4 5 )

. .

supplied with cur rent fro m a s o ur c e o f c o nstant v o ltage E and let ,

t here be a rhe o stat r in se ries with the c o il Le t pa rt o f t he resist .

an c e in the rhe o stat he suddenly cut o ut in o rde r t o inc rease t he

current in t he c o il I t will be fo und t hat the cur rent rises t o i t s
.

final value no t instantly ; namely when the cur rent inc reases the , ,

fl u also in creases and in so d o ing it indu c es in t he electric circui t

,

an say e which tend s t o o pp o se the cur rent This e

, .
,

t o ge t he r with the iR d ro p balan c es the v o ltage E so that fo r a

, ,

t ime the p o we r E i supplied by the so urce is la rge r th an the p o we r

i 6 l o st in t he t o tal resistance o f the circuit
21 The d iff e re nce .
,

2 1t
is sto red in t he mag netic field c reated by the c o il and by
°

Ei t
—

t he o the r pa r t s o f the cir c ui t The ene rgy ei dt supplied by the

.

electric circuit du ring t he element o f tim e dl is c onve r t ed in t o the

m agne t ic ene rgy o f the field by the law o f the c o nse rvati o n o f
,

177
1 78 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 56

energy while t he am o unt (E

,
is c onverted int o
—
e) i dt = i R dt
2

heat .

I f no w the same resistance is sud denly intr o duced int o

t he c ircuit t he current gradually returns t o its f o rmer value and
, ,

during t his variable peri o d the i 18 l o ss is larger than the p o wer E i

z

supplied by t he so ur c e The applied vo ltage is in this case assisted

.

by t he vo ltage e induced by the decreasing field the e m f e sup , . . .

plying part o f the i 18 l o ss

2
.

T o make the matter m o re c o ncrete let the s o urce o f electric

energy be a c o nstant v o ltage direc t c urrent generat o r driven by
-
,
-
,

FI G . 45 .
—
The ma gnetic field p ro duced by a c o il ,
s h o win g c om plete and
partial lin ka ges .

a steam turbine L et the l o ad c o nsist o f c o ils o f variable resist

.

ance R and let the c o il s pro duce a c o nsiderable magnetic field

,
.

A s l o ng as the l o ad current is c o nstant the rate o f the steam c o n ,

sum pti o n is determined by the i R l o ss in the cir c uit W hen the

2
.

current in c reases the s t eam is c o nsumed at each instant at a

,

higher rate than it w o uld be with a c o nstant c urrent o f the same

ins t an t ane o us value The energy o f steam is thus partly st o red
.

in t he magneti c fi eld o f t he c o ils W hen the current is returned .

t o i t s fo rmer value the stea m c o nsumpti o n durin g the transiti o nal

,
CR AP . X] E N E RGY AND I NDUC T ANC E 1 79

pe ri od is less than that which c o rresp o nds t o the i l8 l o ss in the 2

circuit so that p ractically the same am o unt o f steam is saved

,

w hi ch was expended befo re in in creasing the magnetic field .

These phen o mena may be explained o r at least expressed in ,

m o re familiar te rm s by assu ming the magnetic field t o be due t o

,

so me kind o f m o ti o n in a medium p o ssessed o f inertia (A rt .

W hen the field strength is increased it bec o mes necessary t o accel

era t e the parts in m o ti o n o verc o ming their ine rt ia , W hen the .

field is reduced the kinetic energy o f m o ti o n is returned t o the

,

electric ci rcuit O ne can also c o nceive o f the energy o f the mag

.

ne t ic field t o be static and in the f o rm o f so me elastic stress .

Unde r this hyp o thesis when a current increases the magne t ic

, ,

stress also inc re ases at the expense o f the elec t ric energy I n .

either case when the current is c on stant no energy is required

,

to maintain the field any m o re than t o main tain a c o nstant r o ta

,

ti on in a fly wheel o r a c o n stant stress in an elastic b o dy

-
.

I t seems the m o re pr o bable that the magnetic energy o f a

circuit is sto red in so me kinetic fo rm because the current which ,

acc o mpanies the flux is itself a kinetic phen o men o n O n the o the r .

hand it ap pears m o re likely that electr o static energy is due t o so me

,

elastic stresses and displacements in the medium and thus it .

may be said t o be p o tential energy E lectric o sci llati o ns and

.

waves c o nsist t hen in pe r i o dic t r ansfo rmati o ns o f ele c tr o static into

, ,

elect r o magnetic energy o r p o tential int o kinetic energy and vic e

, ,

vers a simila r t o the mechanical o scillati o ns and waves in a n

,

elastic b o dy I n the familia r case o f current o r v o ltage reso nance

.

the t o tal energy o f the ci r cuit at a ce r tain instant is sto red in the
f o rm o f electr o static ene rgy in the c o ndenser (permit t o r) c o n
nec t ed int o the circuit o r in the natu r al pe r mittance o f the circuit ;
,

the cu rrent and the magnetic ene rgy at this instant a re equal
t o z er o A t an o ther instant when t he cu rrent and the magnetic
.
,

field are at their maximu m the ene rgy sto red is all in the fo rm ,

o f magnetic energy and the vo ltage ac ro ss the c o ndenser and

,

the stress in the dielect ric a re equal t o ze ro A n o scillating .

pendulum o ffe rs a cl o se anal o gy t o such a system The resistance .

o f the electric ci r cuit and the magnetic and dielect ric hyste resis
, ,

are anal o go us t o the f ricti o n and w indage which acc o mpanies

the m o ti o n o f the pend ulum
A s it is o f i m
.

p o rtance in mechanical m achine design t o kn o w

the ine rtia o f the m o ving pa rts of a m achine so it is o ften necessa ry ,
18 0 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A RT . 57

in the design an d o perati o n o f electrical apparatus and circuits t o

kn o w t he a m o un t o f energy st o red in the magnetic field o r the ,

electr o magneti c inertia This inertia m o difies the current and

-
.

vo l t age re la t i ons in the electric circuit in s o mewhat the same way

in which the iner t ia o f the recipr o cating pa rts in an engine m o di
fies the usef ul e ff o rt I n mechanical design a rev o lving part is
.

characterized by its m o ment o f inertia fro m which the st o red

energy can be cal c ulated fo r any desired speed So in electrical .

engineerin g a circuit o r an apparatus is characterized by its electr o

magnetic inertia o r induc ta nc e f r o m which it is p o ssible t o calculate
,

the magnetic energy st o red in it at any desired value o f the cur

rent I n this and in the t wo ne x t chapters expressi o ns are deduced
.

fo r the inductan ce o f s o me o f the prin cipal types o f apparatus

used in electrical engin eerin g .

Pro b 1 A stati o na ry elect ro m agnet att rac ts a nd lift s it s a rm a t u re

. .

wit h a weight attac h ed t o it E xplain ho w th e ene rgy nece ss a ry fo r

.

the lifting o f t h e wei gh t i s supplied by the elect ric ci rcuit .

Pro b 2 A d i rect cu rr ent gene rat o r driven b y a wate r wheel i s

. .
- -

s ubjected t o ve ry la rge an d s udd e n fluctuati o n s o f the l o ad , whic h

the go ve rn o r an d the gate m echani sm a re unable t o f o ll o w p ro pe rly .

A h eavy fly wh eel o n th e gene rat or shaft w o uld imp ro ve th e o pe ratin g

-

c o n d iti o n s W o ul d a reactance c o il in s e rie s wit h th e m ain ci rcuit

.

ac hieve the sam e res ult p ro vid ed that it c o uld b e m ad e la rge e n o ugh
,

t o s t or e t h e r equi red exce ss o f e ne rgy

Pro b 3 W hat expe rim ental evid ence c o uld be o ffe red t o s upp o rt
. .

the c o ntenti o n th at t h e ene rgy o f an elect ric ci rcuit i s c o ntained in th e

magnetic fiel d lin ked with the cu rrent an d no t in t he cu rrent it self ? ,

Th e fl o w o f cu rr ent i s u s ually c o mpar ed t o that o f wate r in a pipe ;

i s no t all th e kinetic ene rgy s t o red in t he mo vin g wate r its elf an d no t
in the s u rro un d ing m ed ium a nd if so i s a cu rre nt o f elect ricity r eally
, ,

li ke a cu rr ent o f wate r
Pro b 4 Desc ribe in d etail cu rrent a nd v o ltage r e so nance an d
. .
1

f ree elect rical os cillati o n s f rom t h e p o int o f view o f th e pe ri od ic c o nve rs i o n

,

o f elect rom a gn etic int o elect r o s tatic ene rgy an d vic e versa ta kin g acc o unt ,

o f the d i ss ipati o n o f ene rgy in the r e s i s tanc e o f t h e ci r cui t .

57 . E lectr o magnetic E nergy E xp r ess ed

th r o ugh the L inkages
o f C urrent a nd Flux I n o rder t o o btain a general e x pressi o n fo r
.

the energy st o red in the magnetic field o f an electric circuit c o n ,

sider first a sin gl e l o o p o f wire d a (Fig 1 1) thr o ugh which a steady .

ele c tric c u r rent i is fl o wing L et the cr o ss secti o n o f the wire be

.
—

small as c o mpared t o the dimensi o ns o f the l o o p so that the flux ,

-

See the auth or s E xperimenta l E lec tric a l E ngineering Vo l

’

, . 2, pp . 17 to 25 .
CHA P X ]
. E N E RGY AN D IN DUC T A N C E 18 1

inside the wire may be disrega rded The elect ro magnetic energy .

po ssessed by the l o o p is equal t o the electrical energy spent in

es t ablishing the current i in t he l o o p again st the induced e m f . . .

Le t i t and at , be the in stantane o us values o f the cu rren t in

ampe res and the flux in webe rs at a m o ment t du r ing the pe ri od o f
b uildin g up the flux and let e, be the instantane o us applied
,

vo ltage L et the flux inc rease by dd) , du ring an in finitesimal

.

interval dl; then the electrical energy (in j o ules) suppli ed f ro m

the so ur ce o f p o wer t o the magnetic field is
d W = i ¢et dt

where e, —
is the instantane o us e m f induced in the . . .

l o o p by the c han ging flux The t o tal energy supplied fro m the
.

elect rical so urce during the pe ri od o f building up the field t o its

final value (I) is
( 9 8)

In a m edium o f c onstant pe r meability the integrati o n can be

eas ily pe rf o rmed because the flux is p ro p o rti o nal t o the cu rrent
,

o r acc o rdin g t o e q (2 ) in A rt 5 m
,

,
. where 0 is the pe rm ean ce
.
,
’

o f the magnetic circuit in hen rys ,

E li minating by mean s o f this
.

relati o n either i t o r 07, fr o m e q ( 98 ) we can o btain any one o f the

.

f o ll o wing three exp ressi o n s fo r the electro magnetic ene r gy sto red
in the l o o p

In the fi rst fo rm eq (9 9) exp resses the fact that the magnetic

, .

energy sto red in a l o o p is equal t o o ne half the product o f the cur -

rent by the fl ux ; in the sec o nd fo rm it sh o ws that the sto red ,

ene rgy is pro p o rti o nal t o the squa re o f the current and t o the per
m ean ce o f the magnetic circuit B o th f o rms a re o f imp o rtan ce in
.

p r a c tical applicati o ns .

Take no w the m o re general case o f a c o il o f it tu rns ( Fig 4 5) .

the flux which links with a pa rt o f the tu rns is no w o f a magnitude

c o mpa rable with that o f the flux which links with all the turns o f
the c o il W e shall c o n sider the c omplete linkages and the pa rtia l
.

linkages se pa rately Co n side r fi rst the ene rgy due t o the flux
.
18 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 57

whi ch links wi t h a ll the tu rn s o f the c o il The e m f induced in . . . .

t he c o il by t his fl u x when the curren t changes is c t

, ,

and t he rela t i o n between the current and the flu x is

where (P is the permeance o f the path o f the c o mplete linkages
c
.

B y repea t ing the reas o ning given ab o ve in the case o f a single l o o p

we find that
Wc =
% ni 07

Wc = n2 i2 0 ’
%

whe re the subcript c signifies that the quantities refer t o the c o m

p le t e linkages o nly ( Fig T w o f o rms o nly are retained being
.
,

t h o se that are o f the m o st practi c al imp o rtance .

The energy o f the partial linkages is calculated in a similar

manner L et A dl p be a small annular flux (Fig 4 5) which links
. .

with n p tu rn s o f the c o il where n may be an integer o r a fracti on

, p .

F o r these turns the linkage with A tb is a c o mplete linkage while p ,

fo r t he external (n turns it is no linkage at all and represents

no energy because n o e m f is induced by
,
. in the turns external
. .

t o it . Thus the energy due t o the flux

,
ac c o rding t o eqs .

( 1 0 0 ) and ( 10 0 6 0 is equal t o
, % n i A (D or t o $n
2 2
i 40 p The p p, p .

t o tal energy o f the partial linkages is the sum of such expressi o ns ,

o ver the wh o le flux (0 p o r ,

Wp % i 2 np 4 ¢

Wp

The t o tal ene r gy of the c o il is

W = i
7 [n (Pc a MD

W a z
4 W P] ,

where the first term the right hand side re f ers t o the c o mplete
on -

lin kages and the sec o nd t o the partial linkages o f the flu x and the
current I n these e x pressi o ns the current is in amperes the fluxes
.
,

in webers the permeances in henrys and the energy in j o ules

, ,

(watt se c o nds)
-
I f o ther units are used the c o rresp o nding numeri
.

cal c onversi on fact o rs must be intro duced .

C nu . x1 ENER GY A ND I NDUC TANC E 183

So menew light is thr o wn up o n these relati o ns by using the

m m f M instead o f the ampere tu rns ni N amely e qs ( 10 2) and
. . .
-
.
, .

( lo2a ) bec o me
W = M o E M ro pj ,
i[ c c + p

W EM p
z
d vp j .
( 10 3a )

These expressi o ns a re anal o g o us t o th o se fo r the ene rgy sto red in

an electro static circuit viz t E Q and §E C (see T he E lec tr ic C ir
2
,
.
, ,

c uit) . The m m f M is anal o go us t o the e m f E ; the magn etic

. . .
, . . .

flux 07 is anal o g o us t o the electr o static flux Q and the pe r meance

, ,

w is anal o g o us t o the permittance C

e .

W e can assume as a fundamental law o f natu r e the fact that

with a gi ven steady current the ma gnetic field is distribu t ed in such
a way that the t o tal electro ma gne t ic energy o f the system is a
maxim um A ll kn o wn field s o bey this law and in additi on it can
.
, , ,

be pro ved by the higher mathematics E q ( 10 2 a ) sh o ws that this . .

law is ful filled when the sum n w E n p CP is a maxi mum W hen

2
e
)
, p .

the pa rtial lin kages are c o mparatively small the energy st o red is a ,

ma ximum when the permean ce 0 o f the paths o f the t o tal linkages 6

is a maximum This fact is made use o f in the graphical meth o d

.

o f mappin g o ut a magnetic field in A rt 4 1 ab o ve ,

. .

Pr o b 5 T h e no l o ad sa tu ratio n cu rv e o f an 8 p o l e elec tri c ge n

. .
- -

era t o r i s a s t rai gh t l ine s uc h t h at w hen t h e us eful flux is 1 0 mega lines

pe r p o le t h e excitati o n i s 7200 a mp tu rn s pe r p o le ; t h e l ea kage fact o r -

is Sho w t ha t at t his e xcitati o n th e re is e n o ugh en e rgy s to red

in t he fiel d t o s uppl y a sm all in cand e s cen t lam p with p o we r fo r a few
min utes .

Pro b 6 E xplai n the function and th e d ia gra m o f c onn ecti ons o f

. .

a field d is c ha rge switc h

- .

Pro b 7 Pro ve th at the m a gn etic e nergy s to red in an appa ratus

. .

c on ta inin g i ron is p ro p o rti on a l t o th e a rea between t he sa t urati o n cu rve

an d th e ax is o f o rd inates T h e satu rati on cu rve i s un d e rs too d t o give
.

th e to ta l flux pl o tt ed agains t t he e xcit ing am pe re tur ns as absc iss ae - -

Hin t : See Art 16 . .

Pro b 8 Ded uce exp ress i on ( 10 2a ) di rec tl y by writ ing do wn an

. .
,

exp ress i on fo r th e to tal ins t an tan eo us e m f i nd uc ed in a c o il ( Fi g . . . .

Pro b 9 E xplain the rea s o n fo r whi h in the fo rm ul ae d ed uc ed ab o ve

. . c , ,

it is pe rm iss i ble t o c onsider n t o b e a f racti on al n umbe r .

58 Indu c ta n c e as the C oeffici ent o f Sto red E n er gy , o r t he

.

E l ec tr i c al I n ert ia o f a C ir c uit E q ( 10 2a ) sh o ws t hat in a mag

. .

netic ci r cuit o f c o nstant pe r meability the sto red ene rgy is pro p o r
18 4 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A rm 58

t io n al t o the square o f the c ur rent which excites the field The .

c o e fficien t o f pro p o rti onality w hich depends o nly up o n the f o rm ,

o f the circ uit and the p o siti o n o f the e x citing is defin ed

as the induc ta nc e o f the electric circuit The o lder name fo r .

inductance is the c o efficient o f self inducti o n I t is assumed -

.

here that the magnetic circuit is excited by o nly o ne electric cir

cuit so that there is no mutual inductance Thus by definiti o n
,
.
,

W a
l l/ £ 2
.
( 10 4 )
where the inductance is
L = n @ c + E n p d wp,
2 z

o r, replacin g the summati o n by an inte grati o n ,

L
0

S ince the pe r meances in eq ( 10 2a ) are expressed in henrys and .

,

the numbers o f turns are numerics the inductance L in the defin ,

ing eqs or . is also in henrys I f the permean ces are .

meas u red in millihenrys o r in perms the inductance L is measu red ,

in the same units A s a matter o f fact the henry was o riginally

.
,

ad o pted as a unit o f inductance and o nly later o n was applied t o ,

permeance 1
.

I n s o me cases it is c o nvenient t o replace the actual c o il ( Fig 4 5) .

by a fi c ti t i o us c o il o f an equal inductance and o f the same number o f ,

turns but with o ut partial linkages L et d q be the permeance o f

,
.
’
e

the c o mplete linkages o f this fictiti o us c o il ; then by definiti o n , ,

e qs ( 10 5) and ( 10 6) bec o me
.

L = n2
mq e .

This expressi o n is used when the permean ce o f the paths is c a lc u

lated f r o m the results o f experimental measurements o f inductance ,

because in this case it is no t p o ssible t o separate the partial

linkages U se is made o f f o rmula ( 10 6a ) in chapter X I I in cal
.
,

c ula t ing the in ductance o f armature windings .

1
of the hen ry a s a unit of pe rmeance wa s p rop osed by Professor
T he use
Gi orgi S T r n I nt n E l C ong at St L o ui s
. ee a s . er . Vol 1 p 136
ec . ress . .
,
. .

The c o nnecti o n between inductance and pe rm eance seem t o have been fir t s s

e tabli hed by O live r H eavi side ; see his E lec tr m gn eti T heo ry
s s Vo l o a c .

1, p . 31 .
CR A P . X] E N E RG Y AN D I N D UC T A N C E 18 5

The inductan c e L is related in a simple manner t o the electr o

m o t ive fo rce induced in the exci t ing elec t ric circuit when the cur
rent varies in i t N amely the electric p o wer supplied t o the cir
.
,

cuit o r retu rned f r o m the circuit t o the so urce is equal t o the r ate
o f chan ge o f the st o red ene rgy so that we have fr o m eq ( 10 4) ,
.

d W / dt = i ( -
)
e

o r, can celing i ,

( 10 7)

The sign minus is used because e is unde rst o o d t o be the induced

e m f and no t that applied at t he terminals o f t he circuit There
. . . .

fo re when d W / dt is p o sitive that is when the st o red energy

, , ,

inc reases with the time e is in duced in the directi o n o pp o site t o that
,

o f the fl ow o f the current and hence by c o nventi o n is c o nsidered

,

negative In ductance is s o metim es de fined by eq

. and then .

e qs ( 10 4 ) and ( 10 5) are deduced fr o m it The definiti o n of L b y

. .
'

the expressi o n fo r the electr o magnetic ene r gy seems t o be a m o re

l o gical o ne fo r the purp o se o f this treatise while the o the r defi ni ,

ti on in terms o f the induced e m f is p ro pe r fr o m the p o int o f . . .

view o f the electric circuit .

L o o kin g up o n the st o red magnetic ene r gy as due t o s o me kin d

o f a m o ti o n in the medium e q ( 10 4 ) suggests the familiar expres , .

si o ns 57m) and t s fo r the kinetic energy o f a mechanical system

?
.

Taking the current t o be anal o go us t o the vel o city o f m o ti o n the ,

inductan ce bec o mes anal o go us t o mechanic al mass and m o ment o f

ine rtia The larger the electr o magnetic inertia L the m o re energy
.

is st o red with the same cur rent E quati o n ( 10 7) also has its .

anal o gue in mechanics namely in the familiar expressi o ns mdv/ dt

,

and d / dt fo r the accelerating fo rce and t o rque respectively .

The e m f e represents the reacti on o f the circuit up o n the so ur c e

. . .

o f p o wer when the latte r tend s t o in crease i the rate o f fl o w o f elec

t ric it y W hile these anal o gies sh o uld no t be ca r ried t o o far they

.
,

are helpful in fo rming a clea re r pictu re o f the elect ro magnetic

phen o mena .

The ro le o f inductance L in the current and v o ltage relati o ns o f

, ,

alte rnatin g cur rent cir cuits is trea t ed in detail in the auth o r s
-
’

E lec tric C ir cuit I n this b o o k inductance is c o nside red fro m the

.

p o int o f view o f the magnetic ci rcuit i e as expressed by eqs ( 10 4 ) , . .

, .

to I n the next t w o chap t e rs the values o f indu c tance a re

186 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 58

calcula ted fo r s o me imp o rtant practical cases f r o m the f o rms and ,

t he dimensi o n s o f t he magne t i c circuits usin g the fundamental ,

equa t i o ns ( 10 5) an d The reader wi ll see that the

pro blem is reduced t o the determinati o n o f vari o us permeances and
fluxes ; hen ce it presents the same difficulties with which he is
,

al ready familiar fr o m the study o f Chapters V and VI .

I nduc ta nc e of elec tric c irc uits in the pres enc e of iron W hen .

iro n is present in the magnetic circuit three cases may be distin ,

guished :

( 1) The reluctan ce o f the ir o n pa rts is negligible as c o mpared

to t hat the rest o f the circuit ;
of

( )
2 The relu c tance o f the ir o n parts is c o nstant within the
ran ge o f the flux densities used ,

( )
3 The reluctance o f the ir o n parts is c o nsiderable and is ,

variable .

I n the first t w o cases eqs ( 10 5) and ( 10 6) h o ld true and

,
.
,

the indu c tance can be calculated f r o m the c o nstant permean ces o f

the magnetic circuit I n the third case inductance if used at all
.
, , ,

must be separately defined because e q ( 10 2 b) d o es n o t h o ld when

,
.

the permean ce o f the circuit varies with the current The equa .

ti o n o f energy is in this case

fi
t t
W =n
£ i t dfpt c Z n pi t d u¢ t >p

This equati o n is deduced by the same reaso nin g as eq .

The f o ll o wing three definiti o ns o f inductance are used by di ffer

ent auth o rs when the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is variable :
(a ) the expressi o ns ( 10 4 ) and ( 10 8) are equated t o each o ther and ,

L is calculated separately fo r each final value i o f the current .

Thus L is variable and neither eq ( 10 5) no r ( 10 7) h o ld true (b)

,
. .

L is defined f r o m eq in this case neither e q ( 10 4) no r ( 10 5)

. .

are fulfilled (c) L is defined at a given current by eq ( 10 5) so

. .

that M represents the sum o f the linkages of the flux and the cur
rent There f o re e q ( 10 7) bec o mes e
. . d (L i) dt and d W —

W ith each o f the three definiti o ns L is variable and theref o re is no t ,

very use f ul in applicati o ns The auth o r s o pini o n is that when the

.
’

permeance o f the circuit is variable L sh o ul d no t be intr o duced at ,

all but the o riginal equati on o f energy ( 10 8) be used directly O r

,
.

else in appr o xi mate c alc ul ati o ns a c o nstant value o f L can be ,

used cal culated fo r s o me average value o f i o r a)

,
.
CR A P . X] E N E RG Y AN D I NDUCT ANCE 187

Pr o b 1 0 It is des i red t o ma ke a stand a rd o f in d uctance o f o ne

. .

m illih en ry by wind ing unif orm ly o ne laye r o f t hin flat c o nd uc to r up o n

a to ro id al woo d en ring o f ci r c ula r c ross secti o n Ho w m a ny t urns ar e -
.

nee d ed if th e d iam eter o f t h e c ro ss sectio n o f th e ring is 10 c m and -

.

t h e m ean d iam ete r o f t h e rin g itself is 5 0 c m P A ns 4 00

‘
. .

Pro b 1 1 An iro n ring o f c ir cula r c ro ss sectio n is unifo rmly wo un d

. .
-

with n tu rn s o f wire th e to tal t hic kn ess o f th e w in din g being t ; th e

,

mea n diamete r o f th e rin g is D and the rad ius o f it s c ro ss sec tio n r -

.

W hat is t h e ind uctanc e o f t h e appa ratus ass um ing t h e pe rm eab i lity ,

o f t he i r o n t o b e c o n s tant and equal t o 1500 tim es t hat o f t he ai r ?

Hin t :
A ns [15 00 r h e nry
.
2 — 8
.

Pro b 1 2 A ring is mad e o f no n ma gnetic material a nd h as a

. .
-
,

rectan gula r c ro ss sectio n o f dimens io n s b an d h; th e mea n d iamete r

-

o f t h e r in g i s D I t is unifo rmly w o und with n t u rns o f wire th e t o tal

.
,

t hi c kness o f t he wind ing bein g t W h at is th e ind uctance o f th e w indin g ? .

Ans [bh t ZgKb l m ill ihenry

.
- ~
.

Pro b 1 3 T h e rin g in th e p reced ing p ro blem h as th e fo ll owing

. .

d im ensi ons : D = 5O c m ; h= b = 10 c m ; it is t o be wo un d with a c o n . .

d ucto r 3 mm thic k (insulated) Ho w many tu rns a r e r equired in o rd e r

. .

t o get an ind ucta nce o f o f a h enry ? Hint : So lve by t rials ass um ,

ing re a son ab le value s fo r t ; t h e n umber o f tu rns pe r layer d ec re ases as

th e t hic kness o f th e windin g inc r eases A ns Abo ut 5 300 . . .

Pro b 1 4 It is d esi red t o d es i gn a c h o ke c o il whic h will cause a

. .

reactive dro p o f 25 0 v o lts at 10 am p and 50 c ycles Th e c ross sectio n , . .

-

o f t h e c o re ( Fi g 12) is 12 0 sq c m an d t h e m ean len gth o f t h e pat h

. . .
,

130 c m ; t h e maxim u m flux d e ns ity in t h e i ro n m u s t be no t o ve r 7

.

kl pe r s q em
. W h at is t h e requi red n um be r o f tu rn s an d t h e len gt h
. .

o f t h e ai r gap in t h e c o r e ? mm ‘
-
A ns 15 0 ; . .

Pro b 1 5 A n elect rical ci r c uit wh ic h c o n sis ts o f a L eyd e n j a r

. .
,

batte ry o f mf capacity an d o f a c o il h avin g a n in d ucta nc e o f 10

.

millih en rys un d e rgo es f ree e lect rical os cillati o ns in s uc h a way t h at t he

,

ma xim um in s tan tan eo us v o ltage ac ross th e c o n d en se r i s vo lt s .

W h at is t h e cu rr en t t hro u gh t h e ind uctan ce o ne q ua rte r o f a cycl e -

later negl e cting any l o ss o f e ne rgy d ur in g th e i nte rval

,

A ns . 10 a mp .

Pro b 1 6 Sugges t a p ractical exp eriment wh ic h wo ul d p ro ve d i rectly

. .

th at th e s to red ele ct rom a gn etic e n ergy is p ro p o rti o nal t o th e s qua re

o f th e cu rre nt .

Pro b 1 7 Pro ve th at th e i nd uctance o f a c o il o f give n exte rn al

. .

d im ensi o n s is p ro p orti o nal t o t he squa re o f th e n um be r o f tu rn s ta ki ng ,

in to acc o unt th e c om plete an d the pa rtial lin kages Sho w that the .

o hm ic r es i s tan c e o f the c o il i s al s o p ro p o rti o n al t o t h e s qua re o f t h e

n u m be r o f tu r ns p ro vid ed that th e space fa cto r is c o nstan t

, .

N O T E 1 T he th eo re tic al calculati o n o f th e inductanc e o f sh o rt

.

F or a c omplete desi gn o f a reactive c o il see G . Kapp , T r

a ns o
f r mers
p.10 5 .
188 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU I T [A nn 58

st rai ght c o ils and l o o p o f wire in the ai r i s rathe r c om plicat ed becau se s ,

o f the mathematic a l diffic ulties in exp ress in g the pe rm eances o f the

paths Th o e i nte res ted in the s ubject will fin d m ple inform ati o n
. s a

in R osa an d Co hen s F rmula nd T a bles f r the C lc ula tion f M utua l ’

o a o a o

a nd S elf I n d uc ta we in the
-
B ulletin s o f the B u r eau o f S tan da rds Vo l
i , , .

5 N o 1 Th e a r ticle c o ntain al so quite a c o mplete bibli o graph y

. . s

o n the subject See also O r lich K a pa zita t und I nd uctivitat

' ' '

.
,

p . 74 c l s eq .

No te 2 In th e formulae d ed uc ed in this an d in the t wo f o ll owin g

.

chapte rs it is p res upp os ed that the cu rrent i s d is t ribute d unif or mly

,

o ve r the c ross s ecti o n o f the c o n d uct ors S uc h is the cas e in c o n d uct o rs

-
.

o f mo d e rate s i z e an d at ord ina r y c omm e r cial f requencie s unle ss pe r c h ance ,

th e m ate rial is it self a m agn etic s ub stance W ith hi gh f requencie s .

,

o r with c o n d uct o rs o f unu s uall y la rge t r an s v ers e d i m en s i o ns a s al so w ith ,

c o n duct ors o f a m ag netic m ate rial t he cu rrent i s no t d is t r ib ute d uni ,

form ly o ve r the c ross secti o n o f the c o n d uct o rs the cu rrent d en sity -

,

bein g highe r n ea r th e pe riphe ry Th e result i s th at as the f requency .

,

inc reas es the in ductance bec ome s l o we r a nd t he ohm ic r e si stance hi ghe r

, .

Thi s is kn o wn as th e skin efi ec t F o r an explanati o n fo r a m athem atical .

,

t reatm ent i n a sirnple c a s e a nd fo r r efe rence s see Hein ke Ha ndbuch , ,

der E lektrotechnilc Vo l 1 ( 19 0 4 ) pa rt 2 pp 120 t o 1 2 9 ,

Table s a nd fo r
.
, . .

mulae will b e fo un d in the S ta nd a rd Ha ndboo k a nd in F oste r s P oc ket ,

’

B oo k See al so C P Stein m et z A lterna ting C urrent P henomena

. . .
,
-

pp 206 208 an d hi s T r a nsient E lec tric P henomena

.
—
, Secti o n II I ,

Chapter VI I ; Arn o l d Die W echsels tromtec hnik Vo l 1 p 5 64 ; A

, , . . .

B Fiel d E dd y C u rr ent s in L a rge S l o t wo u nd C o n d uct o rs T r a ns A mer

.
,
-
, . .

I ns t E lec tr E ngrs
. . .
, Vol 24 . p . 76 1 .
 C HA P T E R XI .

T HE I N D U C TA N C E O F CA B L E S A ND O F TR A NS
M I SSI O N L IN E S .

59 . T he I n ductanc e
a Singl e pha se C o nc ent ric C a b l e L et
of -
.

Fig 4 6 represent t he cr o ss secti on o f a c o ncent ric cable whi ch

.
-
,

c o nsists o f an inner c o re A and o f an exte rnal ann ular c o ndu ct o r

D with s o me insulati o n C between them
,
L et the radii o f the .

c o nduct o rs be a b and c respectively The insulati o n o ut side of

, , , .

D and the sheathing a re n o t sh o wn L et a direct cur rent o f i .

ampe res fl o w t hr o ugh the inne r

c o nduct o r away fr o m the reade r
and return thr o ugh the o ute r
c o nduct o r The magnetic field .

produced by this current links

with the current and fo r reaso ns ,

o f sym metry the lines o f f o rce

a re c o ncen t ric ci rcles The field .

is c o nfined within the cable ,

because o utside the e x ternal c o n

ducto r D the m m f is i i = 0 . . .
-
.

I n the space between the t wo

c o nduct o rs the lines o f fo rce a re
Fig 4 6 The ma gnetic field within
linked with the wh ole cu rrent
—
.

a c o ncent ric cable ,

.

and since there is but o ne tu rn ,

the m m f is equal t o i The length o f a line o f fo rce o f a radius x

. . . .

cm is 27rxso that the ma gnetic int ensit y is H = i/ 27rx amp tu rns pe r

.
, .

cm the c o r re sp o ndin g flux density B

.
, maxwells pe r s q c m . .

Thus the flux density dec reases inve rsely as the distan c e f ro m the
,

cente r ; it is represented by the o rdinates o f t he part qr o f a hype r

b o la .

I n the space within the inner c o ndu c t o r A a line o f fo r ce o f ,

r adius a: is linked with a cu rrent i pro vided

189
19 0 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 59

that the cur rent is distributed unifo rmly o ver the cr o ss se c ti o n o f -

t he c o ndu c t o r The length o f the line o f f o r c e is 27m so that

.
,

H and Thus in this part ,

o f the field the flux density in creases as the distance fr o m the

center and is represented by the straight line O q .

I n the space in side the c o nduct o r D a line o f f o rce o f a ,

radius a is linked with the current i (x2

b ) o f the
2 — —

external c onduct o r and with the current + i o f the internal c o n

duct o r o r alt o gether with the current i i (c
,
= 2
b )
2
,
—
.

C o nsequently here the flux density is represented by the

, ,

hyperb o la rs the equati o n o f which is

,

The curve q s gives a clear physical picture o f the field dis

t rib ut io n in the cable and helps o n e t o understand the linkages
,

which enter int o the calculati o n o f the inductance o f the cable .

The inductance o f the c able is calculated acc o rding t o the

fun damental f o rmula the c o mplete linkages being in the
space between the t w o c o nduct o rs and the partial linkages being ,

within the space o ccupied by the c o nduct o rs themselves C o n .

sider a piece o f the cable o ne centimeter l o ng The permeance o f a .

tube o f f o rce o f a radius a: and o f a thickn ess dx is pdx/ 2rrx so that ,

the permeance o f the c o mplete linkage s is ,

b
Lo = d
' ’ ’
c [i ds / 27m: (pr/ 270 L n (b/ a ) per m/ c m .
, ( 10 9)

whe re L n is the symb o l fo r natural l o garithms I n this case the .

permean c e is equal t o the inductance because the number o f turns

n= 1 . The sign prime indicates that the quantities L and o
’

re f er t o a unit length o f the cable .

F o r the space inside the inner c o nduct o r n this being p

the fra c ti o n o f the current with whi c h the line o f fo rce o f radius a:
is linked Hence the part o f the inductance of the cable due t o
.
,

the field inside the c onduct o r A is

f
a

LA ’
n/ nudg e a
, / 87r per m/ c m .

This f o rmul a sh o ws that the part o f the inductance due t o the

field within the inner c o nduct o r is independent o f the radius o f the
C RAP . XI ] I NDUC TANC E O F T RAN S M IS SI O N LI NE S 19 1

c o nducto r and is always equal t o ,

perm per cm o r milli . .
,

henry per kilo meter len gth o f the cable .

The exact e x p ressi o n fo r the part o f the in ductan ce o f the cable

LO due t o the linkage with in the o u t er c onducto r is given in
’

pr o blem 10 bel o w The fo rmula is rather c o mplicated fo r pra c

.

t ical use espe c ially in view o f t he fact that this pa rt o f the induct
,

an ce is c o mparatively small beca use the flux den sity o n the pa rt ,

rs o f the curve is small I t is m o re c o nvenient theref o re t o make

.
, ,

simplify ing assump t i ons when the thickness t o f the o uter c o n ,

duc t o r is small as c o mpa red t o b N amely the length o f all the .

,

pa t hs wi t hin the o uter c o nducto r may be assumed t o be equal

t o 2 7rb so that the permeance o f an infinitesimal path o f a radius a:
,

and thic kness do: nearly equal s udx/ 2rrb Furtherm o re the vo lume .
,

o f the cu rrent in the o u t er c o nduct o r between the radii b and a: ,

may be assumed t o be pr o p o rti o nal t o the distan ce x b and —

hen c e equal t o i (x b) A lin e o f f o r c e o f a radius a: is linked

—
.

there f o re with the wh o le current i in t he inner c onducto r and with

t he ab o ve stated part o f the cur rent in the o ute r c o nduct o r and
-
, ,

sin c e the currents fl o w in o pp o site directi on s this line o f ,

fo rce is linked alt o gether with the current i (c (c b) Hence —

.
,

it is lin ked with u (c x) / (c b) tu rns T hus t he inductance o f

p
— —
.
,

the cable due t o the o uter pa rtial linkages is in the fi rst a ppro xi
, , ,

mati o n ,

j;
°

LD / ( bt ) 2
(c x) dx T 3 t/ b perm/ c m
2= ( 1 1 1)
’
,1 27t — 1
.

a cl o se r app ro ximati o n is desired it is c o n venient t o expand

If ,

eq ( 1 14 ) in ascending p o wers o f t/ b as is explained in pr o blem 1 1

.
, .

The res ult is

L O = 1115t/ b[1’
per m/ c m .
( 12)
1

It will thus be seen that eq ( 1 1 1) is an accurate appro ximati on .

,

because eq ( 1 12) c o ntains in the pa rentheses no te r m with the

.

fi rst po we r o f t he ra t i o t/ b .

Thus the t o tal induc t ance o f a c o ncentric c able I kilo mete rs

, ,

l ong is
“
,

L L o g ) (b/ a ) millihen rys ( 113 ) ,

whe re L D is given by eqs ’

or a c c o rding t o the
.

accuracy desi re d E xp ressi o ns ( 1 10 ) a nd ( 1 14 ) a re c o rrec t o nly at

.

lo w frequencies such as a re used fo r p o wer tra nsmissi o n

, W i th .
19 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A r m 59

very high f requencies the skin e ff e c t bec o mes n o ticeable that is , , ,

t he current in t he inner c o nd u c t o r is f o rced o u t ward and that in

the o u t er c ondu c t o r inward I n the limi t when t he f requency .
,

is in fin i t e t he currents a re c o ncentra t ed o n the O pp o sing surfaces

,

o f the c o nduct o rs and the part ial linkages are equ al t o zer o
, .

Thus each o f the exp ressi o ns in questi o n must be multiplied by a

,

variable c o efficient k which fo r a given cable is a functi on o f , ,

t he frequency A t o rdinary f requencies k = 1 and gradually

.
,

appr o aches zer o as the frequen cy in creases t o in finit y 1

.

Pro b 1 A c onc e nt ric cab le is t o b e d esi gned fo r 750 amperes th e

. .
,

c u rrent d en s ity t o be ab o ut am p pe r gross sq mm a nd t h e thic kne ss . . .

,

o f th e in s ulati o n betwe e n th e c o n d uct o rs t o be 6 mm W hat a r e the .

d imen s io n s o f the c o nd ucto rs ass um in g th em t o be so lid that i s no t , ,

st ra nd ed ? Th e fact th at th ey a r e in reality st r a nd ed is ta ken ca re o f

in th e pe rm i ss ible c urrent d ensity .

A ns . a = 10 5
; b = 1 6 5 ; c = 19 6 mm
. . . .

Pro b 2 P l o t t he cu r ve q s
. . o f d i s t ri b uti o n o f t h e flux d e ns ity

in th e cable given in th e p r ec ed i ng p ro b le m .

Ans A t x= a B = 14 3 ; at x = b B = 9 1 m axwell s pe r sq c m
.
, , . .

Pro b 3 W h at is th e t o tal flux in mega lines pe r kil omete r o f th e

°

. .

cable s peci fied in th e t w o p reced i ng p ro blems ? Ans .

Pro b 4 Sho w ho w t o pl o t the cu rve o f th e d i st rib uti o n o f flux d en sity

. .

in a three ph as e c on c ent ric cab le at so m e give n i ns tantane o u s value s

-
,

o f t h e t hr ee c u rr ent s .

Pro b W hat i s t h e i nd ucta nce o f a 25 km cab le in w h ic h t h e

.
-
.

d iam ete r o f th e inne r c o n d ucto r i s 12 mm the thic kness o f in sulati o n .

,

is 3 mm a nd th e d im e nsi o n 0 i s s uc h t h at th e cu rre nt den s ity in th e

.
,

o ute r c o nd ucto r is 10 pe r cent h i ghe r t h an in the in ne r o ne ?

A ns 25 m illihen ry
. .

Pro b 6 A cab l e c o n si sts o f three c o nc ent ric cylin d e rs o f negli gible

. .

t hic kness ; th e r ad ii o f the cylind e rs a re r r a nd r beginnin g with ,, ,, ,,

the in ne r o ne W hat i s th e in d uctance in m illihen rys pe r kil om ete r

.
,

wh en a c u rrent fl o w s thro ugh th e inne r cylin d e r a nd retu rns e quall y

d ivided thro ugh th e t wo o th e rs ?
A ns .
[lo g + 0 2 5 lo g
Pro b 7 I n the cable given in th e p receding p ro blem the t o t al
. .

cu rr en t i fl ows thro u gh th e m idd le cylin d e r th e pa rt mi retu r n s t hro ugh ,

th e inn e r cylinder a nd th e re st ui retu rn s th ro ugh t h e o ute r o ne W hat

, , , .

i s th e t o tal ind uctance p er kil o m et er o f len gt h ?

An s [m lo g + n lo g .
2 2

F or the field di st ributi o n in and the inductance o f n o n c o ncent ric cable -

s

see A lex R ussell A lt n ting C ur nt Vo l 1

.
, C hap XV ; for the
er a re s, . .

reactance of a rm ored cable J B W hitehead The R e i tance and R eact

s see . .
,
s s

ance o f Armored C able T r ns A m I n t E l t E ng s,Vo l 2 8 a . er . s . ec r . rs .

,
.

p . 73 7 .
C RA P XI ]
. I NDUC TANCE O F T RAN SM I SS I O N LI NE S 19 3

Pr o b 8 A t what ratio o f b t o a in F ig 46 is th e m agnetic e ne rgy

. . .

s to red with in th e inne r c o nd ucto r equa l t o tha t s to red betw een the
t w o c o n d uc to rs ? An s .

Pro b 9 I t i s re quir ed t o replac e th e so lid inn er c ond uctor A i n

. .

Fig 46 by an in fi
. nitely thin sh ell o f s uc h a rad ius a that th e t o tal '

in d uctance o f th e cable sh all re m ain t h e sa me W h at is th e ra di us o f .

th e s he ll ? H in t :
A ns . a
’
/ a =e
Pro b 1 0 Pro ve th at th e pa rt o f th e ind uctanc e d ue
. . to t he linka g
within th e o ut er c o n d uc t o r in Fi g 46 is e xpressed by .

H int : ($ np = 1 —
7t
2

Pro b 1 1 Ded uce q ( 1 12 ) f ro m fo rmula

. . ass um i ng t h e
e .

r atio t / b t o b e sm all as c o m par ed t o un ity H int : P ut .

whe re g = l/ b is a sma ll fra c t io n E xpan d L n ( 1 y ) in t o an in fin ite .

—

se ries an d o m it in t h e n um e rat o r o f q ( 1 14 ) a ll the te rms ab o ve y ;

,
e .
’

e xpan d (c b ) in th e deno m inat o r in as cending p owers o f y and di vide

2 — 2
,

t he n umer at o r b y t hi s p o l y no m ial .

60 . T he M a gn etic F i el d C r eated b y a L oo p of T wo Pa r a ll el
W ires . Fig L etrepresent the cr o ss secti n of a single phase
. 47 -
o -

o r direct current tran s missi o n line

-
the wires bein g den o ted by ,

A and B W ith the directi o ns o f the currents in the w ires sh o wn

.

by the d o t an d the cr o ss the magnetic field has the directi o ns ,

sh o wn by the arr o w heads o ne half o f the flux lin king with each
-
,
-

wire B efo re calc ulating the in ductance o f the l o o p it is instruct

.

ive t o get a clea r picture quantitative as we ll as qualitative o f the , ,

field itself .

The field distributi o n is sym metrical with respect t o the line

A B and the axis The wh o le flux passes in the space between
the wires so as t o be linked with the m m f which pro duces it and
, . . .
,

then extends t o infinity o n all sides The flux density is at its .

maximum near the wires and gradua lly dec re ases t o ward O O ’

and t o ward : t 0 as is sh o wn by the curve 0

,
The o rdi
nates O f this cu rve rep resent the flux densities at t he va ri o us p o in t s
o f the line passing th r o ugh the cente rs Of t he wi re s The reaso n .

fo r which the flux densi t y is la rger near the wi res is that t he pa t h

the re is sh o rte r a lth o ugh the m m f acting al o ng all the pa t hs
,
. . .

is the same Thi s m m f is nume rically equ al t o the cur rent i in

. . . .

t he wi res the number o f t u rns being equal t o o ne

,
.

I t is p ro ved bel o w that t he magnetic pa t hs o ut side the c o nduc

19 4 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 60

t o rs t hemselves are eccentric circles with their centers o n the ,

lin e A B e xt ended T he equip o tential surf a c es are cir c ular

.

cylinders w hi c h are sh o wn in Fig 4 7 as c ircles passing t hr o ugh the

,
.

centers A and B o f t he c o nduct o rs W ithin t he c o nduct o rs them .

selves t here a re no equip o tential surfaces .

F o r purp o ses o f analysis it is c o n v enient t o regard the field in

Fig 4 7 as the resul t o f th e superp o si t i o n o f t w o simpler fields simi
.
,

lar t o t h o se o f the c o ncentric cable o f the preceding arti c le C o n .

F rG . 47 .
—
The m a gnetic field p ro duced by a sin gle p ha se t ran sm i ssi o n line
-
.

sider the c o nduct o r A t o gether with a c o ncentric cylinder o f an

,

infini t ely large radius as o ne c o nducting system L et t he current

, .

fl o w thr o ugh A t o ward the reader and return thr o ugh the infinite ,

c yl inder L et the c o nduct o r B with a similar c o ncentric cylinder

.

f o rm an o ther independent system The currents in the c o ndu e .

t o rs A and B are t o be the same as the actual currents fl o wing

t hr o ugh them bu t each infinite cylinder is t o serve as a return fo r
,

the c o rresp o nding c o nduct o r as i f there were no electrical c o nne c

,

ti o n between A and B The currents in the t w o c ylinders are

.

fl o wing in o pp o site directi o ns and the cylinders themselves

C RAP XI ] . I NDUC TANCE O F T RAN S M I SS I O N LI NE S 19 5

c o incide at infinity because the distance A B between t heir axes is

,

infini t ely small as c o mpa red t o their radii Hence the t w o cur .
,

ren t s in the cylinde rs cancel each o ther a nd the c o mbina t i o n o f ,

the t wo c o mp o nent syste ms is magnetically identical with the

given l o o p .

I n a medium o f c o nstant pe r meab ility the resultant magnetic ,

intensity H pro duced at a p o int by the c o mbined acti o n o f several

,

independent is equal t o the ge o met ric sum o f the intensi

ties pro duced at the same p o int by the separate m m fs This l
. . .

being true o f the intensit ies the c o mp onent flu x densities at any ,

p o int are also c o mbined acc o rding t o the para llel o gram law
becau se they are pro p o rti onal t o the intensities Hence the .
,

resultant flux can be regarded as t he result o f the supe rp o siti o n

o f the fluxes created by the c o mp o nent systems .

The field pro duced by the system A c o nsists o f c o ncentric ci r

cles the flu x density o utside the c o nduct o r A being inversely pro
,

p o rti o nal t o the distance fr o m the center o f A (curve qr in Fig .

The field created by the system B c o n sists o f similar circles ar o und

B and the field sh o wn in Fig 4 7 is a superp o siti o n o f these t w o
, .

fields Thus the resultant field intensity H at a p o int P is a

.

ge o met ric sum o f

H1 = i 27rr1 ,
/

H2 = i/ 27T T 2 ,

H1 and H2 being perpendicular t o the c o rresp o nding r ad ir vect o r s

r l an d r2 fr o m the centers o f the c o nduct o r s t o the p o int P The .

di recti ons o f H1 and H2 are determined by the right hand screw -

rule Since H1 and H2 a re kn o wn in magnitude and directi o n at

.

each p o int o f the field the resultant intensity H may also be dete r
,

m ined .

T o deduce the equati o n o f the l ines o f fo rce in the resultant

field we shall express analytically the c o nditi o n that the to tal flux
,

which cro sses the surface C P is equal t o zero pr o vided that C and ,

P lie o n the same line o f fo rce This t o tal flux may be c o nside red .

This
‘
rpo iti n can be c o n side red ( ) as an expe rimental
princ iple o f s upe s o a

fac t ; (b) as an i mmediate c o n equence o f the fac t that in a medium o f c o n tant

s s

pe rmeability the fl c t a re p ro p o rti o nal t o the cause ; (0 ) a a c o n equence

'

e e s s s s

o f L aplace la w dH '
s in 0 / 10 acc o d in g t o which t h t o tal s r
’
, r e

field intensity is re ga rd ed the sum o f th o e p roduced by the infinite sim al

as s

elements of the cu rrent or cu rrents ,

.
196 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T 60
.

as t he result ant o f the fluxes due t o t he systems A and B A cc o rd .

ing t o eq t he fl u x density due t o A at a distance x fr o m A

.
, ,

is B , pi/ 27zr so that the flux due t o A which cr o sses C P is

,

B l dr p/
i 2a ) L n (r, A C ) maxwells/ cm .

This fl u x is directed to the left l o o king f r o m ,

C to P . B y anal o gy ,

the flux due t o the system B is

(0 2
’
(,
u i 2/75) L n (r 2 / B C ) maxwells/ cm .
, ( 18)
1

and is directed to the right l o o king fr o m C t o P , . The c onditi o n

that no flux cr o sses C P is that (0 1 is equal t o ,
'
or

L n (r1 / A C )

rl / rz =A C / B O = C o nst .

This is the equati on O f a line o f f o rce in bip o lar c o o rdinates ; -

the c urve is such that the rati o o f rl t o r2 remains c o nstant Ho w ,

ever this c o nstant is di ff erent fo r each line o f f o rce because each

, ,

line has i t s o w n p o in t C .

E q ( 1 1 9 ) may be pr o ved t o represent a circle by selecting an

.
,

o rigin say at A
,
and substituting fo r rl and rz their values in terms
,

o f the re c tang ular c o o rd inates x and y The fo ll o wing pr o o f by

-
.

elementary ge o me t ry leads t o the same result P r o duce A P and .

lay o ff P D = P B = r2 A cc o rding t o eq B B is parallel t o

. .

C P and c o nsequently P C bisects the angle A P B = w

,
L et the .

p o int C lie o n the same line of f o rce with C ; then no flux passes
’

thr o ugh P C and by anal o gy with eq ( 119) we have

’
, .

Tl / Tz = Co nst ( 120 )
By pl o tting P D = r2 (no t sh o wn in figure ) al ong P A in the o pp o
’
,

site directi o n fr o m P D and c o nnecting D t o B o ne can sh o w as

,
’
,

bef o re that P C bise c ts the angle B P D = 180 w

’
B ut the ° —
.

bisect o rs o f t w o supplementary angles are perpendicular t o each

o ther ; c o nseq uently C P C is a right angle and the p o int P lies ’
, ,

o n a semi c ircle erected o n the diameter C C This semicircle is the ’

.

line o f f o rce itsel f be c ause all the p o ints such as P which are deter
, , ,

mined by C and C must lie o n it A n o ther semicircle bel o w the

’
.

line A B cl o ses the line o f f o rce .

CR AP X I ]
. I NDUC T ANC E O F T RA N S M I SS I O N LI NE S 19 7

F ro m eqs ( 1 1 9) and ( 120 ) the f o llo wing exp ressi o ns are o btained
.

fo r the r adi us R o f the line o f f o r ce

so that the line o f fo rce c an be easily d rawn fo r a given C o r C ’

.

T o pro ve that the equip o tential lines a re also circles we pr o ceed

as fo ll o ws The line A B is evidently an equipo tenti a l line becau se
.
,

it is perpendicular t o all the lines o f fo rce The diff e ren ce of mag .

neti c po t ent a l o r the m m f betw een A B and P c o ntributed by

'

. . .
,

the system A is equal t o i (0 1 / 27r) am pe re turn s whe re the angle

,
-
,

B A P is den o ted by 0 1 This is because the m m f due t o the sy s. . . .

t em A taken a ro und a c o mplete ci r cle c o ncentric with A is equal

, ,

t o i and is dist r ibuted unif o rmly al o ng the circle fo r rea so n s o f

, ,

symmet ry O r else it f o llo ws di rectly fr o m eq

. By .

anal o gy the diff e rence o f magnetic p o tential between A B and P

, ,

due t o the system B is Thus the t o tal d iff e re nce o f

,

p o tential between A B and P is

M C10 (i/ 27r) (01 02) (i/ 27r) (7: —

w) ( 123 )
This sh o ws that the m m f between any t wo p o ints in the field is . . .

pr o p o rt i o nal t o the diff erence in the angles to at which the line A B

is visible fr o m these p o ints Fo r any t wo p o ints o n the sa m e .

equipo tential line M q is the same so that the equati o n o f such a , ,

line is
( U = c o n st ( 124) .

This re p re sent s the a re o f a ci r cle pa ssing th ro ugh A a nd B ,

and
c o rre sp o ndin g t o the in sc ribed a ngle
Pro b 1 2 A single phas e t ra nsmissio n line c o nsist s o f t wo c o nduc t o rs
. .
-

1 c m in d ia mete r a nd spac ed 100 c m b etween t he c ent ers

.
, Dra w . .

t he c ur v e o f fl ux d ensity d is t ri b utio n ( pqsl in Fig 47) fo r an muco us . r

v a lue o f t he c urren t eq u a l to 100 a mp .

A ns x .
—
co e m
.

B 0
Pro b 1 3 . . Fo r t he t ra . u
_ on line in p ro b lem 12 dra w t he li nes
19 8 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A rm 61

of fo rce whic h d ivi d e th e t o tal flux betwee n t h e wire s in t o t en equal

pa rts ( no t c o untin g the flux with in the wi re s) .

A ns The c ir cle s nea res t t o 0 0 c ro ss A B at a d is tance o f

.
’

c m from eac h o the r

. .

Pro b 1 4 R efe rrin g t o the t wo p receding p ro blems draw t e n

. . ,

eq uip o tential ci rcle s which d ivid e t h e who le m m f o f 1 0 0 a m pe re tu rns . . .

-

in t o ten e qual pa r ts .

A ns The a rc s nea re st t o A B inte rs ect 0 0 at a d istance o f

.
’

c m f ro m eac h o th e r
. .

Pro b 1 5 A teleph o ne line run s pa rallel t o a s in gle ph as e p o we r

. .
-

t ran sm i ss i o n l ine The p ositi o n Of o ne o f the telepho ne wi r e s is fixed ;

.

sh o w ho w t o d ete rmine the p ositi o n o f th e o th e r wire so a s t o h ave a

m i nim um o f in d uctive dist urbance in th e teleph o ne ci r cuit Hint : .

The cente r lines o f the t wo tel ep ho n e w i re s m us t inte rsect the s ame li ne

o f fo r ce d ue t o t he p o we r lin e .

Pr o b 1 6 A telep ho ne line r u ns pa rallel t o a 25 cycl e si ngle ph ase

. .
-
,
-

t ra nsm iss i o n line The d i stances f ro m o ne o f t h e telep ho ne wi re s t o

.

the p o we r wi re s a re m an d m ; the d is tance s f ro m t h e o th e r

. .

telepho ne w i re t o the p owe r wi r es a r e a nd m (in the sa me o rder) . .

W hat v o ltage is in d uced in t h e telep ho ne line pe r kil om ete r o f it s length ,

wh en t h e curr ent in t he p owe r line i s 1 0 0 e ffective a mpe re s ?

N O TE : I n p ractice th i s vo ltage i s n eut rali z ed by t r an sp o si ng
,

either lin e aft er a ce rt ain number o f spans A ns vo lt . . .

6 1 T he I n ducta nc e o f
. a Singl e pha se L in e The inductance o f -
.

a single phase line (Fig 4 7) can be calculated acc o rding t o the fun
-
.

da ment a l f o r mulae ( 10 5 ) o r pr o vided that the permeances

o f the elementary paths be expressed analytically Ho wever in .
,

this case it is much simpler t o use the principle o f superp o siti o n

empl o yed in the preceding article and t o c o nsider the actual flux ,

as the resultant o f t wo flu x es each surr o unding c o ncent rically o ne

o f the wires and e x tending t o infinity The fluxes pro duced by .

the t wo c o mp o nent systems are equal and symmetrical with

respect t o the wires I t is theref o re sufficient t o calc ulate the
.

linkages o f the l o o p A B with the flux pr o duced by o ne o f the sys

tems say that c o r r esp o nding t o A and t o multiply the result by
, ,

t wo .

The flux p ro duced by A and having A as a cente r link with ,

the current in the l oo p A B These l inkages may be di vided int o .

the f o ll o wing :
( )
a L inkages within the wire A ; that is f r o m x =0 t o x = a ; ,

(b) L inkages between the wires A and B that is fr o m , ,

x= a t o a =h —
a ;
CRAP XI ] . I NDUC T ANC E O F T RAN S M ISS I O N LI NE S 199

(c) L in kages o utside the l o o p that is f ro m , ,

m= b + a to :c

infinity ,

(d) L in kages within the wi re B that is f ro m , ,

x= b —
a to r =b+a .

The linkages (a ) (b) and (c ) a r e the same as in a c o ncentric ,

cable (Fig because the shape o f the lines o f f o rce and the
.

numbe r o f turns with which they are linked are the same The .

pa rti al linkages (d) are s o mewhat di fficult t o express analytically .

W hen the distance b between the wi r es is large as c o mpared t o

thei r diameters the wh o le cur rent in B may be assumed t o be c o n
,

c ent ra t ed al o ng the axis o f the wi re B instead o f being spread o ver ,

the c ro ss s ecti o n W ith this assumpti o n the pa rtial linkages (d)

.
,

a re d o ne away with the l inkages (b) are extended t o a: = b and the

, ,

lin kages (c) begin fro m x = b The expressi o ns fo r the linkages (a ) .

an d (b) a r e given by eqs ( 1 10 ) and ( 10 9 ) respectively The l in k . .

ages (c ) a re equal t o z e ro because in this regi o n the l ines o f fo rce ,

pr o duced by A are linked with b o th A and B and therefo re ,

with i i = 0 ampere tu rns Thus the in ductance in questi o n is

— -
.
,

L ’

This gives the inductance of a single pha se line in perms pe r centi -

m e t e r length o r in millihenrys per kil o mete r length o f the wire

,
1
.

T o Obtain the ind uctance pe r unit length of the line this expressi o n
must be multiplied by t w o because the linkages due t o the flux ,

p ro duced by the system B are no t taken int o acc o un t in eq .

Ho weve r fo r the purp o se s o f the next t w o articles it is m o re c o n

,

venient t o use exp ressi o n and t o c o nsider sepa rately the

inductance o f each wi re rememberin g that the t wo wires o f a l o o p ,

a re in se ries and that the refo re thei r inductances a re added

,
2
.

Pro b . 17 . Che c k
by me ans o f fo rm u l a ( 125 ) some o f t he v al ues fo r
the ind uc ta nc e and reac tance o f t ransmissio n li nes tabulated in the
va rio us p o c ket bo o ks and handboo ks .

It is o f inte re t t o n ote that the exac t inte grati o n o ve r the pa rtial lin ka ges
s

lead s t o the same E q s that this formula is c orrect even whe n

. o

the wi res are cl ose t o eac h o the r Se A Ru ell A ltern t ing C urrents Vo l . e . ss , a ,
.

1 pp . 5 9-6 0 .

The inductance o f t wo o r m o re pa rallel cyli nde rs o r any c ro ss-sec ti o n c a n

be expressed th rou gh the so c alled ge omet ric m ea n dis tance int roduced
-
"
,

by M axwell Fo r deta ils see O rli ch K a paz itd t a nd I nduktivit d t

. ,

pp 63 74
.
-
.
200 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU I T [A R T . 61

Pro b 1 8 Sh o w by m ean s o f table s o cu rves th at th e ind uc ta n c e

. .
r

o f a t ran smi ss io n line va rie s m uch more sl o wly tha n (a ) th e spac i n g

with a given s i z e o f wi re ( b) the si z e o f wi r e w ith a give n s pacin g ,
.

Pr o b 1 9 W hen the d iamete rs o f the t wo wi res A an d B a re d i ff e rent

. .
,

p ro ve that the i nd uctance o f the c om plete Io o p i s the sam e as if th e

d iam ete r o f eac h w i r e w as equal t o t h e ge o m et ric m ean o f the actual
d ia mete rs .

Pro b 20 Sho w that th e ind uctance o f a s in gle ph ase line with a

. .
-

gro u nd retur n can be calc ulated f r m eq ( 1 ) by puttin g

o 2 5 b = 2 h whe r e .

h is the elevati o n o f the wi r e ab o ve the gro un d H int : I n Fig 4 7 the . .

plane 0 0 m ay be c o n sid e red t o be the s u rface o f the ear th assu m ed

“
’
,
”
t o be a pe rfect c o n d uct or If th e ea rt h be r emo ve d a n i m a ge c o n .
,

d uct or B m u s t be add e d in o rd e r t o p ro vid e a r etu r n pat h fo r th e

cu rrent s uc h that th e fiel d s u rro und in g A w o ul d re m ain the sam e
,
.

Pro b 21 T wo single p h as e line s ar e place d o n t wo c ro ss a rms o f

. .
- -

the sam e t o we r o ne d i rectly ab o ve the o th e r at a ve r tical d i stance

, ,

o f 0 c m apa rt W hat i s the t o tal in d uctance o f th e c o mbinati o n wh e n

.
,

the t w o line s a re c o n nected in pa rallel an d eac h line ca rrie s o ne h alf -

o f th e t o tal cu rr ent ?

So luti o n : Co n sid e r th e f o u r wi r e s a s fo rm in g f o u r fictiti o u s sys te ms ,

with cyl in d e rs at in finity as retu rns L et b be the s pacin g in each .

Ioo p and let b be la rge r th an 0 D en o te th e wi re s in o ne Io o p by 1

,
.

a nd 2 in the o the r by 1 a nd
,
an d let d b e th e d iago nal d i stance
'

between 1 a nd 2 Assum e all the wi r es except 1 t o be o f an in finitesim al

’

c ross secti o n Then th e lin kage s o f t h e flux p ro duc ed by t he syst em

-
.
,

1 with the c u rr ent s in th e f o ur wi r e s a r e

(3 3 ( ii) L n (c / d ) + 0 2i ( 1st) L n (b / c)
2 2
i L,
z ’
7 1 . 7

i) L n (d/ b) millrj o ules / km

2 —
.

Th us allo win g the s ame amo unt fo r th e li nkages due t o th e cu r

,

rent ia the wi re we get th at the i n ductance o f the split line eac h w ay , ,

rs

L ’
2L ,
’
log10 ( bd / ca ) m illih enrys / km .
,

in stead o f th e exp re ss io n ( 12 5 ) fo r the s in gle line Th e sam e r es ult .

i s o btained wh en b i s sm alle r t h a n 0 H ence b y splittin g a line in .

,

t wo the in d uctance i s c o n s i d e r ab ly re d uc ed b ecaus e pa rtial linka ge s a r e ,

s ub stituted fo r so m e o f the c omplete lin kage s If d we r e equal t o c .

the r ed ucti o n w o ul d b e 5 0 pe r c ent ; b ut since d i s alway s la rge r t h an

c the gain i s less th an 5 0 pe r cent Howeve r wh e n t h e t wo line s a re .
,

ve ry fa r apa rt th e s avin g i s ve ry nea r ly 5 0 p er cent .

Pro b 22 A ce rtai n sin gle ph ase t ran smi ssio n li ne h as been d esigne d
. .
-

t o c o n si s t o f N O 000 B S c o nd uct or wit h a s pacin g o f 1 8 0 c m

. . It . .

i s d e si red t o re duce t h e reactive dro p b y ab o ut 2 0 pe r cent with o ut ,

inc reas in g t h e wei ght o f c o ppe r by u sin g t w o line s in pa rallel wit h , ,

th e s am e spac in g W h at is th e s i ze o f the c o nd uct o r an d the dis tance

.

between th e l oo p s ? A ns NO 1 B S ; ab o ut 8 c m . . . . .

Pro b 2 3 So lve p rob lem 2 1 wh e n th e l o ad i s di vided u nequally

. .
C RAP . XI ] I NDUC T ANC E O F T RAN S M I SS I O N LI NE S 20 1

betw een the t wo l o o p s the cu rren ts b e ing mi and

,
ni respective ly wher e
,

m+ n=1 .

Ans . lo g (c / d ) + lo g ( b / c ) + 2mn lo g
wh en b > c , an d lo g
2mn lo g i 0 0 5 (m
- - 2
. wh en b < c .

Pro b 24 A s in gle . .
-
p has e l in e c o n sis t s o f t hree c o nd uct o rs ,
t he
t o tal c u rrent fl owin g t hro u gh c o nd uct or 1 an d ret urnin g thro ug h c o n ,

duc t o rs 2 and 3 in pa rallel If the c urre nt in o ne retu rn c o nd uct o r is .

mi an d in th e o th e r ui w h e re m + u = l p ro ve that t he i n du c t an c e o f
, , ,

th e line p er kil om ete r o f it s l en gt h is in m illihenrys , ,

L ’
l
[ g
o + m lo g ( b u / a z) + n lo g ( b u /
’
a s) + m lo g ( b i z / b ra)
2

+ m lo g ( bu / bu ) + n lo g + m + n ) , whe n bu
2 2
.

In the pa rticula r cas e wh en a, a 2

a ,, and m=n l the
,

ind uctanc e is r ed uced b y 2 5 pe r c en t as c o m pa red to th at o f a s ingle Io o p .

‘

62 . a T he I n ductanc e
with Sy mm etric al of T ree phase L in e
h -

a nd Semi sy mm et r ical Spacing The magnetic field which sur

- .

r o unds a single phase line varies in its intensity fro m in stant t o

-

instant as the c ur rent changes but the directi o n o f the magnetic

, ,

intensity and Of the flux density at each p o int re main s the same .

I n o ther w o rds the flux is a pulsating o ne The field c reated by

, .

three phase cur rents in a transmissi o n line varies at each p o int in

-

b o th its magnitude and dire c ti o n A t the end o f each cycle the .

,

field ass umes i t s o riginal magnitude and directi on I f the spacing .

o f the wires is symmetrical the field at the end o f each third o f a ,

cycle has the same magnitude and p o siti o n with respect the next
wire The field may the ref o re be said t o be revo lving in space
. .

This revo l ving flux like that in an inducti o n m o t o r induces , ,

e m fs in the three phases The pr o blem is t o dete rm ine these

. . . .

c o unter in the transmissi o n line kn o wing the size o f the ,

wires the spac ing and the l o ad I n t ransmissi o n line calculati o n s

, , .
,

especially in dete r mining the v o ltage d ro p and regulati o n it is ,

c o nvenient t o c o nside r each wi re sepa rately and t o dete r mine the ,

v o ltage d ro p in phase and in quad rature with the cu r rent Thus .

,

having exp re ssed the e m fs induced by the revo l ving flux in term s . . .

o f the c o ns t ants o f t he line each wi re is then c o nside red as if i t ,

we re b ro ught o u t side the indu c tive acti o n o f the t wo o ther wi res .

W e shall c o nside r first t he c ase o f an equidistant spacing o f the

th r ee wi res be c ause in m o st practical calculati o ns o f v o ltage d ro p
,

The splitting o f c o nducto rs di scu ss ed in p ro blems 2 1 t o 24 has been

‘

p ro posed for ext re mely l o n g t ransm issi o n lines in orde r t o red uce t hei r induct ,

ance and at the sa me ti me inc rease thei r electrostatic pe rmittanc e (capacity) .

20 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 6 2

an unsymmetrical spa c ing is replaced by an equivalent equidistant

spa c ing The exa c t so l u ti o n fo r an unsymmetrical spacing is given
.

in the next art i c le L et the in stantane o us values o f the three cur

.

rents in the wires A B and C o f a three phase transm issi o n line he ,

-

i l ig and i3
,
The sum o f the three currents at each instant is
.

z ero , o r

=O
+ 12 +l3 .
( 12 6)
Let a, be the equivalent flux which links at any instant with the
wire A . The instantane o us e m f induced in this wire is . . .

( 27)
1

The equivalent flux c o nsists o f the actual flux Outside the wire plus
the sum o f the flu x es inside the wi re each infinitesimal tube o f fl ues ,

being reduced in the pro per rati o acc o rding t o the f racti o n o f the ,

cro ss secti o n o f the wire with which it is linked O r what is the

-
.
,

same thing each wire is replaced by an equivalent h o ll o w cylinde r

,

Of infinitesimal thickness with o ut partial linkages as in pr o blem , ,

9 in A rt 5 9 (c o nsult als o the definiti o n o f equivalent pe r meance

.

given in A rt .

I n o rde r t o determine (D g we replace the th ree phase system e

-

by t w o superimp o sed single phase systems The current il in the -

.

wi r e A may b e th o ught o f as t he sum of the currents i2 and i3 — —

each fl o wing in a separate fictiti o us wire and b o th of these W ires ,

c o inciding with A The currents + i2 in B and i2 in A f o rm

.
—

o ne single phase l o o p while the currents + i3 in C and i3 in A

- —

f o rm the o ther l o o p The flux (Dg which surro unds A is the sum.
e

o f the fluxes pr o duced by these t w o l o o ps The flux per unit .

length o f the line due t o the first l o o p is equal t o

,
since ,

the number o f turns is equal t o o ne F o r the same r eas o n G m y

.

L where L is determined by eq
’ ’
Hence the fl ux per .
,

unit len gth of the line due t o the first l o o p is L i g Similarly , ,

—
’
.
,

the flu x due t o the sec o nd l o o p and linked with A is equal t o

L i 3 the same value o f L being used becau se the spacing and
-
' ’
,

the si zes of all o f the wires are the same Thus .

,

—
L i2 ’ —
L i3 = L i 1 ,
’ ’

the last result being o btained by substituting the value of i 2 + i3

fr o m e q Thus e q ( 12 7) bec o m e s simply
.
, .

e,
Cm .
XI ] I NDUC TANC E O F T RAN SM I SSI O N L I NE S 203

that is the induced e m f is the same as in a single phase line ca rry

, . . .
-

ing the cur rent i l Thus the ind uc ta nc e of a thr ee phas e line with
.
,
-

sy mmetric a l s pa c ing per wi r e is the sa me a s the ind uc ta nc e o

, f a ,

si ngle pha s e line per wir e with the sa me size o wire a nd the sa me
-
, f ,

spa ci ng The t o tal e m f induced in each wire is in quadrature

. . . .

wi t h the current in the wi re .

I n reachin g t hi s c o nclusi o n the f o ll o wing facts we re made use

o f : (a ) The current in each wire at any instant is equal t o the sum

o f the currents in the t w o o ther wires ; (b) the fluxes due t o sepa

rate m m fs can be supe rimp o sed in a medium o f c onstant perme

. . .

ability ; (c ) The inductance of the l o o p A B is equal t o that o f A C - -

because o f the same spacing N o o ther supp o siti o ns in regard t o .

the character o f the l o ad o r the v o ltages between the wires were

made Theref o re the c onclusi o n arrived at h o lds true
.
,

(a ) F o r balanced as well as unbalanced l o ads ;

( b) F o r balanced o r unbalanced line v o ltages ;
(c ) F o r a three wi re t w o phase system t hree wi re single- -
,
-

phase system m o n o cyclic system etc , , .

(d) F o r sinus o idal v o ltages as well as fo r th o se depar t ing fr o m

this f o rm .

S emi s y mmetric a l S pa cing W hen t wo o ut o f the three distances

-
.

between the wires in a th ree phase lin e are equal t o each o ther the -
,

arrangement is called semi symmetrical T wo c o m m o n cases o f -

.

this kind are (a ) W hen the wires a re placed at the ve rtices o f an

iso sceles t r iangle ; (b) when they are placed at equal distances in
the sa me pla ne fo r instan ce o n the same cr o ss a r m o r are fastened
,
-
,

t o suspensi o n insulat o r s o ne ab ove the o ther I n such cases the ,

.

inductive dr o p in the sym me t rically situated wire is the same as if

the wire bel o nged t o a s in gle phase l o o p ca r ry ing the same cu r rent -
, ,

and with a spacing equal t o the distance of this wire t o either o f

t he o the r t wo wires L et for instance the distance A B be equal
.
, ,
—

t o B C and let the distance A C be d iffe rent fr o m the t w o

—
,
The - .

pro o f given ab o ve can be r epeated fo r the wire B and the same ,

c o nclusi o n will be reached because the spacin g A C is no t used —

in the deducti on B ut of c o ur se the p ro o f d o es no t h o ld t rue fo r

.
, ,

eithe r wi re A o r C .

W hen the th ree wires a re in the same plane the inductance o f ,

each o f the o utside wi res is la rge r than tha t o f the middle wire .

This can be sh o wn as f o ll o ws : L et the th ree wires be in a h o ri zontal

plane and let them be den o ted f ro m left t o right by A B C L et
, , ,
.
2 04 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT (A R T . 62

t he distan ce between A and be eq u al t o b and the distance B

between A and C be equal t o 2 b I f the wire B were m o ved t o .

c o in cide wi t h C the inductan c e o f A w o uld be the same as i f it

,

bel o nged t o a single ph a se l o o p with a sp a c ing 2 b I f C were

-
.

m o ved t o c o in c ide with B the indu c tance o f A w o uld be that o f a ,

wire in a sin gle phase l o o p with a spa c ing b Thus the inductance
-
.
,

o f A c o rresp o nds in reality t o a spacing in t ermediate between b and

2b . The inductance o f the middle wire B is the same as that o f a

wire in a single p hase l o o p with the spacing b as is pr o ved ab o ve
—
,
.

Thus the in ductance o f either A o r C is larger than that o f B

,
.

A n inspecti o n o f a table o f the inductances o r reactances o f

transmissi o n lines will sh o w that the inductance increases much
m o re sl o wly than the spacing F o r instance a c c o rding t o the .
,

S ta nd a rd Ha ndbook the reactance pe r mile o f N o 00 00 wire at

, .
,

2 5 cycles is ,
o hm with a spacing o f 72 inch and is o hm ,

with a spacing o f 150 inch Theref o re in practical calculati o ns .

, ,

when the spacing is semi symmetrical the values o f inductance are -

,

taken the same fo r all the three wires fo r an average spacing ,

between the three o r in o rder t o be o n the safe side fo r the maxi

, , ,

mum spac ing I n the m o st unfavo rable case even if an err o r o f

.
,

say 10 per cent be made in the estimated value o f the inductance ,

and if the inductive dro p is say 20 per cent o f the l o ad v o ltage the ,

err o r in the cal c ulated value o f v o ltage dr o p is o nly 2 per cent o f

the l o ad v o ltage and that at zer o p o wer fact o r A t p o wer fact o rs
, .

nearer un ity when the vect o r o f the inductive dr o p is added at

,

an an gle t o the line vo ltage the err o r is much smaller , .

Pro b 2 5 Sh ow th at th e in stantane o u s el ect rom agnetic en ergy

. .

s to r ed pe r kil om ete r o f a three ph ase line with symm et r ical s paci ng is —

equa l t o millijo ules pe r kil o m ete r wh e r e L h a s the ,

’

value given by eq If thi s is t r ue t hen eac h w ir e m ay b e c o n

.
,

sidered as if it w e r e s ubj ecte d t o no in d uctive acti o n f ro m t h e o the r

wir es a nd h ad a n in ductance L exp r e sse d b y eq Thi s is an o th e r

’
.

way o f p ro vin g eq an d the statem ent p rinted in italic s a b o ve

. .

S o luti o n : Co n sid e r eac h w i r e w ith a c o ncent ric cyli nd e r at i nfinity , ,

as a c o m p o nent system D ete rm ine t h e lin kage s o f t he field c reated

.

by the system A with the cu rrent s in A B a nd C as in Art 6 1 The , , ,

. .

res ult i s equal t o i L i Si m ila r exp r e ss i o n s a re t h en writte n by a nal o gy

’
l
z
.

fo r the fluxe s d ue t o th e sy s tems B an d C .

Pr o b 2 6 Sh o w gr aphically that wh en th e d istance s A B a nd

. .
,
—

A C a r e equal the equivalent flux lin kin g w it h A is in d epen d ent o f

-
,

the spacin g B C a nd i s the sam e a s if B a nd C c o incided Th a t is

—

, .
,

p ro ve t h at t h e in d uctance o f A i s the s am e a s if it bel o n ged t o a sin gle

CR A P .
XI] I NDUC TANC E O F T RAN S M I S S I O N LI NE S 205

ph ase loo p So l uti on : L et I ‘ 12 and I , ( Fi g

. rep resent th e vect o rs , , .

o f t he t hr ee c u rr ents at an unbalanc ed l o ad The cu rren t I , in A is .

replac ed by 1 an d I , and the syste m is s plit into t wo s in gle p h as e

—
2
—
,
-

l oo p s A B and A C The fluxe s d ue t o th e se sys tems an d lin ked wit h

-

“
—
.
,

A a re d eno ted by d) and T h ey a re i np ha s e with the c orr es p o n d in g

c u rr ents an d a re p ro p o rti o nal t o t h e m a gnitud e s o f th es e c u rr en ts
, ,

beca us e of the equa l s pa c ing H e nce th e t rian gles o f the cu rren ts and .
,

o f t h e flux es a r e s i m il ar an d t h e res ulta nt flux 0 , lin kin g wit h A i s

,

in p has e with I If and 0 55 50 13 whe re (P i s th e equivalent

, .
-
,

p erm ea nc e o f eac h single phase loo p t h en the res ult s h o w s th at $

~
WA , 1 .

I f t h e w i res B an d C c o inci d ed the e q ui valen t pe rm eance (P w o ul d be

the sam e and h en ce th e p ro po si ti o n i s p ro v ed
, Th e v o ltage dro p E
d ue t o the flux Q , is sho wn by a v ec t o r l ead ing I , b y 9 0 d egre es
.
, “
.

63 T he E q uival ent R
. ea c ta nc e a nd R esistanc e o f a Th r ee
phas e L in e with an Un eq ual Spacin g of the W i r es I n the case .

o f an unequal spacing o f the wires eqs ( 12 6 ) and ( 12 7 ) still h o ld .

t rue because they do n o t depend up o n the spacin g ; but eq ( 12 8 )

, .

bec o mes
L
l
0 0
“
o

where L l g is the value o f t he inductance per un it len gth

’
,
c a lc u

la t ed by eq ( 12 5) fo r the spacin g between A and B and

.
,
L
’
I 3 is
the value o f the inductance per unit
len gth fo r the spacing A C Sub st i
,
—
.

tu t ing the valueo f fr o m eq ( 130 ) .

int o eq ( 12 7) we get.

=L ’
el 1 2 di2 / l
dt -
( 13 1)
This sh o ws that with an unequal
spacing the e ff ect o f the mutual
inducti on o f the pha ses cann o t be
repl ac ed by an equivalent inductance
in each phase because generally , ,

speaking the currents ig and i;; cann o t

,

be eliminated fro m this equati on by F m 48 The cu rrents and . .

—

means o f eq .
fluxe in a t h phase line s rees

L et us apply no w e q ( 13 1) t o with a sy mmetrica l spacin g . .

the case o f sinuso idal currents and

voltages L e t the curren t in the wire B be iz V2 12 sin 27tf t
. ,

whe r e 12 is the e ffe c tive valu e o f t he c ur r nt ; t hen t he firs t t e rm e

o n t he right hand side o f e q ( 13 1) bec o m e s

- cos
s t . .
 206 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 63

In t he symb o lic n o tati o n this is rep resented as j xl z I whe re xl z ’

,
’

27 s 1 2 is the reactance c o rresponding t o l I 2 is the vect o r

—
’ ’
,

the efl e c t ive val ue o f the current in the wire B and j signifies

'

of ,

that the vect o r xl g I g is in lea ding quadrature with the vect o r 12

’
.

C o nsequently the v o ltage dro p B 1 in the w ir e A

,
equal and ,

o pp o site t o the induced is

E 1 2 ( 3 2)
1

W hen the cu rrents are given I 2 and I 3 can be expressed in the ,

usual way thr o ugh their c o mp o nents and the dr o p E 1 is then ,

expressed thr o ugh its c o mp o nents as el + j e 1 The reactances ’

.

271 2 and 1131 3 are taken fr o m the available tables , fo r the specified
, ,

frequency and the appr o priate spacings o r else they can be ,

calculated usin g the value o f L fr o m eq ’

.

The vo ltage dr o p B 1 in eq ( 13 2) can be represented as if it were

.

due t o an equivalent reactance xl and an equivalent resistance rl ’ ’

in the phase A (the latter in additi o n t o the actual o hmic resistance

o f the wire ) This is p o ssible when I 2 and I 3 can be expressed in
.

terms o f I I and is especially c o nvenient whenever the phase diff er

,

ence between these currents and their rati o is c o nstant N amely .

,

let the current I 2 lead the curr ent I I in phase by q51 2 elect rical
deg rees (Fig Then .

I2 5
(1 1 2 + f sin ( )
13 3

where is the r ati o of the e ffective values o f the currents ,

apart fr o m their phase relati o n M ultiplying the vect o r 11 by .

(12/ I 1 ) changes its magnitude t o that of 12 while multiplying it by ,

( c o s (151 2 + j sin qSl g) turns it c o unter cl o ckwise by 961 2 degrees B y

-
.

anal o gy we also have that

¢ )
13 ( 134)
B o th gbl g and ¢1 3 are measured c o unter cl o ckwise Substituting -
.

these values int o eq ( 13 2) and sepa rating the real fr o m the

.

imagina ry pa rt we get
sin sin 951 3]
00 8 5
9 12 c os qb1 3] .
( 13 5)
Thus the d ro p
,
B 1 is the same as if it were caused by a fictiti o us
reactance
CO S ¢ 12 00 8 951 3 ,
CR A P. XI ] I N DUC T ANC E O F T RAN S M ISS I O N LI NE S 20 7

and a fictiti o us resistan c e

S ID sin ¢ 13 .
( 3 7)
1

B th
o and rl may be either p o sitive o r negative depending
’
,

up o n the c o nstants o f the circuit and o f the l o ad The resistan ce .

rl d o es no t in vo lve any l o ss o f
’

p o wer c o nve rted int o heat ; it

,

me rely sh o ws that energy is tran s

fe rred induc tively fro m phase A
int o B o r C at a rate due t o
,

a lack o f sym m et ry in the resultant

field .

Pro b 2 7 . Show tha t with a .

balanc ed t hr ee p hase l o ad -

0 -5 (2712 xxs )
, , ’
xx
138
_x,
(3 13 )4
’ ,
f , 3

F I G 49
. .
—
cu rrents and fluxe s
T he
Pro b 2 8 W hen the three W ire8
. .
in a th ree phase line with an -

a re in the sam e pla ne the s pac ings , unsy mmet ri c a l spac in g .

being equal an d the three p ha se l o ad

,
-

b alan c ed show tha t t he equivalent react an ce

,
of e a c h o ut side w ire

xo = 24 n + 0 4 35] X m/ km
' ’
oh ( 139)
'

.
,

whe re :rm i s th e re ac ta nc e o f the midd l e wir e per kil o met er in ohms

,
’
, .

T he eq ui valen t re sis tanc e o f t h e mi dd le w i re is zero and that o f the ,

t wo o utside wir es is

i 0 7 5 3f X. m/ km
oh .
, ( 140)

where the s ign plus refers t o the wire in whic h the c u rrent lea ds tha t in
th e m idd l e w i re .

Pro b 2 9 Co mpa re the ve ct o r d ia gra m in F ig 49 wi t h tha t in Fig

. . . .

48 and shown t h at wit h a n un symme t r ical s pa c ing t he ind uced v o ltage

,

E is no t in qu a dr at ure w it h t h e c o rres p o n ding cu rre nt I

, so t ha t t h e ,,

act io n o f t he o the r t wo wires ca nno t be re pl ace d by a n e q uiv ale n t

i n du c tan ce alone bu t o n l y b y an i nd ucta n ce and a resis tan ce Sho w
, .

graphical l y t ha t t he latte r ma y be ei t her po s itive o r nega tive .

 CHA PT E R XI I

T HE I N DU C T A N C E O F T HE W I N DI N G S OF
E L E C T R I CA L M A CHIN E R Y .

6 4 T he . I ndu c ta n c e
Tra nsform e r W in di ng s W hen a of .

trans fo rmer is o perated at no l o ad i e with its sec o ndary cir , . .

,

cuit o pen practically the wh o le flux is c o ncentrated within

,

the iro n c o re W hen h o wever the transfo rmer is l o aded so that

.
, , ,

c o nsiderable currents fl o w in b o th windings appreciable leakage ,

fluxes are fo rmed ( Fig which are linked partly with the .

primary winding and partly with the sec o ndary winding W hen
, .

the l o ad current is c o nsiderable the primary and the sec o ndary ,

ampe r e turns are large as c o mpared t o the ex citing ampere

-

turns so that at each instant the sec o ndary ampere turns are
,
-

practically equal and o pp o site t o the primary ampere turns -

.

A n inspecti o n o f Fig 5 0 will sh o w that the m m f acting up o n

. . . .

the useful path in the ir o n is equal t o the di ff erence between the

m m fs o f the primary and sec o ndary windings while the m m f
. . .
,
. . .

acting up o n leakage paths is equal t o the sum o f the m m fs . . .

o f b o th windings .

Take fo r instance the line o f fo rce fghk ; with respect t o the

, ,

pa rt fg o f its path the sec o ndary c o il S I and the adj acent half
,

P I o f the primary c o il f o rm t o gether a fi c titi o us annular c o il

(leakage c o il ) The m m f o f this c o il is equal t o mil where
. . . .
,

i, is the primary current and n, is the number o f turns in the ,

wh o le primary c o il P S imilarly the c o il 8 2 and the part P 2

.
,

o f the primary c o il may be said t o f o rm an o ther fictiti o us c o il

linking with the part hk o f the path o f the lines o f fo rce .

I t will be seen fr o m the d o ts and c r o sses that the m m fs . . .

o f the t wo fictiti o us c o ils assist each o ther and that the paths ,

o f the leakage flux are as indicated by the arr o w heads S o me -

.

lines o f fo rce are linked with the t o tal m m f o f the fi ctiti o us . . .

c o ils o the rs are linked with o nly part o f the turns A lth o ugh
,
.

20 8
CR A P . X II ] I N DUC T A N C E O F W I N DI NG S 2 09

t he reluctance the leakage paths is ve ry high as c o mpared

of

to that of the useful path in iron yet the m m f acting up o n

, . . .

t al F ie ld
'

. A c u

Secondary

F l xD
u ensity Dis trib ut ion

F m 50
. .
—
T he l ea kage fiel d in a trans fo rmer with cylindri cal co sil .

the leakage paths is als o m any ti m es g reate r than t hat acting

up o n the path in iro n A s a c o nsequence the leakage fluxes
.
,

reach app reciable m agnitudes .

2 10 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 64

The leakage fluxes induce e m fs in the windin gs in lagging . . .

quadrature with the respective c urrents and th u s a ff ect the ,

v o ltage regulati o n o f the transfo rmer That part o f t he applied .

vo ltage whi c h balan c es these e m fs is kn o wn as the reactance . . .

dr o p in the trans f o rmer I t is cust o mary t o speak ab o ut the

.

primary reactan c e and t he sec o ndary rea c tance als o ab o ut the ,

primary and the sec o ndary leakage flu x es as if they had a ,

separate and independent existence Ho wever it must be under .

,

s t o o d that each leakage fl ux is pr o duced by the c o mbined acti o n

o f b o th windings as is explained ab o ve M o re o ver where the
,
.
,

leakage fluxes enter the ir o n they c o mbine with the main fl u x

in the pro per directi o n so that they f o rm there o nly a c o m
,

p o nent o f the resultant flu x .

I n reality the primary ampere turns are no t exactly equal

,
-

and o pp o site t o the sec o ndary ampere turns so that in additi o n -

, ,

t o the leakage fluxes sh o wn in Fig 5 0 there is a leakage flux .

,

due t o the m agnetizing ampere turns Ho wever this c o rrecti o n -

.
,

is negligible when the l o ad is c o nsiderable and the calculati o n

, ,

o f the leakage flux is greatly simplified by assuming the primary

ampere turns t o be exactly equal and o pp o site t o the sec o ndary

-

ampere turns
-
.

The e ffect o f the leakage reactance up o n the perf o rm ance

o f a transfo rmer is treated in T he E lec tric C irc uit there the
;
value o f the reactance is supp o sed t o be given Here the pr o blem .

is t o sh o w ho w t o calculate the leakage inductance f r o m the given

dimensi o ns o f a transfo rmer The t wo types o f winding t o be .

c o nsidered are the o ne with cylindrical c o ils ( Fig 5 0 ) and the .

o ne with flat c o ils B o th types o f winding can be used

wi t h any o f the three kinds o f magnetic circuit which are used
with transfo rmers ( Figs 12 13 and .
, ,

The pr o blem o f calculating the leakage inductance acc o rding ,

t o the f undamental f o rmula is reduced t o that o f finding

the permeances o f the individual paths o f the leakage flux I t .

w o uld be o ut o f the questi o n here t o dete rmine the actual paths

and t o e x press their permeances mathematically There f o re in .
,

acc rdance with

o D r Kapp s pr o p o sal simplified paths are
.
1 ’
,

ass u med sh o wn in Fig 5 0 t o the right The ind u ctance so

,
. .

cal c ulated is c o rrected by an empiri c al fact o r o btained fr o m ,

experiments o n trans f o rmers o f similar type and pr o p o rti o ns .

G Kapp T ra nsformers
.
,
p 1 77 . .
CR A P . XI I ] I NDUC TANC E O F W I ND I NG S 2 11

The simp lif y ing assumpti o ns a re (a ) that the paths within and
between the c o ils a re straight lines and (b) that the reluctan c e ,

o f the paths in the space o utside the c o ils is negligible because ,

the cro ss secti o n o f these paths is practically u nl imited

—
.

( 1) C y lindric a l C o ils W e sha ll calculate first the p r ima r y .

inductance o f a transfo rme r having cyl ind rical c o ils i e the ,

. .
,

inductance due t o the linkages o f the leakage flux with the

p rimary winding The permeance o f the path o f the c o mplete
.
.

l inkages is 0 1 a a l O m/ 2l pe rms where

0 is the mean length ,

o f a turn in the c o il P and a l is the radial thickness o f the flux

,
.

The n o tati o n is sh o wn in the detail d raw ing at the b o tt o m o f Fig ,

.

50 . I n this exp ressi o n a 1 0 m is the mean cr o ss secti o n o f the -

path being an average between the cr o ss secti o ns within the

,
-

spaces P l S l and P g S g The length o f the paths within the

— -
.

c o ils is 2l and the reluctance o f the paths o utside the c o ils is

,

neglected This path is linked with n , turns

. .

S imilarly the permeance o f an infinitesimal annular path

,

within the prim ary c o il at a distance x fro m its c enter and , ,

o f a width dx is dd p l O d / 2 l perms This path is linked

’
p m x , .

with tu rns Substituting these values int o eq . .

( 106) we o btain

L. ( M om/ 21> [
a.

L1 ( W i om/ zl) (0 1 + ib1 ) pe rm s

z
.
( 14 1)
B y a so m ewhat similar reaso ning we sh o uld find fo r the c o m
binati o n o f the t wo sec o nda ry c o ils assu ming the m t o be c o nn ected ,

elect rically in series ,

L2 = (M om/ 21) «
12 + in
.) pe rm s .
( 14 2 )
the o perati o n o f a transfo rmer it is the to tal equivalent
In
inductance o f the t wo windings r educed t o o ne o f the cir c uits
that is o f imp o rtance S in c e resistances and reactan c es can be .

transfe rred fro m the prima ry ci rcuit t o t he sec o nda ry o r vic e

ver sa when multiplied by t he squa re o f the rati o o f the nu mbers
,

o f tu rns ( A rt 4 4 b) t he equivalent inductan c e reduced t o the

.
, ,

p ri m a ry c ircuit and per leg o f t he c o re is , ,

L ea Li
k( a
,
n 1
2
0 m/ 2l) [
a (
i ,b b2 ) ] 10
"
8
hen rys .
2 12 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 64

A ll the lengt hs here are expressed in centimeters and u

,
=
,

als o a = a 1 + a 2 is the spa c ing between the c o ils whi c h is a kn o wn ,

quantity Thus the unkn o wn distances a l and a 2 which ente r

.
,

in t o the expressi o ns fo r L I and L 2 are eliminated fr o m the

fo rmula fo r t he equivalent inductance .

The c o efficient k c o rrects fo r the diff erence between the

actual linkages sh o wn in Fig 5 0 at the le f t and the assumed .
,

linkages sh o wn at the r ight The values o f It fo und f r o m experi .

,

ments vary within quite wide limits depending up o n the pro

, ,

p o rti o ns o f the c o ils F o r go o d m o dern transfo rmers A rn o ld

.

gives the limits o f 10 between and S ee als o e q ( 14 7) .

bel o w Fo rmula ( 14 3) gives the inductance o f o ne leg o nly ;

.

the equivalent inductance o f the wh o le transfo rmer depends

up o n the electrical c o nnecti o ns between the c o ils .

I n designing a trans f o rmer the c o ils are usually arranged

in such a way as t o reduce the leakage reactance t o the least
p o ssible am o unt 2 Eq ( 14 3) sh o ws that in o rder t o achieve
. .

this res u lt a c o mparatively small number o f turns must be used

, ,

and t he c o ils must be thin and l o ng The space a between the .

c o ils must be kept as small as is c o mpatible with the require

ments fo r insulati o n and c o o ling .

The usual arrangement o f c o ils sh o wn in Fig 5 0 gives a .

c o nsiderably smaller leakage inductance than the simpler arrange

ment sh o wn in Fig 12 N amely with the arrangement sh o wn
. .
,

in Fig 12 the permeance o f the path o f the c o mplete linkages

.
,

in the space between the c o ils is pa 1 0 m/ l This e x pressi o n .

di ff ers fr o m that used bef o re in that l stands in the den o minat o r

in pla c e o f 2l F o r the pa rtial linkages
, where
:r is measured no w fr o m the edge o f the prima ry c o il furthest ,

f ro m the sec o ndary c o il Thus the p r imary inductance is in .

,

this c ase

LI ( n 2
p 1 m0 l
/ ) [ 1;
a1 +

L1 ( fl nl z
om/ l) (a l i il
b
‘‘

B y sy mm et ry we can write the exp ressi o n fo r L 2 , and hence ,

1
EArn o l d W echsel tromtechnik (2 d editi o n ) Vo l
. s p 561 ,
. . .

2
I n so me case s a c on side rable leaka ge reactance is specified s a p ro tecti on a

a ga in st vi olent h ort ci rcuit s

s .
c a n" . x11] I NDUC T ANCE o r W I ND I NG S 2 13

after c o mbining ,

L eg :
la (b
i i

This value is between t wo and fo ur times as la rge as the

value given by e q F o r t his reaso n in m o st t r ansf o rm e rs
.
, ,

the lo w tensi o n c o il issplit int o t wo secti o ns ; c o m pa re a ls o with

-

Fig 14 . .

F o rmula ( 143) and the values o f k given abo ve have been

deduced fo r the c o re type transfo rmer I t is clear h o weve r
-
.
, ,

that the same fo rmq will apply t o the shell type and the c ruci -

f o rm type trans f o rmers with cylindrical c o ils th o ugh the c oe ffi ,

cient It m ay have di fferent values in each case U ntil m o re .

reliable and numer o us experimental data are available the sa m e

values o f k will have t o be used fo r the se types as fo r the c o re
type }

( )
2 F la t C oi ls W ith flat c o ils ( Fig
. 5 1) the inductance o f .

a pa rt o f the winding between A B and C D can be calculated

in precisely the same way as in Fig 5 0 I f the primary winding . .

is split into q secti o ns the inductance pe r secti o n by anal o gy

, ,

with e q is .

L og/ g= k[u(n1/ q) 0 m/ 2l] [a

,
2
b2 ) ] 10
‘
8 hen rys , ( 14 5)
whe re the dimensi o n l is again measu r ed in the di recti o n o f
the lines o f fo rce and is the mean length o f a tu rn The .

di mensi o ns a bl and b2 are indicated in Fig 5 1 The inductance

, , . .

o f the wh o le winding is

L” k( pn1 0 m/ 2ql) [a
2
b2 ) 110
‘

8 hen rys , ( 146)

whe re all the lengths a re exp ressed in centimete rs a nd ,

This fo rmula p re supp o ses that the m m fs a re balanced o r . . .

,

in o the r w o rds that the r e are t wo half secti o ns of the sa m e

,
-

winding at the ends ; such is usually the case in o rde r t o reduce

the leak a ge reactance (See also Fig . .

E q ( 14 6) sh o ws that the leakage reactance is c o n side r ably

.

reduced and c o n sequently the v o ltage re gulati o n i m p ro ved by

, ,

s ubdividing the windin gs and placing the p rim a ry a nd the

See a lso t he S ta nda rd Ha ndbook fo r E lectric a l E ngineer s unde r T rans
former lea ka ge, ea c a nce
r t .
2 14 T HE M AGNE TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 64

sec o ndary windings o n the c o re alternately A t a given v o ltage .

,

and with a given type o f c o ns t r u cti o n the spacing a between ,

the c o ils may be c o nsidered as c o nstant and independent o f the

number o f secti o ns I n trans f o rmers fo r e x tra high v o ltages a
.
-

is large as c o mpared t o so that the leakage reactan c e

is alm o st in v ersely pr o p o rti o nal t o the number o f secti o ns (1 .

I n lo w v o ltage-t rans f o rmers a is small as c o mpared t o b l and

b2 ; hen c e L g
is alm ,
o st inversely
o
pr o p o rti o nal t o Q
2
beca u se ,

bl and b 2
are themselves inversely pr o p o rti o nal t o q Thus .
,

FI G . 51 .
—
The leakage field in a transformer with flat c o ils .

in general the inductance o f a transf o rmer is inversely pro

,

p o rti o nal t o q” where n has a value between 1 and

,

Dr W R o o.
g wski has . given an exact mathemati c al s o luti o n
fo r the flux distributi o n in the case o f flat transf o rmer c o ils ,

assuming the c o ils and the c o re t o be indefinitely l o ng in the

directi o n pe rpendicular t o the cr o ss secti o n sh o wn in Fig -
.

F or expe ri mental data in re ga rd t o the e ffect o f the subdivi si o n and

1

a rran gement of t ran sforme r windin gs up o n the leaka ge reactance see Dr W . .

Ro gowski M itteilungen Ueber F o rsc hungsa rbeiten H eft 7 1 (S prin ge r

, , ,

p 1 8 al s o his a rticle U ebe r die St reuun g des T ran sform at ors E lektrotec hnis c he
.
, ,

Z eits c hrift Vo l 3 1 ,
pp 10 3 5 and 10 6 9 ; al so F a c c ioli Reactance o f
. .
,

S hell typ
- e T ra n sf orm e rs E lec tric a l W o rld Vo l 5 5 ,
p 9 4 1 ,
. . .

2 Dr
W Ro gowski loc c it
. .
,
. .
C RAP XII ] . I NDUC T ANC E O F W I ND I NG S 2 15

W ith certa in simplifying assumpti o ns he arrived at the same

f o rm ula fo r inductance as e q ( 14 6) in which appro ximately .

k= 1 —

(bl

ec ause o f t he simplifying assumpti o ns made in the deduc

B
ti o n o f this fo rmula the values o f k c alculated fr o m the results
,

o f tests o n a c tual transf o rmers di ffer slightly fr o m th o se given

by the fo rmula L e t Io be an empirical c o r recti o n c o efficient

.
’
,

then
=
k k [1 (bl
“ ’
( 14 7)

I n Dr R . experi m ents the actually m easu red induct

o go w ski s
’

ance was o n the average 6 per cent higher than the calculated
o ne . U ntil m o re experimental data are available it is the refo re
advisable t o use in e q ( 14 7) the value o f .E q ( 14 7) .

is applicable t o tra nsfo r mers o f all the three types ( Figs 12 t o .

th o ugh in the case o f a shell type o r c rucifo rm transfo rme r -

,

the presence o f i ro n o utside the c o ils tends t o increase the value

of k Ho wever Dr R o g o wski states that with the space usually
’
.
.
, ,

a ll o wed fo r insulati o n between the c o ils and the iro n the influence ,

o f the iro n in increasing the leakage reactance is n egligible Eq . .

( 14 7 ) h o lds appr o ximately t r ue fo r cylindrical c o ils also th o ugh ,

the re a re as yet no c o nclusive tests fo r the value o f the c o r

recti o n facto r t o be used with such c o ils .

The general similarity between the equati o ns fo r leakage induct

ance given ab o ve raises the questi o n as t o what element they ,

p o ssess in c o m m o n This is fo und in the c o ncepti o n o f a leakage

.

c o il which is the fictiti o us c o il sp o ken o f ab o ve A n inspec

, .

ti o n o f Figs 5 0 and 5 1 will sh o w that the successive lines o f

.

fo rce c o nve rge upo n lines which may be called the hearts
o f the flux system These hea rts a re l o cated in places whe re
.

the net m m f is ze ro This is at the edge o f the half c o ils and

. . . .
-

a t the cente r o f the wh o le c o ils in the t wo figu res menti o ned -

, .

I n de riving eq ( 144 ) fo r the case whe re the c o ils a re no t split

.
,

the hea rt is assu m ed t o be at the edge o f b o th c o ils I f we .

define a leakage c o il as that part o f the winding b etween t wo

successive hea rts then e q ( 144 ) will always apply t o it I n
,
.
.

eq .
( 14 3 ) b 1
and b 2 refer t o the width o f t he d o uble leakage c o il ,

hence if we subs t itute in e q ( 144 ) lb , and lb? fo r b, and b2 .

,
2 16 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 64

we get the c o efficient k which appears in eq I n eq , . .

( 1 4 3 ) ,
n and L re f er t o the d o uble leakage c o il S ubstituting
in eq ( 144) i n] fo r n , and I L “
g o .

.
,
f or L
g we get eq Thus e , .
,

t he di ff eren c es between the t wo equati o ns is readily e x plained .

I n c ase the c o ils are divided in any unusual m anner we must ,

first l o cate the hearts by n o ticing whe re the m m f s are balan c ed . . . .

Then we sh o uld figure o ut the inductance by e q ( 144) fo r each .

leakage c o il separately The o nly precauti o n t o be o bserved is .

that the vari o us quantities refer t o the leakage c o il Finally .

( i f the c o ils are in series ) we sh o uld add the vari o us induct

a nc es t o gether The arrangement with half c o ils o n the ends
.

gives the minimum o f inductance fo r a given number o f c o ils .

Pro b T he app ro xi m ate a ss u m ed d i m e nsi o n s of a 15 kw

. 1 .
-
.
,

v .
,60 cycle c r uc if orm type t ran sf orm e r wit h cyli ndrical c o il s ( Fi g 14 )
—

,
-
.

a re : 0 m 140 c m ;
= = 5 cm ; = c m ; a 1 c m T h e m axi m u m
=
‘

b 4 b2 3 .
l . . . .

u seful flux i s mega lines S h o w t h at t h e r elati o n ship between t h e .

height I o f the w ind in g an d t he p er centage reactive v o ltage dro p i s

x l = 16 6 A ss u m e k = l 1 0
. . .

Pr o b 2 R efe rrin g t o the p reced in g p robl em wh at i s t he pe rme anc e

. .
,

o f the s pace between t h e o ut s i d e lo w ten s i o n c o il an d the hi gh te ns i o n - -

'

c o il pe r centi me te r o f the hei gh t o f t he c o il s an d wh at i s t h e e ffec ti ve

, ,

value o f the flux d en sity in thi s space at full l o ad ,

Ans pe rms pe r c m 3420 / l lin es p er sq c m

. .
, . .

Pr o b 3 E ac h leg o f a c o re type t ra nsfo rme r i s p ro vi ded wit h six

. .
-

flat hi gh ten si o n c o il s o f 5 30 tu r n s eac h i nte rp o se d wit h the s am e

-
,

n umbe r o f lo w ten si o n co il s o f 4 0 tu rn s e ac h o ne of t h e lo w ten si o n

-
,
-

c o il s bein g split in t w o a nd placed at t he e nds T he high ten si o n c o il s .

-

a re w o un d o f 3 mm ro u nd wi re 5 3 laye rs 1 0 tu rn s pe r laye r (b l 3
.
, ,

th e lo w ten si o n c o il s a re w o un d o f 8 mm s qua r e wi re in 2 0 laye rs 2 tu rn s

-
.
, ,

pe r laye r ( z l 6b = T h e di stance betwee n t h e c o il s i s 2 0 mm

.
.

Ta kin g the in d uctance o f t hi s t r an sform e r t o b e unity calculate the ,

relative ind uctances o f the t ran sfo rm e r w hen t he hi gh ten si o n wind in g -

is d ivid ed int o t hree c o il s an d al so int o t w o c o il s a ss u min g 19 l an d , , ,

a t o be t h e s am e in all ca s e s A ns . .

Pro b 4 So lve the p rec ed in g p rob lem ta kin g int o acc o unt th e
. .
,

c han ge in k . A ns .

Pro b 5 T h e fo ll owin g result s we r e ob tain ed fro m a sh o r t ci r cuit

. .
-

te s t o n a kv 2 5 00 kva 6 0 cycle sh ell type t r an sf orm e r wit h

-
.
,
-
.
,
-
,
-
,

flat c o il s : W ith t h e high ten si o n wind in g sho rt ci rcuited an d full rate d - -

,

cu rrent fl o win g th ro ugh t he lo w ten si o n win d in g th e vo ltage ac ross -

the sec o n d a ry te rminal s wa s v an d t he wattm ete r read in g wa s .

,

2 7 kw T h e t ran sfo rm e r win d in g c o n si s t s o f 12 h i gh ten si o n c o il s o f

.
-

1 00 tu rns each an d o f 1 1 lo w ten s i o n c o il s inte r p ose d between the

,
-

hi gh ten si o n c o ils t ogeth e r wit h 2 half c o il s at th e en ds The dimen

-
,
-
.

si ons o f t he c o il s a r e : 0 m m ; l = 18 c m b
; ,
= 1 6 mm ; b = 1 0 mm
; . . .
2 .
C RAP XII ] . I NDUC TANCE O F W I ND I NG S 2 17

a = l2 mm
Calcula te t he c o rrecti on facto r k in fo rmula
. Hin t ’

E limim t e t he ir dro p us ing t he watt m ete r read ing A n s Abo ut, . .

Pro b 6 W h at is th e greates t pe rmissible thic kness o f t he c o il s

. .

o f a 6 0 cycl e t ran s fo rmer if the reactive d ro p m us t no t be la rge r t ha n

—
,

t hree tim es th e r es is ta nc e dro p ? T he d ucts a a re 1 c m T h e s pace .

fact or o f t he c o ppe r in eac h c o il i s The p ri m a ry c o ils a nd the

who le c oil s o f the sec ond a ry a re o f th e sam e thic k ness k = 0 98 . . .

Hin t : Ass ume 0 m l a nd n a nd show t h at t hey c an c e l o ut , , , .

A ns b = 3 66 c m . . .

Pro b 7 I n o rd e r t o p ro vide a b etter c o o ling an d at th e sa me

. .
,

tim e s ave o n ins ulati o n t wo flat hi gh ten s i on c o il s a re f req uently plac ed ,

-

side by side with a small a ir space in between and in t he sa me way

,
-
,

t he lo w tensi on c o il s m ay be s ubdivi ded Sho w t hat no lea ka ge flux

-
.

p a sses in t he s pace betwee n t h e t wo ad j acen t c o il s w hic h bel o n g t o

t he sa m e w ind in g so that t he ind ucta nc e o f t he wind ing i s no t app reciably
,

in c reased by these S pac es and can be calcula ted as if t h e se s pac es did ,

no t exis t l .

Pro b 8 Co mpa re the fo rm ul ae given ab o ve and the numeri cal values

. .

o f t r ans fo rmer l ea ka g e r eactan ce o b tain ed t here f ro m w it h th e fo rmul a

and d ata given in the S t nd rd H ndb o k f E l tri l E ngin ers Do a a

.
a o or ec ca e .

this fo r a ny t ransfo rmer th e dim en sions o f w h ic h a re available , .

Pro b 9 T he e q uivalent reactance o f a t ran sfo rmer is x reduc ed

. .
,

t o t h e p rim a ry c i r c uit and is :c r ed uc ed t o t he se c o n d a ry cir c uit A ll

, , .

the p rim a ry c o il s a re c o n nec te d in serie s a nd all th e sec ond a ry c o i ls ,

a re a lso in se ri es Sho w th at thes e e q uivalen t reactan c es bec ome

.

23 / c
. , and x / c res pective ly w h e n the p ri m a ry win d ing i s d i vided
2
z ,
’
,

into c branc he s in pa rallel and th e sec ond a ry w ind in g is d ivi d ed in to

, ,

c bran c hes in pa rall el The d iv is i o n is S upp o sed t o be m ad e in s uc h

, .

a way as t o keep the m m fs in the ad jacen t c o i ls balan ced Hint : . . . .

I f th e e q uivalen t reactanc e o f o ne p rim a ry branc h i s th at o f 0 1

bran c h es in se ries is x and that o f c bra nc hes in pa rall el i s a f / c

, , r
,

no m a tter whe t her t he se c ondary c o il s a re c onn ec ted in se ri es o r in

p a rall el .

Pr o b 10 Pro ve th at the equival e nt reac tan c e o f a transfo rmer

. .

is th e sa me wh ether th e c o i ls a re in se ri es o r in pa rall el p ro vided tha t

, ,

th e to tal n umbe r o f tu rn i n series i s th e sa m e s .

N ote: So m eti m es be cause o f th e d iffi c ulty in u si ng heavy c o n

,

d uc t o rs it is des i ra bl e t o m ultipl e t h e c o il s
,
I n s uc h c ase t h e pa rallel .
,

c o ils mus t h ave the sa me n umber o f tu rns a nd th ey sho uld be sym ,

metri c all y a rranged so as to p revent ex c h ange c urrents , .

6 5 T he E q ui va l ent L ea ka ge Permeanc e o f A r ma ture W inding s

. .

In ce rtain pro ble ms relating t o the design and o pe rati o n o f

elect rical m achine ry it is necessa ry to calculate t he inductance
Thi s fac t
‘
has been ve rified expe rime ntally ; see Arno ld , W ec hs cls trom n

tec hnik Vo l 2 ,
.
p 29 . .
2 18 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 65

of the a r mature windings This inductance a ffects the per .

fo rma nc e o f the machine because the leakage fluxes created ,

by the armature currents induce e m fs in the machine Such . . . .

leakage fluxes are sh o wn in Figs 23 and 3 6 in an inducti o n .

,

mach ine and a synchr o n o us machine respectively F o r purp o ses .

o f the o ry and c o mputati o n these leakage fluxes a r e usually

subdivided into three parts namely ,

(a ) L eakage fluxes linked with the pa r ts o f the windings

embedded in the armature ir o n ( Figs 3 6 and These paths .

are cl o sed partly thr o ugh the sl o ts and partly thr o ugh the t o o th ,

t ips (sl o t leakage and t o o th tip leakage ) -

.

(b) L eakage fluxes linked with the parts o f the armature

windings in the air ducts -
.

FI G . 52 .
—
U n divi ded end c o n nectio n s
- . FI G 5 3 . .
—
D ivi ded end co nnections
-
.

( ) c L eakage
fluxes linked with the end c o nnecti o ns o f the -

armature windings (Figs 5 2 and .

U sually the fluxes (a ) and (b) a r e m e rely dist o rti o nal c o m

p o n e n t s o f the main flux o f the m achine and o nly the fluxes ,

(c ) have a real existence .

I t will be readily seen that the paths o f the t o o th tip leakage -

and o f that ar o und the end c o nnecti o ns are t o o c o mplicated -

t o a ll o w the c o rresp o nding permeances t o be calculated the o

re t ic a lly F o r this reas o n va ri o us empirical and semi empirical
.
,
-

fo rmulaa are used in practice fo r estimating the leakage inductance

o f arm ature windings the c o efficients in these fo rmul ae being
,

determined fr o m tests o n similar machines .

The m o st rati o nal pro cedure is t o express the inductance

thr o u gh the equivalent permeance o f the paths as defined by ,

eq .
( 1 06 a ) in A rt 58 L et .the r e be .C p p c o nduc t o r s pe r p o le
C HAP X II ]
. I NDUC T ANC E O F W I ND I NG S 2 19

per phase such as are indicated fo r instance in Fig 15 Then

,
. .

the indu c tance o f a machine per p o le pe r phase is given by the, ,

equati o n
L ap

whe re is an e m piri cal value o f the equivalent pe r mean ce

per po le per phase Th is fo rm ula presupp o ses that all the
.

par t ial linkages a re replaced by the equivalent c o mplete linkages

embracing all the C m c o nducto rs M o re o ver the value o f d q
, .
,
’
e

is such as t o take into acc o unt the inductive acti o n o f the o ther
phases up o n the phase under c o nsiderati o n The t o tal inductance .

o f the m achin e per phase depends up o n the electrical c o nnec

, ,

ti o ns in the a r m ature winding I f all the p p o les are c o nnected .

in series the fo rego ing expressi o n fo r L p p must be multiplied

,

by p ; if there are t wo branches in parallel the inductance ,

o f each branch is fi p and the c m bined inductance f the

‘

p o , o

wh o le m achine is i (lp ) ip p p .

The leakage inductance o f a m achine is usually dete r mined

by sending thr o ugh it an alte rnating cu rrent o f a kn o wn frequency ,

under c o nditi o ns which depend up o n the kind o f the machine

( the field t o be r em o ved in a synchr o n o us m achine and the ,

arm atu re t o be l o cked in an inducti o n machine ) F ro m the .

readin gs o f the current o f the applied v o ltage and the watts

input the reactance x o f the m ach ine is calculated ( afte r elim
,

in a t ing the o hmic d r o p ) Then kn o wing the frequency f o f the

.
,

supply and the number o f p o les o f the m achine the inductance ,

pe r p o le is calculated S ubstituting into eq . .

( 14 8) this value o f L p p and the kn o wn numbe r o f c o nducto rs

C p p the equivalent pe rm eance
,
pe r p o le pe r phase is deter
mined B y pe rfo rm ing such tests o n m achines built o n the
.

same punching but o f di ffe rent e m bedded lengths the pe r meance

, ,

due t o the e m bedded parts o f the winding is sepa r ated f ro m

that due t o the end c o nnecti o ns ; the values so o btained a re then
-

used in new designs .

The leakage pe rm eances in the e m bedded pa rts a re pro

po rti o nal t o the widths o f these p a rts in the di recti o n pa rallel
t o the shaf t in o the r w o rds t o the length o f c o nducto rs which
, ,

a re su rro unded by the leakage lines E xpe riment sh o ws that .

the permeanc e o f the paths in t he air d ucts and aro und the -

end c o nnecti o n s is also app ro xim at ely p ro p o r ti o nal t o the length s

-
220 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A nn 65

of the c o rresp o nding parts of the armat u re c o ils S in c e all these.

permean c es are in parallel ,

is equal t o their sum o r ,

0 ’ =
,q

Here the letter 1 den o tes the lengths in c m o f the c o il o r wha t .

, ,

is the same thing the width o f the paths o f flu x The subscripts

,
.

i a and e re f er t o the ir o n the air ducts and the end c o nnecti o ns

, , ,
—

,
-

respe c tively Thus I is the s emi net length o f the c o re that is

.
, ,
-
, ,

t he length ex c lusive o f ducts but inclusive o f the space between

the laminati o ns 1
The c o rresp o nding pe rmeance per centimeter is
“
.

The sign pri me signifies that the c o r resp onding W s refe r ’

t o o ne centimeter width o f path .

The c o e fficient a is equal t o 1 when the end c o nnecti o ns -

are arranged as in Fig 5 2 and a = % when they are arranged .

,

ac c o rding t o Fig 53 N amely in the first case the number o f

. .
,

c o nducto rs C per gr o up o f the end c o nnecti o ns is equal t o the

e
-

number C p in the embedded part I n the sec o nd case C is

p .
6

eq u al t o { C p . I n the first case there are as many gr o ups o f

p .

end c o nne cti o ns per phase as there are p o les ; in the sec o nd
-

case there are twice as m any gr o ups per phase as there are p o les ,

s o that t w o gr o ups (o ne p o inting t o the right and o ne t o the left )

m u st be c o unted per p o le Thus with undivided end c o n .

,
-

nec t io ns the inductance is C p m l while with divided end

2 ’
, p e e,

c o nnecti o ns it is This acc o unts fo r

the value o f a } in fo rmula a
,
and sh o ws that the inductance
d u e t o the end c o nnecti o ns is reduced twice by subdividing
-

them into t wo gr o ups W hen estim ating the leakage reactance .

it is therefo re necessary t o kn o w the e x act arrange m ent o f the

end c o nnecti o ns
-
.

I n preliminary calculati o ns bef o re the arm ature c o ils are ,

d rawn t o scale the length l o f the end c o nnecti o ns in a full

, ,
-

pitch winding is usually assumed t o be eq u al t o ab o ut 1 5 r where .

,

r is the p o le pit c h F o r fracti o nal pitch windings l varies

.
-
, g

r o ughly as the winding pitch o r l = ( see A rt -

, e .

‘
The sem i net len gth is u sed in gettin g the leaka ge pe rmeance in the
-

s l o t becau se the fl ux s p read s a s it c o me s o ut o f the i ro n al m o st i mmediately

,
.

The spaces between the la m inati o n s d o n o t a ffect the den sity in the ai r
because they a re s o s mall a s c o mpared t o the d imens i o ns of the sl o t .
CR A P . X II ] I NDUC TANC E O F W I ND I NG S 22 1

S ubstituting the value of mm fr o m eq .

( 14 9) into eq .
( 14 8)
we o btain
L
”
2
m ?
hen rys .
( 15 0 )

In the fo ll o wing three a rticles fo rmula ( 15 0 ) is applied t o

the calculati o n o f the leakage reactance o f
(a ) I nducti o n machines ;
(b) Synchro n o us machines ;
(c ) Co ils underg o ing c o mmutati o n in a direct current m achine -
.

I n each case s o mewhat di ff e rent values o f the unit permeances

”
6 a re used because o f the dive r sity o f the m agnetic paths
, .

6 6 T he L eak a ge R
. ta nc e in I nducti o n M achin es I t is
ea c .

explained in A rt 35 and sh o wn in Fig 23 that the actual flux

. .

in a l o aded inducti o n machine is the resultant o f three fluxes ,

o f whi c h the useful flux d is linked with b o th the primary and

the sec o ndary windings The c o mp o nent fluxes d) , and $ 2

.
,

linked with the primary and sec o ndary windings respectively ,

a re called the lea ka ge fl uxes They induce in the windings e m f s

. . . .

in quad rature with the c o rresp o nding cur rents and these e m fs , . . .

have t o be balanced by a part o f the terminal v o ltage C o n .

sequently that pa rt o f the applied v o ltage which is balanced by

,

the useful flux is reduced ; in o ther w o rds the useful flux and ,

the useful t o rque a re reduced with a given current input A s .

a m atter o f fact the maximum to rque and the o verl o ad capacity

,

o f an inducti o n machine are essentially determ ined by its leakage

fluxes o r what am o unts t o the same thing its leakage inductances

, , .

Kn o wing the primary and sec o ndary leakage reactances the ,

actual inducti o n machine is replaced by an equivalent electric

circuit (o r a circle diag ra m is d rawn fo r it) after which its ,

pe rfo rm ance can be p redicted at any desi red l o ad T he pro blem .

here is t o dete rmine the values o f these leakage rea c tances and
inductances fro m the given di m ensi o ns o f a m achine The
,
.

rest o f the p ro ble m is t reated in the E lec tric C irc uit .

The leakages fluxes which a re indicated schematically in

,

Fig 23 are sh o wn m o re in detail in Fig 5 4 T he primary

.
,
. .

c o nducto r s in o ne o f the phases and unde r o ne p o le are m a rk e d

with d o t s and the adj acen t sec o nd ary c o ndu c to rs a re marked
,

with c r o s ses t o indicate the cu rrents whi c h a re fl o wing in the m

,
.

A ssum ing the ro t o r t o be p ro vided with a squirrel cage -

2 22 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A RT . 66

winding the distributi o n o f the sec o ndary currents is pra c

,

tically an image o f the primary currents N eglecting the m ag .

net iz ing ampere turns necessary fo r establishing the main o r

-

use ful flux the sec o ndary ampere turns per p o le per phase are
,
-

eq u al and o pp o site t o the primary ampere turns A similar -

.

assump t i o n is als o m ade in the preceding article in the case o f ,

t he trans fo rm er This assumpti o n is no t as a c curate in the

'

c ase o f an ind u c ti o n m achine because here the magneti z ing ,

c u rrent is pr o p o rti o nately m uch larger due t o the air gap ; ,

-

nevertheless the assumpti o n is sufficiently accurate fo r m o st

,

FI G 5 4
. .
—
The sl o t a nd z ig- z a g leakage fluxes in an i nducti o n machine .

practical purp o ses E ven i f the magneti z ing current is equal.

t o say 2 5 per cent o f the f ull l o ad current the di ff erence between -

,

the primary and the sec o ndary ampere turns sh o uld be less -

than 10 per c ent because the magnetizing current is c o nsiderably

,

o ut o f phase with the sec o ndary current

1
.

W ith this assumpti o n the primary and the sec o ndary current ,

bel t s sh o wn in Fig 5 4 may be c o nsidere d as t w o sides o f a narr o w

.

fi c titi o us c o il which excites the leakage flu x causing it t o pass ,

cir c umferentially al o ng the active layer 2

N eglecting the mutual .

S the ci rcle dia gram o f an inducti on m ot or for i nstance in the auth or s

ee , ,
’

E xp rim nt l E l tri l E ngin

e e a ing Vo l 2 p 16 7
ec ca eer ,
.
,
. .

A lth ou gh the ec o nda ry f requency i diff e rent from the p ri mary w ith
2
s s ,

re pec t t o the r v lving rot or it i the ame the prima ry frequency with
s e o s s as

res pect t o the tat or L t be the lip expre sed a fracti o n of the p ri ma ry
s . e s s s as

fre quency Then the speed of the rot or i ( l ) and the frequency o f the
. s
—
s ,

sec o nda ry cu rrent with re pect t o a fi xed p o int o n the tat or i

s s (1 ) l s s s
—
s .
CR AP XII ]
. I NDUC TANC E O F W I ND I NG S 22 3

acti o n the c o nsecutive phases the length o f this flux is app ro x

of ,

ima t ely r/ m where r is the p o le pitch and m is the number

,

o f the stat o r phases P a rt o f the flux is linked with the prim ary
.

current belt and part wi t h t he sec o ndary belt The c o ndi t i o ns

,
.

are essen t ially t he same as between the transfo rmer windings

P I and S I in Fig 50 Kn o wing the equivalent permeances
. .

o f t he individual paths the inductance can be calculated fr o m

eq .

In an inducti o n machine with a squi rrel cage ro t o r the t o tal -

leakage in the embedded pa rt may be reso lved into three c o m

p o n e n t s sh o wn in Fig 5 4 namely .
,

( 1) The primary sl o t leakage (D 1 ; , 8

(2) The sec o ndary sl o t leakage ,

(3 ) The t o o th tip o r zig z ag leakage $

“
-
, 2 .

The fluxes a and $ 2 are alternating fluxes o f the frequency 8

o f the c o rresp o nding currents The zigzag fl u x (D varies acc o rding .

,

t o a much m o re c o mplicated law because the permean c e o f its ,

path changes fr o m instant t o instant in acc o rdance with the

relative p o siti o n o f the stato r and r o t o r teeth ; c o mpare p o si
ti o ns ( 1) and (2) in Fig 23 M o re o ver Fig 5 4 sh o ws o nly the . .
,
.

simplest case which never o ccurs in practice namely ; when

, ,

the stato r t o o th pitch is equal t o that in the r o to r I n reali t y .

,

the t wo pitches are always selected so as t o be di ff erent in o rder ,

t o av o id the m o t o r sticking at sub synchr o n o us speeds (due t o the -

higher harm o nics in the fluxes and in the currents ) The refo re .
,

the paths o f the z ig z ag leakage flux are much m o re c o mpli c ated

than is sh o wn in Fig 5 4 and in calculati o ns the average pe r .
,

m eance o f the z igz ag path is used .

I n a m achine with a phase w o und r o t o r the main flux is -

fu rther dis t o rted due t o t he fact t hat the primary and sec o ndary
,

phase bel t s a re no t exactly in spa c e o pp o si t i o n at all m o ments

-
.

W hile the t o tal m m f s o f the prim ary and se c o ndary are . . .

balanced th e re is a l o c al unbalancing whi c h c hanges fro m

,

instant t o instant This dis t o rti o n is the same as if it w e re due

.

t o an addi t i o nal l e akage which was nam e d by P r o fe ss o r C A , . .

A dams the belt l e akage l This pa rt o f the leakage usually .

c o nstitutes bu t a small par t o f t he t o tal leakage and will no t ,

be c o nsidered here sepa r ately Th o se interested a re refe r red t o .

‘
C A Adams T he L eaka ge R eac t a nc o f I nducti o n M ot ors T ra ns
. .
,
c ,
.

I ntern E l c t C ngres s S t L o u is 190 4 Vo l 1 p 7 1 1

. e r
. o , .
, ,
.
,
. .
22 4 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T . 66

the o riginal paper and t o the w o rks menti o ned at the end o f
this a rticle .

L et there be C p p l c o nduct o rs per p o le pe r phase in the stat o r

win ding ; then the fi c titi o us c o il ( Fig 5 4 ) made up o f the .

pri m ary and sec o ndary c o nducto rs h as O l turns when reduced pp ,

t o the prim ary circuit This is because the sec o ndary winding
.

can be replaced by an equivalent winding with a o ne t o o ne

r ati o that is with the same number o f c o nducto rs as the
, , .

prim ary winding I n this case the sec o ndary current is equal
.
,

t o the primary current (A rt 4 4 b) There f o re eq ( 15 0 ) can . .

, .

be m ade t o give the equivalent inductance including the pri ,

mary inductance and the sec o ndary indu c tance reduced t o the
primary circuit pr o vided that the permeances o f the paths
,

link ing with the sec o ndary c o nduct o rs are included in the values
of W s S uch is naturally the case when the values a r e dete r
’
.

mined fr o m a test with the r o t o r l o cked .

E xtended tests have sh o wn that in a given line o f machines

the permeance is inversely pr o p o rti o nal t o the peripheral
length o f the equivalent leakage flux that is inversely pr o p o rti o nal , ,

to where r is the p o le pitch and m is the number o f

p rimary phases 1
This sh o ws that the permeance pe r ce nti
'

meter o i peripheral length o f the active layer is fairly c o nstant ,

in spite o f di ff erent dimensi o ns and pr o p o rti o ns as l o ng as ,

these a r e va r ied within reas o nable limits Thus .

" "
(Pi Ui / (T / m) ,
’

where is the leakage permeance o f the active laye r in the

embedded part per o ne centimeter o f a x ial length and per centi
meter o f the peripheral length o f the path Thus the final .
,

fo rmula fo r the equivalent leakage ind uc tance o f an indu c ti o n

machin e per p o le per phase reduced t o the primary circuit is
, , ,

L em , ( 5 1)
1

In this fo rmula the fo ll o wing average values o f unit per

meance m ay be used fo r machines o f usual pr o p o rti o ns unless ,

m o re accurate data are available .

I
H M Hoba rt E l tric M t r
. . table o n p 3 9 7 The value
,
ec o o s . . s

f or given bel ow have been c o m puted from thi table and the re ult s s ,
s

m ultiplied by 2 becau e the table give s the value o f the p ri m a ry pe r

,
s s

mea nc o nlyes .
C RAP XII ] . I N DUC T A N C E O F W I N DI N G S 2 25

The equivalent permeance o f the embedded pa rt in perms

per c en t imeter o f t he semi net axial length o f the m achine and -

,

pe r c entimeter o f peripheral length o f the air gap is fo r ,

Half o pen
-
sl o ts C o mpletely cl o sed sl o ts
18 .

The equivalen t pe rm eance a ro und the end c o nnecti o ns and -

,

aro und the pa rts o f the c o nducto rs in the air ducts decre a ses -
,

with the inc reasing number o f sl o ts per p o le per phase fo r the ,

same reaso n that the sl o t permeance dec reased I n inducti o n .

m o to rs usually at least three sl o ts are used pe r p o le pe r phase ,

and under these c o nditi o ns M r H M Ho bar t uses . . .

per m per centime t er with phase w o und ro to rs and ,

-
,

perm per centimeter with squirrel cage ro to rs may be -

.

taken in all cases equal t o perm pe r c m The lengths I .

6

and l are always understo o d t o refer t o the stato r winding

a
.

The fo rego ing data re f er t o m achines with full pitch windings -

in the stat o r and in the r o to r W ith a fracti o nal pitch winding .

the equivalent leakage permeances are s o mewhat smalle r due t o ,

l o nger phase belts and t o the mutual inducti o n o f the o ver

lapping phases L et the winding pitch facto r (A rt 29) o f the
.
-
.

p rim a ry wind ing be low and that o f the sec o nda ry winding
s .Then the leakage inductance o f the m achine calculated ,

fo r a full pitch winding ( but fo r -

is m ultiplied by
kw l kw2 . This is an empirical c o rrecti o n which is accurate
.
,

en o ugh fo r o rdina ry practical pu r p o ses I n reality o f t wo .

,

m achines designed fo r a given duty o ne with a fracti o nal pit c h ,

windin g and the o ther no t ( but o therwise b o th alike ) the fi rst

o ften has a highe r inductance than the se c o nd This is because .

m o re tu rns a re required with the f r acti o nal pitch wind ing if the ,

flux densities in the iro n and in the air gap a re t o be the sa m e -

in b o th cases l .

W ith the data given abo ve the calculati o n o f the leak age
r eactance o f a given inducti o n m o to r is quite sim ple and o ne ,

engaged r egularly in the c o m m ercial design o f indu c ti o n m o t o r -

s

can o btain sufficiently accu r ate d ata fo r thei r design o r fo r the

‘
F or a the oretical and expe rimental inve ti ga ti o n o f the e ff ec t o f a s

f racti o n l pitc h u po n the lea ka g re ac ta nce in inducti o n machine s

a e see

0 A A da ms F racti o nal pitc h W indin g f or Inducti o n M o t or

. .
, Tr n A m r
-
s s, a s . e .

In t El
s .E ngr Vol 26 ec .p 14 88 s .
,
. . .
2 26 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T 66 .

c o mputati o n o f the ir perf o rmance pr o vided that he adapts the ,

numerical v alues o f the unit permeances t o ea c h individual case ,

o n the basis o f his previ o us e x perience M any auth o rs have .

given the o retical fo rmul ae fo r the leakage inductan c e o f ind u cti o n

m a c hin es 1 These fo rmulae curves and meth o ds while usef u l
.
, , ,

in acc u rate w o rk are t o o elab o rate t o be qu o ted here ; at any rate

,

they are o f interest o nly t o a specialist in design T w o examples .

o f the the o retical calculati o n o f leakage inductan ce are given

bel o w in o rder t o sh o w the student the general meth o d used

, ,

and thus intr o duce him int o the literature o n the subj ect .

( a ) A T heoretic a l C a lc ula tio n o f the S lo t L ea ka ge P ermea nc e .

We shall c alculate the equivalent permeance fo r the half cl o sed

sl o t ( Fig an o pen sl o t being a special case o f it W ith
. .

t he n o tati o n sh o wn in sketch and with S p p sl o ts pe r p o le pe r ,

phase we have :,

’ ’
G = dC D ’
c P

and nx = C p px/ b 4 . Hence

be

I
z ’
nx dd ’
p
0

Cpp z
bg/ S g j -

The equivalent permean c e o f o ne sl o t per unit ,

of the semi
net a x ial length o f the m achine is
( 153)
This sh o ws that the sl o t permean c e depends o nly up o n the
pro p o rti o ns o f the sl o t and no t up o n its abs o lute dimensi o ns .

(b ) A T heoretic a l C a lc ula tio n f

o the Z igz a g L ea ka ge P ermea nc e .

The calculati o n of the z igzag leakage permeance is simple o nly

1
O . A Adam
. s, loc . c it .
; al so T ra ns . A mer I ns t . . E lec . E ngrs .
,
Vol . 24
p 3 3 8 ; ibid Vo l 2 6
. p 14 8 8 Ho ba rt E lec tric M o tors
.
,
. . .
, ,

Chap xxi ; Arno ld W ec hs els tromtec hnik Vo l 5 pa rt 1

. pp , ,
.
,
.

4 9 54 ; R Go ld schm idt
—
.Appendix t o his b ook o n T he A lterna t ing C urren t,

C ommuta tor M o to r R E Hellm und P ra c t isc he B e rechnun g des . .

,

S t reuun gskoe ffi z ient en in Indu kti on sm o t oren lE lektro tec hnis c he Z eitsc hrift ‘

, ,

Vol 3 1. p 1 1 11 and 1 140 ; W Ro gowski Z ur S t reuun g des Dreh

. .
,

st ro mm o t o rs ibid pp 3 5 6 12 9 2 and 1 3 16 See al so an exten sive se ries

,
.
,
.
, , .

of a rticle s by J R ez elma n in L a L umiere E lec triq ue 190 9 19 11 and in

.
,
—

the ( L ond on ) E lec tricia n .

C RAP X II ]
. I N DUC T A N C E O F W I N DI NG S 2 27

when the stat o r t o o th pitch and the r o t o r t o o th pitch a re equal

- -

t o each o ther ; o the rwise the paths bec o me t o o c o mplicated fo r

mathematical analysis S ince the p o siti o n o f the sec o ndary teeth
.

va ries with respect t o the prim a ry teeth the permeance o f the ,

z ig z ag leakage als o va ries and it is necessary t o take its average

,

value o ver o ne half o f the to o th pitch A that is between the p o si

- -
, ,

ti o ns ( 1) and (2) in Fig 23 I n so m e intermediate p o siti o n ( Fig

. . .

determ ined by the o verlap y the reluctance o f the path f , ,

per unit o f se m i net axial length o f the iro n is a / ( py ) rels

-
, .

FI G 5 5
. .
—
The n o tati o n used in the calc ulati o n o f the sl o t a nd zi gz ag lea kage

The r eluctance o f the path g is a / p(t2 s l y) rels The c o m — -

.

b ined reluctance o f f and g is equal t o the su m o f the fo rego ing

expressi o ns The pe rmean ce o f f and g in s e r ies being the
.
,

r ecip ro cal o f the c o m bined reluctance is ,

“
(
#y 21 8 1

The pe rm eance in questi o n varies acc o rding t o this law fo r the ,

p o siti o ns o f the sec o ndary t o o th between and = 0

,) y
s —
,

the t o o th m o ving t o the left Fro m y = 0 t o . s, /l) the — —

pe rmean c e is p r actically equal t o z ero because the se c o nda ry t o o th

,

b ridges o ve r the p rima ry sl o t no m o re The student is advised .

228 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA RT . 66

to mark the p o siti o ns o f the r o t o r teeth o n a strip o f paper and

t o pla c e them in di ff erent p o si t i o ns with respe c t t o the primary
sl o t in o rder t o see the variati o ns in the o v erlap Thus the .
,

average value o f the z igzag permeance per t o o th pitch is

l i( t s
—
SI )
p 02 (Ga /l) per m s/ c m .
( 15 4 )
o

Pro b Draw a sketch simila r t o Fig 5 4 b ut w ith t h e ro t o r

. 11 . .
,

t o o th pitc h diff e rent f rom t h at in the stat or an d in d icat e ro ughly the

-
,

gene ral ch a racte r o f the paths o f th e z igz ag lea kage .

Pro b 1 2 Sh o w that inc reasin g the nu mbe r o f sl o t s pe r p o le in a

. .
'

given m ach ine do es no t alte r m ate rially the sl o t l eakage but red uces ,

c o n sid e rably t h e z igz ag lea kage .

Pro b 1 3 Calculate the equivalent lea kage in d uctance pe r ph a se

. .

o f a th ree pha s e 1 0 p o le -
in d ucti o n m ac h ine wit h 1 5 s l o t s pe r p o le in
,
-
, ,

the s tat or an d a phase w o un d ro t or B o t h w i nd in gs have 1 00 pe r

,
-
.

cent pitc h the sl o t s a r e sem i cl o sed o n bo th punc hings t h e i nd ivid ual

,
-
,

stat or c o ils in eac h phas e a re c o nnected in s e ries an d the r e a re 2 0 c o n ,

d uc t o rs in eac h s tat o r sl o t T h e b or e o f the m ac h ine is 1 10 c m the gross

. .
,

len gth o f the c o r e i s 30 c m ; t h e re a re th ree vent s o f 8 mm eac h . The . .

en d c o nn ecti o n s a re a rran ged acc o rd in g t o Fig 5 3

-
A ns mh . . . .

Pro b 1 4 The d esign o f the m ac hin e in th e p reced ing p rob lem

. .

h as b een mod ified in th e fo ll o win g reS pec t s : T h e ro to r is p ro vided

with a squi rr el cage w in d in g th e w ind in g pitc h in t h e stat o r is shortened
-
,

t o 8 0 pe r cent t h e s tat o r s l o t s a r e m ad e Open a nd t h e e n d c o n necti o n s

, ,

a re d ivid ed a s in Fi g 5 4 W h at i s t h e in d uctance o f the m achin e ?

,
. .

Ans mh . .

Pro b 1 5 Che c k th e values o f (P given in th e text ab o ve with

. .
,

t h os e in Hoba rt s table ’
.

Pro b 1 6 F o r t h e u s ua l li mi ts o f p ro p o rti o n s o f sl o ts teeth a nd

. .
, ,

ai r gap calculate t h e values o f (P -

,

f rom eqs ( 15 3) an d ( 15 4 ) a nd c o m .

pa re the re s ult s wit h the ave rage

expe ri mental value s give n in thi s
text .

Pro b
17 . Calculate th e equi .

vale nt lea ka ge pe rmeance o f a ro un d

sl o t (Fig a ss umin g the c o n
.

d uc t o rs t o c o m pletely fill it an d ,

th e lines o f f o r ce t o be s t raigh t line s .

H in t : Selec t the an gle a s th e i nd e a

FI G . 56 .
—
A s e mi cl o sed round sl o t
-
.
pen d ent va riable an d integrate eq , .

( 1 0 6 ) b etween 0 an d a a a .

See Arn o ld , W echsels tr omtechnik Vo l 4 , . p . 44 .

A ns .
M0 6 2 3 + b / s ) pe rms pe r c m .
C R AP XII ] . I N DUC T A N C E O F W I N D I NG S 22 9

67 T he L eak a ge R ea ctanc e in Sync hr o n o us M a c hin es

. The .

physical natu re o f the a r mat ur e reactance in a synchr o n o us

machine is explained in A rt 4 6 ; the influence o f this r eactance .

up o n the perf o rmance o f a machine is sh o wn in Figs 37 38 4 0 .

, , ,

and 4 1 The p ro blem he re is t o calculate the nume rical value

.

o f this r eactance fo r a given m achine using e q ( 150 ) with , .

"1
empirical c o efficients 0 .

I t m ay a lso be stated he re that fo r standa r d m achines pa rtie ,

ula rly in preliminary esti m ates the ix dr o p is s o metimes taken ,

as a certain percentage o f the rated vo ltage o f the m achine

instead o f estim ating the in ductance f ro m fo rmula In
syn chro n o us generato rs the ix d ro p at the r ated vo lt ampe re -

l o ad varies fro m 5 t o 10 pe r cent o f the r ated te rm inal v o ltage .

I n synchro n o us m o t o rs where s o me inductance is useful the

, ,

ix d r o p ranges fro m 8 t o 15 pe r cent o f the rated v o ltage For .

6 0 cycle machines and fo r m achines with a c o mpa r atively la r ge

-
,

number o f armature ampere turns values must be taken neare r -

,

the higher limit F o r 2 5 cycle m achines and fo r m achines

.
-
,

with a c o mparatively sm all number o f a r m ature ampe re tu rns -

,

values must be taken nea re r the l o we r limit A c o nside r able .

erro r in estimating the value o f ix has but little e ff ect upo n the
calculated perfo rmance at unity p o we r facto r because the vecto r ,

ix is then pe r pendicular t o e ( Figs 3 7 3 8 40 and Ho weve r a .

, , ,

c o nside r able er ro r may be int ro duced at l o we r values o f the

p o wer facto r if the r eactive d ro p ix has no t been esti m ated
with a sufficient accu r acy .

”
The values o f 0 fo r synch ro n o us m achines a re difierent
'

f ro m th o se given abo ve fo r inducti o n m achines because o f the ,

absence o f any sec o ndary cur rent belts P a rshall and Ho ba rt 2 -

.

give the fo ll o wing values fo r

F or a the o retical calculati o n o f the c oeflic ient see A rnol d W ec hsel ,

s tro mtec hnilc Vo l 4 pp 4 1 52 ; Ha wkin s a nd W alli s T he Dy na mo -

. .
, , ,

Vol 2 . pp 90 1 90 4 F or a c o mpa ris o n bet ween the calcul a ted and

.
—
.

actually measu red values see an e xtended se ries o f a rticles by J R ezelma n .

in L a L umiere E lec t riq ue 190 9 19 1 1 a nd in T he ( L o nd on ) E lect ric ia n

,
—
, .

E lec t r ic M ac hine Design p 4 78 These values a re c orro bo rated . .

by th os e o bt ained by Pic helma y e r; see his Dyna mob a u 190 8 pp 20 8 and , , .

Pic helma y er s values f or CP ( which he den o tes by l ) a re so mewhat

"
'
50 4 .
, .

hi gh because the end c o nnec ti o n lea ka ge is no t c o nside red sepa rately

- .

Arn old s values given in his Weclwelatro mtec hnik Vo l 4 p 2 80 sh o uld b e

’
, , .
,
.
,

us ed with d isc reti o n because they a pply t o a diff e re nt fo rmula ; na mely

, ,
230 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T . 67

Uni c o il windings in o pen sl o ts

-
3 to 6 perms per cm .

Th o ro ughly distributed windings in

o pen sl o ts to 3
U ni c o il windings in c o mpletely
-

c l o sed sl o ts 7 t o 14
Th o r o ughly distributed windings in
c o mpletely cl o sed sl o ts 3 to 6

The much larger values o f m, fo r cl o sed sl o ts as c o mpared ’

,

t o th o se with o pen sl o ts were t o be e x pected because the bridge

,

whi c h c l o ses the sl o t o ff ers a path o f high permean c e The .

l o wer values fo r windings distributed in se v eral sl o ts per p o le

per phase as c o mpared t o uni sl o t windings are d u e t o the
,
-
,

fa c t that the partial linkages bec o me m o re and m o re pro n o unced

as the winding is distrib u ted int o a larger number o f separate
c o ils ,
and als o because the length o f the paths is greater This .

is so mewhat an al o go u s t o splitting a transmissi o n line int o t w o

o r m o re lines ; see p r o b 2 1 in A rt 6 1 The greatest reducti o n
. . .

in the val u e o f the inductance results when the number o f sl o ts

is increased f r o m o ne t o t wo ; a further subdi v isi o n is o f much
less imp o rtance F o r instance if the permeance
. with a ,

uni sl o t c o il is 7 then dividing the same c o il int o t w o sl o ts

-
,

reduces the permean c e t o less than 5 O n the o ther hand a .

,

change f r o m fo ur t o five sl o ts per phase per p o le w o uld hardly

reduce the equivalent permean c e m o re than fr o m say to
The data in the table ab o ve give rather a wide range fr o m which
t o select a value o f fo r a partic ular machine and the designer ,

must e x ercise his j udgment as t o whether his machine will have

a permean c e nearer the upper o r l o wer limit This j ud gment .

c o mes with experience by c o mparing the predicted per f o rman c e

,

o f m achines with that actually o bserved .

The values o f d and depend up o n the number o f c o ils

’
a
’

per gr o up in o ther w o rds up o n the number o f sl o ts per p o le

, ,

per phase U ntil m o re accurate and detailed data are available

.

he c on side rs separately the equivalent pe rmeance of ea c h slot i nstead ,

of the gro up of sl ots pe r p ole pe r phase Thus his form ula f or the leaka ge .
,

in duc t ance pe r p o le with o u r n otati o n is L p p S p p C d whe re S m is

,
= ’
, a
z
8 , ,

the num be r of sl ots pe r p o le pe r phase and C is t he numbe r of a rm atu re , 8

c o nduct ors pe r sl o t The value s o f unit pe rmeance w hich he give s and d en o tes
.
,
’

by A refe r t o thi s f ormula

,
.
C RAP X II ]. I NDUC T ANC E O F W I ND I NG S 23 1

we shall assume and use the fo ll o win g values based ,

up o n M r Ho bart s experiments :
.
1 ’

N umber of sl o ts per p o le per phase 1 2 3 m o re than 3

in perms per centimeter . . 0 8 .

W ith a fracti o nal pitch winding the inductance is s o me -

what reduced ( see the end o f t he preceding a rticle ) A s an .

empiri c al c o r recti o n the inductance calculated fo r a full pitch

,
-

wind ing may be multiplied by the winding pitch fact o r kw .

The leakage reactance o f the armature cann o t be calculated

fro m a sh o rt circuit test because the sh o rt c irc iut current is
-
,
-

essentially determined by the direct armature reacti o n A .

di ff erence o f 50 o r even 10 0 per cent in the arm ature reactance

w o uld change the sh o rt circuit current by o nly a f ew per cent -
.

A much cl o ser appr o ximati o n is o btained fr o m the so called -

a ir c h rac teris tic 2

-
a N amely it has been f
. o und by numer o us e xpe ri ,

ments that the armature indu c tance when the field is rev o l ,

ving synchro n o usly is nearly equal t o the armature ind u c tance

,

with the field c o mpletely rem o ved and the armature supplied ,

with alternating currents fro m an external s o urce The air .

characteristic is the relati o n between the current and the v o ltage

under these c o nditi o ns E liminating the o hmi c d ro p the induct .
,

ance o f the machine is easily calculated and the value so fo und ,

can be used in the predicti o n o f the perfo r mance o f the machine ,

S uch an air characteristic is easily taken in the sh o p o r in the

-

p o wer h o use befo re the m achine is c o mpletely assembled Fro m .

the three o bserved curves nam ely t he no l o ad sat u ra t i o n curve , ,

-
,

the sh o rt c ir c uit curve and t he air c hara c teristi c the perfo rm

-
,
-
,

an c e o f a synchro n o us machine at any l o ad can be predicted

t o a c o nside r able degree o f accu r a c y .

Pro b 1 8 W h at i s the i nd uc ta nc e p er ph a s e o f a G po l e 3 ph a se
. .
-
.
-
,

tu rbo alte r na t o r th e a rm atu re o f w hic h ha the f o ll o wi ng d i m ens i o ns

-
,
s

B o re ,
m gro ss leng t h o f c or e
.
,
m 20 ai r d ucts o f 1 c m eac h , .
,
-
.
,

9 0 o pen slo ts ? T h e re a re 8 c o nd uct o rs pe r s l o t t he w i nd in g i s o f th e t wo ,

layer t yp e th e wi nd ing pitc h is

,
A ss um e (F f p er m s / e m .

Ans mh . .

Pro b 1 9 T h e ind uc tan ce o f th e m ac h i ne s pecified in t he p rec ed ing

. .

p ro blem was dete rm i ned ex pe ri m e ntall y ( f ro m a n ai r c h a ract eris ti c ) -

,

J o urn I n t E lec t E ng ( B riti h ) Vo l 3 l pp 19 2 ff

. s . r . . s ,
.
, . .

Pic he lm a y e r, Dy na mo ba u p . 20 7 .
232 T HE M A G NET IC C I R C UI T iA R T . 68

an d c om pa red t o that m ea s u red o n a si mila r m ac hin e t h e gro ss len gth ,

o f the c ore o f whi c h wa s 8 0 c m an d whic h wa s p ro vi d e d with 1 2 d uct s .

o f 1 c m eac h The equivalent lea ka ge pe rm eance o f the s h orte r m achin e

. .

w a s f o u nd t o be 30 pe r cent le ss t han that o f the o the r m ac hi n e W h at .

a re the actual value s o f (Pi an d G (

’ = 67
) fo r b o t h m ac hi ne s ? ’
e
'
a
’

Ans perm / c m . .

Pr o b 20 A n alte r nat or h a s 3 sl o t s pe r pha se pe r p o le an d the

. .
,

equivalent pe rm eance i s (P W hat w o ul d b e t h e value e

’

o f the s a m e c o n s tant s pe r s l o t ? A ns a nd .

Pro b 2 1 A 3 pha s e alte rnat o r h a s 4 sl o t s pe r p h a se pe r p o le

. .
-
.

If the c o il s we r e c o nnected up fo r a 2 pha s e m ac hi ne with o ut c h an ge -

wh at w o ul d be th e r atio o f t h e new L t o t h e o ld ? Ans 3 : 2 . .

68 actanc e Vo ltage o f C o ils un de r go ing C o mmute

. The R e

ti o n L et Fig 5 7 represent a part o f the armature winding

. .

and c o mmutat o r o f a direct current machine with t w o adj acent —

,

sets o f br u shes During the interval o f time wh en an arma .

t u re c o il such as C D is sh o rt c ircuited by a set o f brushes

, ,
-
,

the c u rrent in the c o il is re versed f r o m its f ull val u e in o ne

directi o n t o an equal value in the o pp o site dire c ti o n The c o il .

is then said t o undergo c o mmutati o n .

Under unfav o rable c o nditi o ns this reversal o f current is

ac c o mpanied by sparking between o ne o f the edges o f the brushes
and the c o mmutat o r Unless a ma c hine is pr o vided with inter .

p o les its o utput is usually limited by this sparking at the c o m

,

m u tat o r I t is o f imp o rtance theref o re t o have a practi c al

.
, ,

c riteri o n fo r j u dging the q u ality o f c o mmutati o n t o be expe c ted

of a given machine N umer o us f o rmul ae and meth o ds have .

been pr o p o sed fo r the purp o se ; all rati o nal f o rmul ae c o ntain ,

as a fa c t o r the inductance o f the c o ils undergo ing c o mmutati o n

, ,

be c a u se this indu c tance determines essentially the law acc o rding

t o whi c h the c urrent is reversed with the time F o r this reas o n .
,

the s u bject o f c o mmutati o n is treated in this chapter under the ,

general t o pi c o f the inductance o f windings The meth o d o f .

c al c ulati o n o f the inductance and the criteri o n o f c o mmutati o n

given bel o w are d u e t o M r H M Ho bart 1

The phen o m
. . . .

A des c riptio n of the pheno meno n of c o mmuta tio n .

en o n o f c o mm u tati o n may be briefly des c ribed as f o ll o ws :

L et fo r the sake o f e x planati o n the armature and the c o mm u
, ,

1
S ee Hobart E l m nt y P i n ipl f C
,
e e ar r c es o o ntinuo us- C urrent Dy na mo Design
C hap 4 ; al o P ar h ll and Ho bart
. s s a ,
E lec tric M a c hine Design
pp . 17 1 194 —
.
CR A P . XI I ] I NDUC TANC E O F W I ND I N G S 233

tat o r b e assum ed t o be stati ona ry and the b rushes revo lving in ,

t he di recti o n o f the h o ri zo ntal arr o w sh o wn in Fig 5 7 L et , . .

the machine be p ro vided wi t h a multiple winding (lap winding) ,

so that t here are as many arm ature circuits and sets o f b rushes

as the re a re p o les The cu rrent th ro ugh each a rmat ure b ran c h

.

is the ref o re
,

[ l = 1/ p7

whe re I is the t o tal a rmatu re cur rent and p the num ber of p o les .

N eg a t ive

Di
rec t io n o f mo t io n
of t he b rus hes

F ro . 57 .
—
Pa r t of t he armature winding commutato r , , a nd b ru shes in a
di r ect cu rrent machine .

At each set o f b rushe s t wo branches o f the a rm atu re w ind ing

a re c o nnec t ed in pa rallel so tha t the cu rrent th ro ugh each set
,

o f b r ushes is equal t o 2 1 , W ith refe ren c e t o Fig 5 7 it will .

,

be seen that the t wo arm a t u re bran c hes X an d Y which be gin , ,

at each set o f b rus hes may be c alled wi t h re spec t t o this se t

, , ,

t he lef t hand b r anch and the ri ght hand b r anch

- -
.
23 4 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A r m 6 8

In the p o siti o n o f the p o sitive brushes j ust preceding that

marked 1 the c o il C D is no t sh o rt circuited and carries the full
,
-
,

current 1 1 being the first c o il o f the right hand branch The

,
-
.

lead d is idle and the t o tal current 2 11 is delivered t o the brushes

,

thr o ugh the leads 0 m and n I n the p o siti o n o f the p o sitive

, ,
.

brushes j ust a f ter that marked 2 the c o il C D is again no t sh o rt ,l

cir c uited but is c arrying the f ull c u rrent 11 in the o pp o site direc
,

ti o n bein g the first c o il o f the le f t hand branch

,
-
.

I n the p o siti o ns o f the brushes between 1 and 2 the c o il C D

is sh o rt circuited by the brushes thr o ugh the leads 0 and d
-
,

and the current in the c o il changes gradually fr o m + 11 t o I 1 —

.

I f the c o il p o ssessed n o inductance the variati o n in the cur r ent ,

w o uld be practically determ ined by the c o ntact r esistan c e

between the brush and the c o mmutat o r the resistance o f the ,

c o il itself and o f the leads being negligible (with carb o n brushes)

’

Under these c o nditi o ns the current in the sh o rt circuited c o il -

w o uld vary with the time acc o rding t o the straight line law -
,

and the c u rrent density under the heels and the t o es o f the
br u shes w o uld be the same This is called the pure resistance .

c o mmutati o n o r the perfect c o mmut a t o n because it is no t a ec o m

, ,

p a ni ed by sparking S uch a c o mmutati o n

. is appr o ached in
ma c hines with interp o les when the e ffect o f the inductance is
,

c o rrectly c o mpensated fo r by the c o mmutating flux (A rt .

I n reality the sh o rt cir c uited c o il p o ssesses a c o nsiderable

,
-

inductance which has the e ff ect o f electr o magnetic inertia

, ,

retarding the reversal o f the current C o nsequently at the .

,

beginning o f the c o mmutati o n peri o d the lead d and the c o r re

sp ending c o mm u tat o r segment d o no t carry their pr o per share
o f the current which they w o uld carry with a perfect c o m
,

mutati o n A t the end o f the c o mmutati o n peri o d the current

.

m ust then be reversed quickly because the wh o le current must ,

be trans f erred fr o m the lead c t o the o ther leads I f the ind u c tan c e .

is c o nsiderable the current in the lead c is still o f a c o nsiderable

,

ma gnitude when the t o e o f the brush is ab o ut t o leave the

c o rresp o nding c o mmutat o r segment Therefo re the last peri o d .
,

o f the reversal is a c c o mplished thr o ugh the air between the

brush and the segment in the f o rm o f an ele c tric a re This

, .

is kn o wn as the sparking at the brushes B esides during the .

,

last m o ments o f reversal the c urrent density under the t ee ,

is much higher than the average density unde r the b rush and ,
C HAP X II ]. I N DUC T A N C E O F W I N D I N G S 23 5

this high density causes a gl o wing at the edge of the b r ushes ,

making the c o mmutati o n still less satisfacto ry .

T he a vera ge rea c ta f f
nc e eu ll pit ch. lamf
p . . in the c oils o a -

winding F o r an empi rical c ri teri o n o f the qua lity o f c o mmuta ti o n

.

M r Ho ba rt takes t he a vera ge reac ta nc e volta ge induced i n the c oil

. .

This is a reas o nable c riteri o n because the rati o o f the m axi m u m ,

v o ltage o ccur rin g when the brush leaves a segment t o the average
vo ltage will be m o re o r less the same in m achines o f usual
,

design c o nstants O f c o urse the ave r age reactance vo ltage

.
,

is o nly a relative c rite ri on t o be used with g reat disc reti o n , ,

and applied o nly fo r c o mparis o n with m achines which pr o ved

in actual o perati o n t o c o mm utate satisfact o rily .

L e t the inductance o f an a rm atu re c o il between t w o adj acent

c o m mutato r segments be L g The subscript eq (meaning eq uiva e .

lent) is added t o indicate that the value o f L includes no t o nly the

t rue inductance o f the c o il itself but als o the average inductive ,

acti o n o f the c o ils which are undergo ing c o mmutati o n simultan e

o usly with it L e t the frequency o f the current in the c o il under
.

go ing c o m mutati o n be f cycles pe r sec o nd Then the cu rrent is .

reversed in a time iff The flux changes during this time .

fro m + L q l l t o L q 11 Hence acc o rding t o the fundamental

e
—
, .
,

eq .
( )
2 6 A rt 2 4 the average r.eactance
,
v o ltage which is taken ,

as the c riteri o n o f c o m m utati o n is ,

( 15 6)

In o rde r
btain a satisfa c to ry c o mmutati o n the v o ltage
to o ,

em mus t no t ex c eed a ce rtain value determined f ro m actual ,

expe rience with m a c h ines in regula r o perati o n M r Ho ba r t . .

rec o mmends values fo r em no t t o exceed 3 t o 4 v o lts p ro vided , ,

that o ne d o es no t depend up o n the fringe flux o f the main po les

t o facilitate c o mmu t ati o n .

The inductan c e L ” whi c h ente rs in the fo rego ing fo rm ula

, ,

is c alculated a c c o rding t o the general fo rmula as fo ll o ws

A ssume fi rst that the re is no c o mm o n flux o r mutual inducti o n
between t he c o il unde r c o nsiderati o n and the o t he r c o ils which
are simultane o usly sh o r t cir c uited Th en if q is the num be r -
.
,

o f tu rns pe r c o mmutat o r segm ent (in Fig 5 7 q = =1) we m ust ut

p .

C pp= q This will give t he indu c tance o f o ne side o f the c o il

.
,

say C T o o btain the indu c tan c e o f bo th sides C and D the

.
, ,

resul t m ust be m ultiplied by 2 o r L a - 2 L ” , e .

23 6 T HE MA G N E T I C CI R C UI T [A m 68

Inreali t y there is a c o mm o n flux whi c h links with the c o il

under c o nsidera t i o n and with the o ther c o ils undergo ing c o m
mu t ati o n a t the same time This fl ux is changing with the .

time and c o nsequently it indu c es additi o nal v o ltages in the

,

c o il C D .The induced e m f depends up o n the relative . . .

p o siti o n o f C D and the o ther c o ils (whether in the same sl o t

o r in the adj acent sl o ts ) and up o n the rate o f change o f the cur

rent in ea c h c o il o f the gr o up I t w o u ld be t o o c o mplicated fo r .

practical purp o ses t o take all these fact o rs int o acc o unt wi t h
any degree o f accuracy Therefo re Ho bart makes a further.
,

assumpti o n namely that the c urrent in a ll the c oils whic h a re

, , ,

s hort— c irc uited a t the sa me time, va ries a t t he sa me ra te a nd tha t

the who le lea ka ge fl ux is linked with a ll the c oils o f the group ( Fig .

L et be the average number o f c o ils simultane o usly sh o rt

s

c ircuited under a set o f brushes (the actual number varies fr o m

instant t o instant) C o nsider a gr o up o f mutually influencing
.

c o nduct o rs such as are sh o wn at C o r at D O ne half o f the

,
.
-

c o nduct o rs in the same gro up are sh o rt circuited by the p o sitive -

brushes the o ther half by the adj acent negative brushes The
,
.

t o tal number o f c o ils in each gr o up is 23 and since by assumpti o n ,

the current in all o f them varies at the same rate and all o f ,

the flux is linked with all o f the c o ils the equivalent inductance ,

o f the c o il A B is 2 3 times larger than if this c o il were al o ne .

Thus fo r a multiple w o und armatu re -

L eq = 2L pp 2s = 43 41
2
d ’
a
’
(f l 2 0 6 76) X
— 1
hen rys .
( 5 7)
1

O n the basis o f M r Ho bart s tests and until m o re accurate data ’

.

are available the f o ll o wing average values o f the un it pe rmeances

,

may be used : = 4 and G perms per centimeter

’
a
’
.

The frequency f whi c h enters int o f o rmula ( 156 ) is calculated

as fo ll o ws : The time between the p o siti o ns 1 and 2 o f the brushes
c o rresp o nds t o o ne half of o ne cycle because during this interval
-
,

t he current changes fro m + 11 t o I1 L et v be the peripheral —

.

vel o city o f the c o mmutat o r in meters per sec let b be the thick
,
.
,

ness o f the brushes and b the thickness o f the mica insulati o n

,
’

between the c o mmutat o r segments b o th in millimeters The , .

time between the p o siti o ns 1 and 2 o f the brushes is (b

sec o nds Hence
.

500 W(b b ) / sec

’
f —
cy . .
CR AP . X II] I NDUC TANC E O F W I ND I NGS 237

The number of simultane o usly

sh rt circuited c o ils varies o -

pe ri o dically with the p o siti o n o f the b rushes Thus in Fig 5 7 .

, .

so metimes t wo and s o metimes three c o ils a re sh o rt c i r c uited -

by o ne set o f b rushes O n the ave r age .

s= (b ( 15 9)
whe re a is the width o f o ne c o mmutat o r segm ent including the
mica insulati o n Thus all the values which enter int o the
.
,

fo rm ula ( 15 6 ) a re determined and the reactance v o ltage fo r a ,

given machine can be easily calcula t ed .

Fo rmula ( 156) is used no t o nly as a c riteri o n o f the c o mmuta

ti o n but also fo r the calculati o n o f the flux density under the
, ,

in t e rp o les whe re such a re required N amely this flux density must .

,

be such that the average v o ltage induced by the c o mmutating

flux is appro x imately equal and o pp o site t o the average reactan c e
vo ltage ; see A rt 2 4 pr o b 6 A sti ll cl o ser c o mpensati o n fo r the
. . . .

influence o f the inductance is achieved by pro perly grading the

c o mmutating flux so as t o c o mpensate no t o nly fo r the a verage
,

reactan ce v o ltage but als o t o so m e extent fo r the instantane o us

,

induced e m fs . . .

T he a ver age rea c ta nc e e m f i nduc ed in so me other dir ec t c ur . . .

ren t windi ngs W ith t wo circuit wave windings t w o cases must

.
-

be c o nsidered namely (a ) when the machine is pr o vided with

, ,

o nly t wo sets o f b rushes (b) when the re are m o re than t wo sets ,

o f b rushes I n the first case eq ( 156 ) is used whe re

. .
,

I l = hl y

and L “ ,
is un de r st oo d t o c o mprise the sh o r t ci r cuited c o nduct o rs -

under a ll the p o les pe r c o mmutat o r segm ent L et the re be

, .

again q tu rns per c o il that is pe r unit o f wind ing pe r pair o f , ,

po les Sin ce the c o rresp o nding c o nducto rs under a ll t he p o les

.

are in series we have that L m= p p The influence o f the

,
.

o t her simultane o usly sh o rt ci r cuited c o ils is exp ressed as befo re -

by the facto r 2 3 whe re s is given by fo rm ula

,
Thus fo r ,

a t wo ci r cuit winding with t wo sets o f b rushes

-

2 pm) ?
l, hen ry s
’
L e, d ’
a X .

The f re quency f is given as be fo re by e q .

W h e n m o re than t wo se t s o f b rush e s a re us e d t he se ts o f .
,
.

equal p o la ri t y a re c o nnec t ed in pa rallel by t he stud c o nne c ti o ns

23 8 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT [A R T . 68

o u t side the a rmature windings and beside the re are t wo sh o rt ,

c ir c u iting pa t hs thr o ugh the c o ils undergo ing c o mmutati o n : a

l o ng path and a sh o rt path Thus the pro blem bec o mes .
,

inde fini t e because it is no t p o ssible t o tell the relative am o unts o f

,

the c urren t thr o ugh these di fferent paths Disregarding the sh o rt .

pa t h the criteri o n bec o mes the same as in the case o f a machine

,

with t w o sets o f brushes o nly 1

This is o n the sa f e side and .
,

t he c o mmutati o n may be expected t o be better than that cal

c ula t ed o r at the w o rst as g o o d
, , .

W i t h multiplex windings the expressi on fo r em is the ,

same as that given ab o ve pr o vided that pr o per values are selected ,

fo r 1 1 s and f ,
W ith regard t o the latter quantity it must
,
.

be remembered that b is m uch larger than the actual thickness ’

o f mi c a N amely with respe c t t o the c o mp o nent winding u nder

.
,

c o nsiderati o n the metal o f the c o mmutat o r segments bel o nging

t o the o ther c o mp o nent windings is equivalent t o insulati o n .

This f a c t must no t be l o st sight o f in ch o o sing the c o rrect value

fo r b t o be used in the e x pressi o n
’

W ith f ra c ti o nal pit c h windings the reactance v o ltage is smaller

-

than with the c o rresp o nding full pitch winding because the -
,

c o nd u ct o rs sh o rt cir c uited under the adj acent sets o f brushes

-

( Fig 5 7 ) are situated in part o r t o tally in di ff erent sl ots and

have a smaller c o m m
,
.

o n magnetic flux o r n o ne at all W hen , .

the win ding pitch is reduced c o nsiderably s instead o f 2 3 must ,

be used in the preceding f o rmul ae ; o therwise a value between

3 and 2 3 must be ch o sen acc o rding t o o ne s j udgment 2
’
, .

Pro b . a rm atu re o f a 6 p o le 6 00
22 . T he m ul tiple wo un d -
,
-
,

di rect cu rrent m ac h ine ha s the f o ll ow in g d i m e ns i o n s : D iam ete r 8 5 c m

-
,
.

gross len gth 2 2 c m ; three ai r d uct s 1 c m eac h ; 1 00 8 face c o nd uct o rs

, .
-
, . .

For an analysi s o f thi s case see C A A dams Reactance E M F and

1
. .
, H .

the D esi gn o f Co mm utatin g M achines E lec trica l W orld a nd E ngineer Vo l , , .

46 p 3 46 . .

For an advanced and more scientific the ory o f c o mmutati o n see Ar n o ld

2
, ,

Die G leic hstro ma sc hine Vo l 1 pp 3 5 4 t o 5 13 ; in particular the

, . .

appro xi mate formula ( 170 ) o n b o tt o m o f p 4 98 ; also Vo l 2 chapter . .

14 . A si mpler and more co nci se treatment will be fo und in T o malen s ’

E lec tric a l E ngineering A goo d practical t reatment will also be found in

.

Pic helma y er s Dy na mo ba u pp 86 118 ; it is c o n siderably si mplified as

’ —
.
,

c o m pared t o Arn o ld s treat ment and is accu rate en o u gh for practical pu r

’
,

po se s because the nu me rical values o i unit permeances are kn o wn o nly

,

appro xi mately .
C HAP XII ]
. I N DUC T A N C E O F W I N DI NG S 23 9

T h e c omm utat o r d iamet er i s 5 2 c m ; t h e n u mbe r o f s e gm en t s 25 2

.
,

t h e mica insulati on is 1 mm t hi c k ; th e bru she s a re 1 5 mm t hic k

. . .

W h at i s t he avera ge reactan ce v o ltage wh en t he t o tal a rm at ure c u rren t

is 3 2 0 a m p ? . A ns v o lt s
. .

Pro b 23 Sho w that t he answ er t o t he p receding p rob l em w o uld

. .

be n ine times la rge r if by m i s ta ke the w inding w e re ass umed t o be o f

t he t w o ci rc uit t y pe
-
.

Pro b 24 T he peri pheral vel o c ity o f a c o mm utato r is 18 meters

. .

p er sec t he wid th o f eac h segm en t (w itho ut mica ) is

.
,
mm ; th e .

t hic kn ess o f the m ica i s mm The c omm utat o r i s t o be used in c o n

.

nec t io n wit h a d uple x w ind i ng W h at i s t he small es t pe rm i ss i b l e

.

t hic kn ess o f th e brushe s if th e f req uen c y o f c o mm utati o n m us t no t

exc eed 8 00 cycle s p er sec Ans mm . .

Pro b 2 5 Fo r a pe rfect c omm utati o n and fo r an im p erfe ct o ne

. .

dra w the fo ll o wi n g c urve s t o tim e a s a b sc issze : (a ) the c urren t in the

sho rt c i rc uited c o il ; ( b) th e cu rrent s in th e lea ds 0 an d d ; (c) the
-

c u rrent d en siti es und e r th e heel a nd t oe o f th e brush Ta ke t he wid t h

.

o f t h e br ush es t o be equal t o t h at o f o ne c o mm utat o r segm ent and ,

ass um e t h e mica i ns ulati o n t o be o f a n e gligibl e th ic kne ss .

Pro b 2 6 Sho w th at th e wi d th o f the bru she s has c ompa ra tively

. .

little n et effe ct Up o n t h e c o mm utati o n o f a m ac h in e .

Pro b 2 7 W h at flu x den sity i s n eeded in the in terp o l a r zone in

. .

p rob 22 t o sec ure pe rfect c o mm utati o n?

. A ns kl / sq c m
. . . .
 C HA P T E R XI I I

T HE M E C HA N I C A L F O R C E A N D T oR Q UE D UE T O
E L E CT R O M A G N E T I C E NE R G Y .

6 9 T he Den sity
. of E n er gy
in a M agn etic Fi el d The reade r .

is al ready familiar with the fact that a certain am o unt o f energy

is requi red t o establish the flux within a magnetic ci r cuit and ,

that this ene r gy remains st o red in the field This st o red energy .

may be c o nveniently th o ught o f as the kinetic ene rgy o f vo r

tices a ro und the lines o f f o rce (A rt Va r i o us expressi o ns
.

fo r the t o tal st o red electro magnetic ene r gy are given in A rts

-
.

5 7 and 5 8 ; the pr o blem here is t o find a r elati o n between the

dist ributi on o f the flux density and that of the ene r gy in the
field .

Co nside r fi r st the simplest magnetic ci r cuit ( Fig 1) c o n

. .

sisting o f a no n magnetic material A cc o rding t o the last eq

-
. .

the t otal ene r gy sto red in such a ci r cuit is

(a
, A ) ules
j o , ( 1 6 2 )
if d) is in webers l and A in cm and
,
henrys .
, p
= 1 25 7 X 10
.
-
8

pe r cm cube The v o lume o f the field is V= lA cubic cm

. . .

S ince the flux density is unif o rm the ene r gy is als o unif o rmly
,

dist ributed and the density of the ene rgy is

,

W / (I ) W/ V= z
L 1
/ 2

Den o ting the density o f the energy W / V by W ’

,
and int ro ducing
the flux density B = we get
W ’
=
5
—
E z
/ y j o ules pe r cu c . m .
( 163 )
E ithe r B o r g can be eliminated fr o m this exp ressi on by m eans
o f the relati o n B = H so that we have t wo o the r exp r essi o ns
p ,

fo r the density o f the ene r gy :

Cm . x m] TO RQUE A ND TRAC TIV E E FF O RT . 24 1

T wo m o re exp ressi o ns fo r the density o f the energy can be w ritten ,

using the reluctivity v instead o f the pe r meab ility g .

I n a unifo rm field the p recedin g exp ressi o ns rep resent the

actual am o unts o f energy st o red pe r cubic centi m eter I n a .

no n unif o rm field W is the density o f energy at a point o r the

’
-
,

li mit o f the exp ressi o n A W / A V This is analo go us t o what we .

have in the case o f a no n unifo rm distributi o n o f mat t er where

-
,

the density o f matte r at a p o in t is the lim it o f the rati o o f the

mass t o the vo lume Thus the t o tal ene r gy st o red in a no n
.
,

unif o rm field is

V
W =a
£ B d V, 2

whe re the integr ati on is to be extended o ve r the v o lume o f the

wh o le magnetic circ uit . S i m ilarly fr o m e qs ( 164 ) and ( 16 5 )
, .

we get
V
W = 1}
j; H dV, 2
p

V
W= i
£ H B dV .

These exp ressi o ns a re c o nsistent with eqs ( 102) and ( 10 2a ) .

as is sh o wn in p r o b 6 bel o w . .

W hen ,u is variable the p receding fo rm ulae do no t h o ld t rue

, ,

and the density o f ene r gy is rep resented by eq A rt 16 . . .

Pro b 1 .Ded uc e a n expressi on fo r the m a gnetic energy s to red in

.

the ins ul at ion o f a c on c en t ric cab l e ( F ig be tw ee n the radii a and b, .

the lengt h o f th e cab l e be ing I c m and t he c urren t i Hin t : Fo r an . .

in fin ites im al sh ell o f a rad i us a: a n d t hic k ne sss dx w e have : H = i/ 2 7rx ,

and d V 2 l dz
- . A ns W 0 2 3li lo g (b / a ) 10
- ’ 8 j o ule s . .
-
.

Pro b 2 Chec k the answer t o the p reced ing pro blem by m ea ns

. .

o f e qs ( 104 ) and
.

Pro b 3 In a c on c entri c ca ble (Fig 46 ) a 7 mm a nd b is 20 mm

. .
- . . .

W hat is t h e dens ity o f t he energy at t he inner and o uter c ond uct o rs ,

when i - 120 am p . ?
and mic ro jo ules per ou em
A ns . . .

Pro b 4 Deduc e e xp ressi on ( 110 ) f rom eq

. . .

Pro b 5 Ta kin g the d ata f ro m th e va ri o us p ro blems given in this

. .

boo k as t y pical show that o rd ina ri ly in gen e rato rs and mo to rs a la rge

,

p re p ort i on o f th e to ta l en ergy o f the fie ld is s to red in th e air ga p -

.

Pro b 6 Sho w th at eq s ( 166 ) t o ( 16 8 ) a re c onsi s ten t with eqs

m
. .
. .

( 102 ) t o ( 10 3a ) So lu.ti o n : Ta ke a n in fin itesim tub e o f part ia l linka ges

24 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T 70
.

( Fi g . T he ene rgy c o ntain ed in thi s tube i s b ut

M p
f
s cti n s
Hdl,

of
an d d¢ = B dA
t h e t ub e
Sin ce dtp i s t h e s am e t hro ugh all c ross

dtfican b e
.

in t rod uced un d e r th e inte gral si gn a nd

e o , ,

we h ave th e integrati o n b ein g exten d ed

o ve r th e t h e tub e The t o tal ene rgy o f th e ci r c uit i s fo un d
vb lum e o f .

b y exten d in g t h e i nte grati o n o ve r t h e v o lum e o f all t he tube s o f t h e

field T he o the r equati o n s a re p ro ved in a s i m ila r m anne r
. .

70 . T he L o ngitu dinal
Tensi o n a nd t he L ater al C o m pr es si o n
in a M agnetic F i el d The existence o f mechanical f o rces in a
.

magnetic field is well kn o wn t o the student He needs only .

t o be reminded o f the supp o rting f o rce o f an electr o ma gnet o f ,

the attracti o n and rep ulsi o n between parallel c o nduct o rs carry ing
electric currents o f the t o rque o f an electric m o t o r etc These
, , .

mechanical fo rces must necessarily exist i f the magnetic field ,

is the seat o f sto red energy This is because if we de f o rm the .

,

circuit we must in general change the st o red energy and hence

,

do mechanical w o rk The lines o f f o rce tend t o sh o rten them

.

selves and t o spread laterally so as t o make the permean c e o f ,

the field a maximum with the c o mplete linkages W here there , .

are partial linkages it is the t o tal st o red ener gy that tends t o ward
,

a ma x imum (A rt This fact is entirely c o nsistent with

.

the hyp o thesis o f whirling tubes e f f o rce because the centrif u gal
’

fo rce o f r o tati o n pr o duces exactly the same e ff ec t that is a lateral , ,

spreading and a tensi o n al o ng the axis o f r o tati o n A go o d .

anal o gy is affo rded by a sh o rt piece o f r ubbe r tube filled with

water and r o tated ab o ut its l o ngitudinal axis .

( )
a T he L o ngi tudina l T ensio n Co nsider again the simple .

magneti c circuit ( Fig and let it be all o wed t o shrink due

.
,

t o the l o ngit u dinal tensi o n o f the lines o f f o rce so as t o reduce ,

its average len gth by A l with o ut changing the cr o ss secti o n A ,

-
.

L et at the same time the current be slightly decreased so as t o

keep the same t o tal flux as befo re L et F , be the me c hanical .
’

tensi o n al o ng the lines o f f o rce per square cm o f cr o ss secti o n ,

.
-

A ; then the mechanical w o rk d o ne against the external f o rces

which h o ld the winding stretched is Al The density .

o f energy W remain s the same because B is the same but the

’
,

t o tal st o red energy is decreased by W (A A l) be c ause the vo lu me ’

,

o f the field is decreased by A d l Since the change was made .

C RAP XII I]
. TO RQUE AND T R A C T I VE E FF O RT 24 3

in such a way as t o keep the t o tal flux c o nstant no e m f was , . . .

induced in the winding du ring the defo rmati o n and c onsequently ,

the re wa s no inte r change o f ene r gy between the electric and

the m agnetic ci r cuit Thus the dec rease in the st o red ene r gy
.
,

Fro 58. .
—
A lifti ng electromagnet .

is due enti rely t o the m echanical wo r k pe rfo rm ed . E q uating

the t wo p receding exp ressi ons we have that ,

W =l ’
/fl "
is”? ( 16 9)
I f W is in j o ules pe r ou e m , F , is in j oulec ens pe r sq c m (see
’ ’
. . . .

A ppendix I ) , s o that in a re tamal sy stem of units the mec ha nic al

str es s per unit area is numerically equa l to the density of th e sto r ed
244 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T 70 .

energy . The physical di m ensi o ns of F

’
and W ’
a r e als o the
same .

I f F,is in kg pe r sq c m B in kilo lines pe r sq c m and

’
. . .
, . .
,

H in kil o ampere turns pe r c m the p receding fo rmula bec o mes

—

when applied t o air ,

( 170 )
These fo rmul a apply directly t o the lifting magnet ( Fig .

and give the carrying weight pe r unit area o f the c o ntact

between the c o re and its armatu r e The t o tal weight which .

the magnet is able t o supp o rt is

kg ,
.
( 17 1)
where A is the sum o f the areas den o ted by 8 1 and 8 2 O f c o urse .
,

H is taken fo r the air gap which is the o nly pa rt o f the circuit

-
,

that is changing its dimensi o ns when the armature is m o ved .

(b) T he L a tera l C o mpression L et n o w the simple magnetic .

circuit be all o wed t o expand laterally by a small length A s in

directi o ns perpendicular t o the su rface o f the t o r o id L et F .
c
’

be the pressure (c o mpressi o n ) e x erted by the lines o f fo rce up o n

the winding per sq cm o f the surface o f the t o r o id Then
,
. . .

the mechanical w o rk d o ne by the magnetic fo rces in expanding

the ring against the external fo rces which h o ld the winding ,

is S F A S where S is the su rface o f the t o r o id L et again the

C
’
,
.

current be slightly decreased during the defo rmati o n so as t o ,

keep the flux c o nstant N o v o ltage is induced in the winding .

,

and hence there is no interchange o f energy between the electric

and the magnetic circuit Thus we can find F as we fo und .

the stress in the case o f the tensi o n by equating the w o rk d one ,

t o the decrease in the st o red energy The st o red energy is .

expressed by eq in which A is the o nly va riable ; hence

.

by diff erentiating W with respect t o A we get :

AW = s auna /n .

This is a nega t ive quantity because the st o red energy decreases

,
.

B ut M A represents the increase in the vo lume o f the ring so ,

that lA A = S A s and c o nsequently

,

m e
ga /F inish W ’
= ( 172)
In o the r w o r ds ,
the la tera l co mpression is nummeric a lly equa l to
C RAP XI II]
. TO RQUE AND T RAC TI VE E FF O RT 24 5

the lo ngit udina l tensio n, a nd both a re numerica lly eq ua l to the

density f o rthe rgy sto ed ene .

A s an app licati o n o f the la t e r al acti o n c o nside r a c o nstant ,

cu rrent o r fl o a t ing c o il transfo rme r ( Fig -

used in se ries .

arc lightin g The leakage flux is s imilar in its char a cte r t o that
-
.

sh o wn in Figs 5 0 and 5 1 The late ra l pressu re o f the leakage

. .

lines between the c o ils tends t o sepa rate the m acting against ,

the weight o f the fl o atin g c o il A pa rt o f this weight has t o b e .

balanced by a c o unter weight Q because the elect ro magnetic - -

f o rces unde r n o rm al o pe r ati o n a re c o mpa r atively small .

S ince the cur rents a re alte rnat ing the fo rce is pulsating , ,

Cu rre nt

P
ot entia l A.O .

F m 59. .
—
A flo a t ing-c o il co ns tant current transformer
-
.

but is always in the same directi o n tending t o separ ate the c o ils , .

The ave rage fo rce depends up o n the ave rage value o f I F in ,

o the r w o rds up o n the eff ective value o f the cu rrent

,
A cc o r din g .

t o eqs ( 170 ) and

. we have
(F elo ns :
6 kg ,
-
( 173)
where S is the a rea o f the fl o ating c o il in c o ntact with the flux .

W ith the a ssumed paths fo r the lines o f fo rce and neglec t ing ,

the reluctance o f the i ro n c o re we have that ,

rum/ 10001 kilo a mp .

( 174 )
whe re l is the length o f the lines o f fo r ce in the ai r in c m a nd , .
,

n l ”is the m m f o f e it he r c o il
, . The fo rce o f rep uls i o n is pro
. . .

po rti o nal t o the squa re o f the cu rrent and is independen t o f the ,

24 6 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T 70
.

distance h between the c o ils Hence a c o nstant weight Q .

,

regulates fo r a c o nstant current W hen the c o ils are further .

fro m each o ther the induced sec o ndary v o ltage is less o n ac c o unt
, ,

o f a much higher leakage flux W hen the current in c reases .

m o mentarily due t o a decreasing line resistance the c o il is

, ,

o verbalan c ed and rises till the induced v o ltage and current fall

t o the pr o per value Th u s the c o il always fl o ats at the pr o per

.
,

height t o indu c e the v o ltage needed o n the line .

F o rmul a ( 173 ) and ( 174) apply als o t o the mechanical fo rces

between the primary and the sec o ndary c o ils o f a c o nstant
p o tential trans f o rmer (F igs 13 and U nder n o rmal c o n
.

dit io ns these f o rces are negligible but in a vi o lent sh o rt cir c uit ,

-

the end c o ils are s o metimes bent away and damaged unless
-
,

they are pr o perly secured t o the rest o f the winding Su c h .

sh o rt circ u its are particularly detrimental in large trans f o rmers

-
,

having a cl o se regulati o n that is having a very small inte rnal

, ,

impedan c e dr o p and which are c o nne c ted t o systems o f practically

,

unlimited p o wer and c o nstant p o tential A s Dr S teinmetz puts . .

it the cl o sest appr o ach t o the appearance o f such a transfo rmer

,

after a sh o rt circuit is t he way t w o express trains must l o o k

-

afte r a head o n c o llisi o n at high speed

—
.

A n o the r interesting e x ample o f the e ffect o f the mechani c al

f o rces pr o duced by a ma gnetic field is the so called pinc h phe -

no menon 1
The lines o f f o rce which surr o und a cylindrical c o n
.

duct o r may be c o mpared t o rubber bands whi c h tend t o c o m ,

press it W ith a liquid c o nduct o r and large currents such

.
,

fo r instance as are carried by a m o lten metal in s o me ele c tr o

m etallurgical pr o cesses the pressure o f the magnetic field is
,

su ffi c ient t o m o dify and t o reduce the cr o ss secti o n o f the liquid -

c o nducto r This was first o bse rved by M r C arl Hering and

. .

called by him the pinch phen o men o n I n passing a relatively

'

large alternating current thr o ugh a no n electr o lytic liquid c o n -

duct o r c o ntained in a tr o ugh he fo und that the liquid c o ntra c ted ,

in c ro ss se c ti o n and fl o wed up hill lengthwise in the tr o ugh

- -
,

climbing up o n the electro des W ith a fu rther increase o f .

1
F Northrup So me N ewly O bserved M anife stati o n s o f Forces in the
E . .
,

Inte ri or o f an E lectric Co nductor P hy sic a l R eview Vo l 24 ,

p , . .

4 74 . Thi s article c o ntain s so m e cleverly devi sed experi ment s illustratin g

the pinch phen o men o n and als o a m athematical theory o f the forces which
,

c o me int o play .
C R AP XIII]
. TO RQU E AND T R A C T I VE E FF O RT 24 7

cu rrent this c o nt racti o n o f c ro ss secti o n became so g reat at

,
-

o ne p o int that a deep dep ressi o n was f o rmed in the liquid with ,

st eeply inclined sides like the lette r V

,

I n m o st cases o f mechanical fo rces in a m agnetic field these ,

fo r ces and the resulting m o ve m ents a re due t o the c o mbined

Fl o 60. .
—
A t rac tive electrom agnet . Two b us bars and their
- -

s uppor t .

acti o n l ongitudinal tensi ons and t ransve rse c o mp ressi ons a nd

of

no t t o o ne o f these acti o ns al o ne Fo r instance a l o o p o f flexible

.
,

wi re th ro ugh which a la r ge cu rren t is flo wing ten ds t o st retch

, ,

itse lf so as t o a ss um e a m a ximum o pening that is a m a ximu m, ,

pe rm eance o f the m agnetic field linked wi t h it This acti o n .

is due t o bo th the l o ngit ud inal tensi o n an d t he late ral p ressu re .

I n such cases the m e c ha nical fo rc es a re b est c o m put e d by the

p rinciple o f vi rtu a l displace m ents expl a ined in t he nex t a rticle .
24 8 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT lA R T 70 .

Pro b 7 Sho w th at th e re quired flux density in th e ai r gap o f a

. .
-

lift ing elect ro ma gnet (Fi g 5 8 ) c a n be calculated f ro m the e xp ress i on .

in wh e r e F i s t h e r ated s upp o r ti ng fo r c e ,

i n me t ric t o n s A is t h e a re a o f c o ntact in sq dm an d o is t he fact o r

,
. .
,

o f s a fet y .

Pro b 8 Show that i n a n a rmo red t ractive ma gne t (F ig 60 ) t h e

. . .

t ractive e ff o rt F va ries with the ai r gap 3 acc ord i ng t o th e law F s —

2

kg c m w h en t h e excitati o n i s 2 00 0 a mp tur n s a nd t h e c ro ss s ecti on

—
.
,
- -

o f th e pl un ge r an d o f the st ep i s 1 2 s q c m A s s u me t h e l ea kage an d the . .

reluctance o f the s teel pa rt s t o b e negli gible .

Pro b 9 R efe rrin g t o th e p rec ed i ng prob l em wh a t is the t rue

. .
,

ave rage p ull between th e value s s = 1 a nd s = 4 c m an d wh at is th e .

,

a rithm etical m ean pull ? Ans an d kg . .

Pro b 1 0 I nd icate ro u ghly th e p rincipal path s o f m a gnetic lea ka ge

. .

in Fi g 60 an d explain t he i nfluenc e o f t he l ea kage up o n t he tractive

.
,

e ff ort with a sm all a nd a la rge ai r ga p

,
-
.

Pro b 1 1 T h e flux b etween t wo thin a nd h igh b us b a rs placed a t

. .
-
,

a sho rt d is tanc e f rom eac h o th e r h as t h e gene ral c ha racte r sh o wn i n ,

Fi g 6 1 Calc ulat e t he fo r c e per m ete r len gt h that pu s hes th e b u s b a rs

. .
-

apa rt when during a sh o rt ci rcuit t h e es timated cu rrent is 5 0 kilo

,
-
,

a m pe res . A n s Abo ut 8 00 kg pe r m eter . . .

Pro b 1 2 Ded uc e a n exp ressi o n fo r th e m agnetic pull d ue t o th e

. .

eccen t ric p o s i ti o n o f the a rm atu re in a n elect ric m ac h in e (Fi g .

A c ertain all owance i s u suall y mad e fo r t hi s pull in add iti o n t o the

weight o f the re v ol ving part in dete rm ini ng th e safe s i z e o f the shaft ,
.

So luti o n : S ince t h e pull i s p ro p o rti o na l

t o t he sq ua re o f t h e flux d ensity we ,

replac e the ac t ual va riab le ai r gap —

den sit y by a c o nsta nt rad ia l density

actin g up on the wh o le p erip hery o f t he
a rm at ure an d e qua l t o th e quadratic
ave ra ge (the effect i ve valu e) o f the
actual flux d en sit y d i stri b u t i o n L et .

t h i s value be B ff kl per s q c m when e . . .

t h e a rm atu re i s p ro pe rl y ce nt ered .

L et t he o ri gina l unifo rm ai r gap b e a -

,

a nd the e cce ntricit y be 6 Si ce a a nd . n

e a r e sm all a s c o m pa re d t o th e d iame te r

o f t he a rm a t u r e the actual ai r gap ,

-

at a n a ngle f ro m th e ve rt ical is a

F ro 6 2
. A n eccent ric armatur e
.
—
a pp ro xim ately equal t o a s c es N eg —
a .

leetin g t h e reluctance o f th e i ro n pa rt s
o f the m ac hine th e fl ux density is in v ers el y a s th e lengt h o f the ai r
,

gap so that we h ave

,

=B
B a e fi /(
a a —
e c os c os a ] .

Le t A be the t o tal ai r gap a rea -

to wh ic h B refers ; then acc o rding ,
C RAP XIII ]
. TO RQUE AND T RAC TI VE E FF O RT 249

to eq . the vertica l c om p on ent of th e p ull upon the stri p of the

wid t h (l is a .

dF ez (A / 2 7r) d a CO S a .

T he ho rizo ntal c o m p onen t o f t he pull i s ba l an ced b y the c o rres p onding

c omponen t o n t he o t her ha lf o f t he a rmat ure T he to ta l p ull d ownward is .

B ; c os a da .

Putti gn t aha = z
an d integra t ing we ge t t he se- ca lled Sume c fo rmula
fo r t he e cc entri c p ull in kg : , .

F “ (e/ a ) [1 (s / e ) ( 175 )
T h e int egrati on is simfl ifi ed ; if b efo re i nte grating the d iff eren c e is , ,

ta ken be tw een t h e vertical f orc es at t h e p o in ts c o rreSponding t o

a an d t o a T he li m its o f i nte gratio n a re th en 0 and ] r ‘
a —
. .

Pro b 1 3 T h e ave ra ge flux density und e r t he p o l es o f a d irec t

. .

cu rrent ma c hin e i s t h e p o le s c o ve r 6 8 pe r cen t o f t he

pe rip hery T h e d iam ete r o f t he a rm atu re is
. m ; t he eff ec tiv e .

len gt h is 5 6 c m W hat i s t h e m a gne tic pull when th e ec c en t ri city is

.

1 0 per cen t a nd when i t is 5 0 per c en t o f t h e o ri ginal a ir gap ? -

A ns and 24 me t ri c tons . .

Pro b 14 The . kv 25 00 kva trans fo rmer s p ec i fi ed in p ro b

.
-
.
,
-
.
, .

5 A rt 6 4 ha d a t o ta l immda nc e dro p o f
, .
,
vo lts a t full l o ad cu rrent
o n t he lo w tens i o n s i de W hat ave ra ge f or c e is e x erted o n ea c h c o il
-
.

fac e during a sho rt c ir cuit pro vided th at th e lin e vo lta ge remains -

,

c onstan t ? T he transfo rm e r w inding c ons ists o f 12 hi gh tens i on c o il s o f -

100 tu rns eac h and o f 1 1 lo w t ensio n c o ils in terpo sed betw een t he high
,
-

tension c o ils t ogeth e r w ith 2 h alf-c o ils a t the ends T wo o f the dimen
, .

== m
sio ns o f th e c o ils a re repeated h e re : 0 m 2 6 ; 18 cm Hint : The
l = . . .

sho rt c ir c uit c urren t is e qua l t o

- times t he ra ted c urrent .

A n s A bo u t 22 met ric to ns . . .

P ro b 1 5 W h a t is t he me c hanical p ress ure o n the s ur fa c e o f t he

. .

c onduc to rs in pro b 3 ? .

A ns and m i ll i gra ms per sq c m . . .

7 1 T he Determina ti on o f the M ec h a ni cal F o rc es b y M ea n s

.

o f t he P r incipl e o f Virtual Displ a c em ents I n o rde r t o dete r mine .

the m echanical fo rce o r t o rque between t wo pa rts o f a m ag .

netic ci r cuit t he general m e th o d c o nsists in giving these pa rts

an infinitesi m al relative displacement and applying the law o f
l J K Sumec B erec hnung dcs ei nseiti ge n ma gnet i c hc n Z u ges be i E xcen
. .
,
s

t i it tt t Z eit c hrt f a E l ktr technik ( V ienna ) Vo l 2 2

rz ,
s p 72 7 Thi s
r e o ,
. . .

pe ri o d ic a l is c o nti nued no w unde r t he nam e o f E lect rotec hnik a nd M as chin p

enb a u.
25 0 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T 7 1
.

the c o nservati o n o f energy t o this displacement Fr o m t he .

equati o n so o btained the c o mp o nent o f the fo rce in the dire c ti o n

o f the displacement can be calculated Taking o ther displace .

ments in di ff erent directi o ns a su fficient number o f the c o m

,

p o n ent s o f the f o rces are determined t o enable o ne t o calculate

the fo rces themselves Since the fo rces in a given p o siti o n o f

.

the system are perfectly definite the result is the same no matter
,

what displacements are assumed pr o vided that these displace ,

ments a re possible that is c o nsistent with the given c o nditi ons

, ,

o f the pr o blem . Therefo re displacements are selected which

give the simplest fo rmul a for the energies inv o lved W e have .

had t wo applicati o ns o f this pr inciple in the p receding article ,

in deriving the expressi o ns fo r the tensi o n and the c o mpressi o n

in the field by giving the simple m agnetic circuit the pr o per
,
”
vi rtual displacements I n applying this meth o d no t o nly
.
,

the mechanical displacement has t o be specified but als o the ,

electric and the magnetic c o nditi o ns o f the circuit in o rder t o ,

make the energy relati o ns entirely definite Thus in the pre .

,

ceding article the electr o magnetic c o nditi o n was

,
c o nst 1 .

Fi rst let us take the case when the pa rtial linkages are neg
ligible ; then acc o r ding t o the third eq the st o red energy is .

W, = W 2 02
, ( 17 6)
where 0? is the reluctance o f the circuit L et F be the unkn o wn .

mechanical fo rce between t wo parts o f the magnetic circuit at

a distance 3 and let o ne part o f the system be given an infini
,

t esima l displacement ds L et F be c o nsidered p o sitive in the

.

directi o n in which the displacement ds is p o sitive The mechan .

ical w o rk d o ne is then e qual t o E ds A s in t he preceding article

.
,

let this displacement take place with a c onstant flux so that ,

there is n o interchange o f energy between the m agn etic circuit

unde r c o nsiderati o n and the electric circuit by which it is excited .

Then the w o rk is d o ne entirely at the expense o f the st o red ene rgy

o f the m agnetic circuit and we have,

F ds dW m ( 177)
where dW m is the mechanical w o rk d o ne . The sign minus befo re
The pr inciple o f vi rtual di splacements is much used n o wadays in the
1

theory o f elas ticity and in the calculati o n o f the mechanical s tre sses in the
se calle d s tatically indetermi nate en ginee rin g s tr uctur es
- -
.
C RAP XIII ] . TO RQUE AND T RAC TI VE E FF O RT 25 1

dW , is necessa ry b ecause the st o red energy dec reases . F ro m

eqs ( 176) an d ( 17 7) we get
.

F= ( 178 )
In so me cases i t is m o re c o nvenient to express F thr o ugh M
and W e have

F=

F= H z
M dcp/ ds .
( 17 9 )
In the preceding fo rmul a F is in j o ulec ens M is in a m pe re ,

t urns a is in webers 0 is in henrys and 02 in yrnehs W ith

, ,
’
,
.

o ther units the fo rm ul a c o ntain an addi t i o nal numerical fact o r .

I t is t o be n o ted that the mechanical f o rces a re in such a dir c e

ti o n that they tend t o in c rease t he pe rm eance an d decreas e the
reluctance o f the circuit This ag rees wi t h previ o us state m ents
. .

See A rts 4 1 and 5 7 . .

I f the pa rtial linkages a r e o f i m p o rtance it is c o nvenient ,

t o exp ress the st o red ene r gy in the fo rm because the

inductance L takes acc o unt o f the pa rtial linkages ; see eqs .

( 105 ) and A rt 5 8 The ene r gy equati o n acc o rding t o

. .
,

eq. is then
-
dW , = s ea L ) r-
( 18 0 )
and the c o nditi o n that the re is no interchange of ene r gy wi t h
t he line is
d (i L )
‘

o .
( 18 1)
The latte r equati o n bec o m es clea r by refe rence t o eq ( 106a ) .
,

because whe re is the equivalent flux unde r the

supp o siti o n o f no pa rtial linkages The c o nditi o n that the re .

shall be no e m f induced in the win ding du r ing the displa c e

. . .

ment is ,
whence eq ( 18 1) fo ll o ws directly . .

Pe rfo rm ing the difi e rent ia t io ns in eqs ( 18 0 ) and and

'

substituting the value o f L di f ro m the sec o nd equati o n in to the

fi rst we get that
,

F W /a L ds ( 18 2) .

W hen
the re a re no pa rtial linkages ,
=
L n (P ,
2 and eq .
( 18 2)
be c o m es identical with
25 2 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCUIT [A R T 71.

F ormulae fo r the a vera ge fo rc e of dir ec t c urren t elect ro ma gnets .

In a tractive magnet ( Fig 60 ) o r a r o tary magnet ( Fig 63) . .

it is o f t en required t o kn o w the a vera ge pull o ver a finite travel

of t he m o ving part F o r t he average f o rce the equati o n
.
,

F m dS A W "
,, t , h o lds which is anal o go us t o eq ( 177 )
—
8 , .

the o nly di ff erence being that fi nite instead o f infinitesima l incre

ments a re used I f the m o ti o n takes place at a c o nstant flux

.
,

o r at least the values o f the flux are the same in the initial and

the end p o siti o n s we get fr om the preceding fo rmul a :

-
,

=
F a ve i ¢2
m l

z ’
i (M l
“
d l

7 0
5 1l

The finite travel o f the plunger o ften takes place at a c on

stant current for instance in the regulating mechanism

, ,
of a

M ea n P a t hs I

of F lu x
'
1

FI G . 63 .
-
A ro tary electro magnet .

series arc lamp als o appr o ximately in a dire t cur rent electr o
-
,
c -

magnet c o nnected acr o ss a c onstant p o tential line Under such -

.

c o nditi o ns the fo reg o ing fo rmul a are no t directly appliable ,

becaus e they have been deduced under the assumpti o n o f no

inter c hange o f energy between the electric and the magnetic
circuits so that this case has t o be c o nsidered separately
,
.

L et the m o ti o n be in the directi o n o f the magnetic attracti o n ,

and let the current remain c o nstant during the m o ti o n The .

st o red energy is larger in the end o sit io n than in the initial

p o siti o n be c ause the flux is larger and the current is the same
, .

There f o re the energy s u pplied d u ring the m o ti o n fr o m the line

,

m ust be su fficient t o per f o rm the mechanical w o rk and t o ,

C RAP . xm l TO RQUE A ND T RACTI VE E FF O RT 2 53

inc rease the ene r gy st o red in the m agnetic ci r cuit . The inc rease
in the st o red energy is
A We :
(L 2 _L I ) r

and the energy supplied fro m the line is calculated as fo ll o ws

The average v o ltage induced du ring the m o ti o n o f the pl unge r
is em = i (L 2 where t is the durati o n o f the m o ti o n The .

energy supplied fr o m the line is the refo re

W l = iea ve t :
2
1: (L 2 —
L 1) .

Thus the ene r gy supplied fro m the line is twice as la r ge as the

,

w o rk pe rfo rmed and we have the fo ll o wing imp o rtant law

,

( due t o L o rd Kelvin ) : W h en in a singly exc ited ma gnet ic circ uit ,

wit ho ut sa tura tion a deformat ion ta kes plac e at a c o ns ta nt c urr ent

, , ,

the energy supplied fr o m the line is divided into t wo equal pa rts ,

one ha lf inc rea sing the sto r ed energy of th e cir cuit the o ther ha lf ,

being conver ted into mec ha nic al work .

cc o rding t o this law we have fo r a c o nstant cu rrent electr o

A ,

m agnet that the m echanical w o rk d o ne is equal t o the in c rease

,

in the ene r gy sto red in the m agnetic field Hence .

Fm = lriz
(I / z

o r, if the pa rtial lin kages a re negligible ,

F a ve :
i (wzz
dlz ( 187)
iw ( 0 ’
2
“ 8
0 ( 188 )
W hen a m a gnet pe rfo rms a ro ta ry m o ti o n ( Fig the .

p reced ing fo rm ul a are m o dified by substitutin g T d0 in place o f

F ds o r
,
0 1) in place O f He re T is the t o rque
in j o ules and ( 02 0 1 ) o r do is the angular displacement o f the
—

a rmatu re in radians O r else in the fo rego ing fo rm ula: F m ay

.
,

be unde rstoo d t o stand fo r the tan gential fo rce and the dis ,

placement t o be ds = r dd whe re r is the radius upo n which

,

the fo rce F is acting Then the t o rque is T F r I f fo r ins ta n ce

.
n .
, ,

we apply eq ( 179 ) t o a r o ta ry m o ti o n it bec o m e s

.
,

T = Fr a
( 189 )
The o the r equati o ns ma y be wri tten by anal o gy wi t h t his o ne .
 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T 7 1 .

A lterna ting C urre nt E lec tr o ma gnets

-
The preceding fo rmul a are .

deduced under t he supp o siti o n that the magneti c field is e xc ited

by a direct c u rrent They are h o wever applicable als o t o alter
.
, ,

nating c u rrent ele c tr o magnets because the pulsati o ns in the

-
,

c u rrent merely c a u se the energy t o s u rge t o and fr o m the ma gnetic

c ir c u it with o ut any net e ff ect so far as the average st o red energy
, ,

and the me c hani c al w o rk are c o ncerned The average st o red .

energy c o rresp o nds t o the e ff ective values o f the c urrent and the

Inpracti c e t w o types o f alternating current ele c tr o magnets -

are o f imp o rtan c e namely th o se o perating at a c onstant vo ltage

, ,

an d t h o se o perating at a c o nstant current A s an e x ample o f .

t he first c lass may be menti o ned the ele c tr o magnets used fo r

t he o perati o n o f large switches at a distance (rem o te c o ntr o l ) ;
t he windin gs o f s u c h ele c tr o magnets are us u ally c o nnected directly
a c r o ss the line C o nstant current magnets are use d in the
.
—

o perating mechanism o f alternating current se ries arc lamps In — -

.

an A C ele c tr o magnet practically all o f the vo ltage dr o p is

. .

reactive and hence pr o p o rti o nal t o the flux .

I n a c o nstant p o tential electr o magnet the effective value o f

-

the eq u ivalent fl u x is the same fo r all p o siti o ns o f the plunger

(negle c ting the o hmic dr o p in the W inding) Therefo re fo rmula .
,

( 1 8 5 ) h o lds true L et e be the e ff ective value o f the c o nstant

.

v o ltage o r m o re accurately the reactive c o mp onent al o ne and

, ,

let f be the frequency o f the supply Then e= 2nfL 1 i1 = 27rfL 2i2 .

, ,

s o that the f o r mula fo r the pull bec o mes

e el —
s1 >1 .
( 190)
F ora c nstant c urrent A O ele c tr o magnet eq ( 18 6) applies ;
o -
. . .

intr o ducing again the reactive vo lts e1 = 27rfL 1 i and e2 = 27rf L 2 i ,

we get
i (eg —
81 ( 19 1)
In b o th cases the mechanical w o rk perf o rmed is pr o p o rti o nal
t o the di ff erence in the reacti ve vo lt amperes c o nsumed in the -

t wo extreme p o siti o ns o f the m o ving pa rt 1 .

1
For further detail s in re gard t o electro m agnets c o n sult C P S teinmet z . .
,

M echanical F or ce s in M agnetic Field s T ra ns A mer I nst E lec E ngs Vo l , . . . . .

,
.

30 and the di scussi o n fo ll owin g thi s paper ; al so C R U nder hill . .

S olenoids E lec troma gnets a nd E lec tro ma gnetic W ind ings ( 1 9 10 ) chapters 6
, , ,
Cm . x ml TO RQUE A ND T RAC TI VE E FF O R T 25 5

Pro b 1 6 De ri ve form ula ( 17 1) fo r th e lifting m a gnet by mea ns

. .

o f t he p ri ncipl e o f vi rtual d i s plac em ent s So luti o n : Th e relucta n c e .

o f t h e a ir ga is so t ha t h en c e a cc o rd i ng
p
-
,

t o eq ( 1 78 ) F =
. The mi nus si gn ind icates t ha t
th e s t re ss is o ne o f tensi on .

Pro b 17 Deri ve exp ress i on ( 1 72) f ro m fo rm ula

. .

Pr o b 1 8 Derive t h e fo rm ula fo r the rep uls i o n be tween th e wingings

. .

in a t rans fo rm e r f ro m eq .

Pro b 1 9 De rive f ro m eq ( 18 2) t he fo r ce o f repu lsi on between t wo

. . .

in finitely l o ng pa rall e l c y li ndrical c ond uct ors placed a t a d i stance

, ,

o f b me te rs apa rt a nd fo rmin g an elect ric ci r c ui t ( Fi g , .

A ns kg fo r l m ete rs o f t h e l o o p . . .

Pro b 20 W h at d efo rm ati o n o f the w i ndings m ay be expected

. .

d urin g a se ve re s h ort ci rc uit o f a c o re type o r a c r ucifo rm t yp e t ran s - -

f orm e r ( Fi gs 12 an d 1 4) wit h c y lin drical c o il s (a ) wh en t h e cen te rs

.
,

o f t h e c o il s a re o n t he s a m e h o ri z o nt a l line a nd ( b) when o ne o f t h e ,

wi nd in gs is mo unt ed som ewh at high e r tha n th e o ther ?

Pro b 2 1 Sho w that i n a c onstant cu rrent ro ta ry m agn et ( Fi g
. .
-
.

6 )
3 T a = C o ns t th at i s t h e t o r que in t he d ifferent p o siti o n s o f th e
.
—

a rmatu re is in versel y p ro p o rti on al t o t he ai r ga p at t h e ent eri ng p o le -

tip H in t :
. where w i s the dimension pa ra lle l t o th e
shaft .

Pr o b 22 State Ke lvin s law when mec h a ni cal wo r k is done a ga ins t

. .
’

th e fo rce s o f t h e m a gnetic fi e ld .

Pro b 2 3 A 60 cycle 8 a mp seri e s a rc lam p m a g net has a s t ro ke

. .
—
,
-
.
,
-

o f 3 2 mm ; t he r e a ctive v o lta g e c o ns u m e d in t he in iti a l p o siti o n i s 9

.

v and i n t he fi n al p o siti o n 20 v
.
,
W h at i s t h e ave ra ge pull .

A ns 3 72 grams . .

To rq u e in G en er ato r s and M o to rs The m agnetic

72 T he . .

ci rcuits c o nsidered in the pre c edin g a rti c les o f this c hapter are
singly ex c ited that is t hey have but o ne exciting electri c circuit
, , .

F ro m the p o int o f view o f m echanical fo r ces this als o applies

t o ea c h air gap in a transfo rme r because neglecting the mag
-
, ,

ne t iz ing current the prima ry and the sec o ndary c o ils may be ,

c o mbined int o equivalent leakage c o ils ( A rt O n the o t he r .

hand a generato r o r a m o to r under l o ad has a do ubly exc ited

,
-

magne t i c c ircuit the useful field being linked with b o t h t he ,

field and the a rmature windings T he t w o m m fs no t being . . . .

in di rect o pp o siti o n in spa c e the flux is defle c ted f ro m t he sh o rtes t ,

to 9 incl ; S P Th o mpso n O n t he Prc det rmina t i n o f Plun ge r E lect ro

. . .
,
e o

magnets l nt n E l t C o ngr s ; S t L ui 1904 Vol 1 p 5 4 2 ; E la e

,
er . ec . es . o s, ,
.
, . . . ss ,

Ue b e r E le kt r magnete E l ktr t hnik und M hin nba u Vo l 28

o ,
cc o cc as c c , .

p 833 ; I t W ik nd
. The E o n omical D e i gn o f Di r ct c u rrent E lectro
. a e r, c s e -

magnets ; T r n A mer l ns t E l ct E ng Vo l 30
a s . . . e . s .
, .
2 56 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT lA R T 72
.

path and the t o rque is due t o the tendency o f the tubes o f fo r ce

,

t o sh o rten themselves l o ngitudinally and t o sp r ead laterally , .

Co nsider the simplest generat o r o r m o t o r c o nsistin g o f a ,

very l o ng straight c o nduct o r which can m o ve at right angles

t o a un ifo rm magnetic field o f a density B ( Fig L et the .

ends o f the c o nduct o r slide up o n t wo stati o nary bars th ro ugh

which the current is c o nducted int o a l o ad circuit in the case o f
a gene rato r acti on and thr o ugh which the p o wer is supplied
,

in the case o f a m o t o r acti o n I f the magnetic circuit c o ntains

.

no ir o n the resultant field is a ,

superp o siti o n o f the o riginal unifo rm

fi eld and o f the circular field creat ed
by the current in the c onduct o r .

W ith the directi o n o f the current

ind icated in Fig 6 4 the resultant .
,

field is str o nger o n the left hand side -

of the c o nduct o r than it is on the

right hand side and the r e is a -
,

r esultant lateral pressure exe rted

up on the c onduct o r t o the right .

I n the case o f a m o t o r acti o n the

directi o n o f the m o ti o n is in the
FI G 64
. A st r ai ght c o nduct or
.
—
same directi o n as the pressure fr o m

in a unif orm magnetic field the .

str o nger field I n the case of a .

generat o r acti o n the c o nduct o r is

m o ved by an external fo rce against this pressure C o mpare .

als o the rule given in A rt 24 . .

T o find the mechanical f o rce between the c o nduct o r and the

field we will apply again the principle o f virtual displacements
,
.

L et the current thr o ugh the c o nduct o r be i and let the c o n ,

duct o r be m o v ed against the magnetic pressure by a small am o unt

ds. A ssume that the st o red ma gnetic energy o f the electric
cir c uit t o which the c o nduct o r bel o ngs is the same in the vari o us
p o siti o ns o f the c o nduct o r (Such is the case in actual machines )
. .

Then the w o rk d o ne by the external f o r ce is entirely c o nverted

int o electrical energy and we have ,
‘

F ds = ie dt,

where e is the induced e m f . . . L et b o th F and e re fer to a length

C R AP XIII ]
. TO RQUE AND T RAC TIVE E FF O RT 257

l of the c o nduct o r . Substituting the value of e fr o m eq .

A rt . 2 4 we have ,

F ds/ dt = iB lv,
o r, s ince ds/ dt = v,
F iB l .
( 193)
In this exp ressi o n i is in ampe res B is in webe rs pe r sq c m ,
. .
,

l is in c m and F is in j o ulec ens

.
,
W ith o the r units the f o rmula .

c o ntains a nume rical fact o r .

Fo rmula ( 193) may be used als o with a non unifo rm field and -
,

als o when the directi o n o f the c o nducto r is no t at right angles

t o that o f the line o f f o rce I n such cases the fo rm ula bec o mes .

dF = iB dl where dF is the f o rce acting up o n an infinitesimal

,

length dl o f the c onduct o r and B is underst o o d t o be the c o m ,

p o nent o f the actual flux density perpendicular t o dl .

A s an applicati o n o f fo rmul a c o nsider the att r acti o n

o r the repulsi o n between t w o st r aight parallel c o nduct o rs car rying

cu rrents i1 and i2 and placed at a distance b fr o m each o ther

, .

The ci rcuit o f each c o nduct o r may be c o nsidered cl o sed th ro ugh

a c o ncentri c cylind rical shell o f infinite radius as in A rt 6 0 , . .

I t is apparent fr o m sy mmetry that the field p ro duced by each

syste m gives no resultant fo rce with the cu r rent in the sa me
system Thus the mechanical fo r ce is due t o the acti on o f the
.
,

field 1 up o n the cu rrent 2 and vic e versa , .

The flux density due t o the system 2 at a distance b fr o m

the c o nduct o r 2 is B = p i2/ 27rb so that acc o r ding t o eq .
, , .

F = pil izl/ 27rb j o ulec ens , ( 194 )

whe re = 1 25 7 x10 8
I n kilo gr a m s the sam e fo rm ula is
'

p . .

F= ( 194 a )
pro vided that l and b a re m easu red in the same units The .

fo rce is an att r acti o n o r a repulsi o n acc o rdin g t o whethe r the

t w o cu rrents a re fl o wing in the sa m e o r in the o pp o site di recti o ns .

W hen i1 = i2 this fo rmula checks with tha t given in p ro b 19

, .

abo ve .

F o rm ula ( 193) app lies als o t o the tangential fo r ce between

the field and a rm atu re c o nd ucto r in any o rdina ry gene rat o r o r
'

m o t o r p ro vid e d that (a ) t he c o ndu c to rs a re placed upo n a

,

sm oo th bo dy a r matu re a nd (b) the c o nduct o rs a re dist ribu t ed

-
,
25 8 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T 72
.

unifo r m ly o ve r the a rmature periphery so that the st o red mag ,

ne t ic energy is the same in all p o siti o ns o f the armature I t .

w o uld be entirely wro ng h o wever t o apply this fo rmula t o , ,

a sl o tted armature using fo r B the actual small flux density

,

in t he sl o t within w hi c h the c o nduct o r lies This w o uld give .

the fo rce acting up o n the c o nduct o r itself and tending t o press ,

it against the adj acent c o nduct o r o r against the side o f the sl o t ;

but the actual tangential fo rce exerted up o n the armature as
a wh o le is many times greater and practically all o f it is exerted ,

directly up o n the steel laminati o ns o f the teeth .

A t no l o ad the flux distributi o n in the active layer o f the

-
,

mach ine is symmetrical with respect t o the cente r line o f each

p o le ( Fig . so that the resultant pull al o ng the lines o f f o rce

is directed radially The armature currents dist o rt the field

.

as a wh o le and als o dist o rt it l o cally ar o und each t o o th the

, ,

general c haracter o f dist o rti o n being sh o wn in Fig 3 6 The . .

unbalanced pull al o ng the lines o f f o rce has a tangential c o m

p o nent which pr o duces the armature t o rque This t o rque .
,

alth o ugh caused by the current in the armature c o nduct o rs ,

is largely exerted directly up o n the teeth because the flux density ,

there is much higher .

Thus in o rder t o determine the t o tal electr o magnetic t o rque

,

in a sl o tted armature it is again necessary t o apply the principle

,

o f virtual displacements The rel uctance o f the active layer

.

per p o le va ries s o mewhat with the p o siti o n of the armature ,

so that the energy st o red in the field is als o slightly fluctuating .

I t is co nvenient therefo re t o take a displacement which s a

, ,

multiple o f the t o o th pitch in o rder t o have the same st o red ,

ener gy in the t w o extreme p o siti o ns This gives the average .

electro magnetic t o rque .

( )
a T he T o rque in a D irec t c urren t M a c hine L et the virtual -
.

displacement be equal t o 0 ge o metric degrees and be acc o mplished

in t sec o nds Then we have
.

T a v6 0 = iE t, ( 19 5 )
whe re T is the t o rque i is the t o tal a rmature current and E is
, ,

the t o tal induced e m f E q ( 19 5) states the equality o f the

. . . .

mechanical w o rk d o ne and o f the c o rresp o nding electrical energy

supplied The average induced e m f is independent o f the
. . . .

flux dist ributi o n o r o f the presence o r absence o f teeth (see

,
C R AP XIII] . TO RQUE AND T RAC TI VE E F FO R T 25 9

A rt .and p ro b 18 in A rt
24 . . Take 0 t o c o rrespo nd t o
t w o p o le pitches o r ,
then t = 1/f whe re f is the ,

f requency o f the magnetic cycles . Substituting these values and

using the value o f E f ro m eq . A rt 3 1 we get afte r .
, ,

reducti o n ,

i d/ a j o ules ,

whe re 0 is in webe rs ; or

0 0 3 25 i
. tDX kg -
m ete rs ,

(D bein g in mega lines .

This fo rmula d o es no t c o ntain the speed of the m achine ,

the t o r que depending o nly up o n the a r matu re ampe re tu rns iN -

and the t o tal flux pd) Co nsequently the fo rmula can be used .
,

fo r calculating the starting t o rque o r the sta rt ing cu rrent o f

a m o to r E q s ( 19 6) and ( 19 6a ) give the t o tal electro magnetic
. .

t o rque pa rt o f which serves t o o verc o me the hyste resis eddy

, ,

cu rrents f ricti o n and wind age The remainde r is available o n

,
.

the shaft W hen calculating the starting t o rque it is necessa ry

.
,

t o take int o acc o unt the eff o r t required fo r accele rating the
revo lving masses .

b
( ) T he T o rque in a S y nc hr o nous M ac hine The equati o n o f .

ene r gy is
T a m0 = miE c os c p
’
. t, ( 19 7 )

whe re m is the numbe r o f phases i and E a re the e ff ective values ,

o f the a rmature c urrent and the indu ced v o ltage pe r phase and ,

is the inte rnal phase angle ( Fig Tak ing again a dis .

placement o ve r t wo p o les and using the value o f E fro m e q (3 ) .

A rt 26 we get
.
,

0 0 3 6 l kb miN 2 kg-m e t e rs ( 19 8)
’
T o ”, t p a7 10
‘

. c os e .

()c T he T o r que in a n I nd uc tion M a chine The t o rque being .

exe rted between the p rim ary and the sec o ndary me m be r s o f
an inducti o n machine it may b e c o nside red fro m the p o int o f ,

view o f eithe r membe r This is because the t o rque o f reacti o n .

u po n the stat o r is eq ual and o pp o site t o the dir ect to rq ue up o n

the ro to r Fo r p urpo ses o f c o mpu t ati o n it is m o re c o nvenient
.

t o c o nside r the to rque f ro m the po int o f view o f the p rim ary

winding in o rde r t o b e able t o us e the p rim a ry f req uency and
,
260 T HE M AGN E TI C C I RCU IT [A R T 72
.

the synch ro no us speed The refo r e eq ( 198 ) gives the t o rque o f

. .

an inducti o n machine (including as befo re fricti o n and hysteresis ) , , ,

where the vari o us quantities refer t o the stato r Ho wever these .

,

quantities may equally well be taken in the sec o ndary but in ,

this case since hysteresis o cc urs m ai nly in the stato r the to r que
, ,

t o o verc o me hysteresis is no t included .

Fo rmula ( 198) is hardly ever used in pra c t iée especially ,

fo r t hec o mputati o n o f the starting t o rque because it is di fficult ,

t o e lim inate the large leakage flux which gives no t o rque It .

is much m o re c o nvenient t o determine the t o rque fr o m the circle

diagr am o r fr o m the equivalent electric circuit
,
.

I n case the t o rque is determined fr o m the equivalent elect r ic cir

cuit we can write fr o m eqs ( 195 ) and ( 197) the expressi o ns fo r the
,
.

to rque directly by substituting fo r (9 its value 2a t

,
° °

F o r a direct current machine -

,

Kg -m ete rs . .

He re the induced e m f acc o rding t o w hethe r the

. . .

m a chine is a generato r o r a m o t o r ; E is the terminal v o ltage ,

and R the resistance o f the armature b rushes and se r ies field

a , , .

F o r an alternating cu r rent m achine -

,

T o ve g .
-
m ete r s .

In a synch ro n o us machine E is the induced e m f and gb is . . .

’

the internal phase angle I n an inducti o n m achine iE c os qS .

,
’

is the p o wer per phase delivered t o the ro t o r that is the input , ,

min us hysteresis and primary P R l o ss The term is .

in all c as es the sy nchr o n o us speed of the machine .

P b 24 T wo sin gle c o n d uc to r cab l es from a direc t c u rrent m ach in e

ro . .
- -

a re in stalled p a rallel t o eac h o ther at a d i s ta nce o f 1 6 c m betwe en th ei r .

cente rs o n t ran s ve rse s upp o rts spaced 8 0 c m apa rt Th e rated cu rrent

, . .

thro ugh th e cab le s i s 850 am p W hat is t h e fo r ce acti ng up o n eac h .

s upp ort un de r th e no rm al c o n diti o n s an d wh en th e c urrent rises t o ,

twenty ti m e s it s rated value d u rin g a sho rt ci rc uit ? -

A ns an d kg . .

Pro b 2 5 A 4 p o l e seri es d i rect cu rren t mo t o r m u st d evel o p a

. .
-
,
-

sta rtin g t o rque o f 74 kg m (includ in g th e l osse s) Th e l a rge st p ossible

.
-
. .

flux pe r p o le i s abo ut m l ; th e re a re 240 turns in se ri es b etween th e

.

brushes Cal culate the sta rting c urrent

. A ns 9 5 am p . . .
Cw . x ml T O RQUE A ND T RAC TI VE E F FO R T 26 1

Pro b 2 6 E xplain the rea son fo r whic h t he c om pensating wi n d in g

. .

( Ar t
. wh ile rem o ving t h e a rma tu re reacti on does no t a fiec t a ppre
,

c ia b ly t he u se f ul t o rq u e o f the m o to r Hi nt : this c a n b e shown b y

.

applyin g t h e m ethod o f virtua l d is pla ceme n ts ; a lso f ro m t he f ac t th a t

t h e l o cal d i s to rti o n o f t h e flux in t he teet h is no t remo ved .

Pro b 2 7 On the basi s o f A rt 15 e xplain the mec h anism by whic h

. . .
,

t he pheno meno n o f hys te re si s in a n arm atu re c o re ca uses an Oppo sing

to rque E xplain t he sa m e fo r eddy cu rrents
. .

Pro b 28 Demonst ra te t hat fo rm ula ( 19 3) m ay be used fo r slo t ted

. .

a rma t u res p ro vi d ed t ha t B s ta nds fo r t he average fl ux densi ty per

,

t oo t h pitc h Hint : t a ke a vi rt ua l d i s placemen t o f o ne too t h pitc h

.
,

and exp ress the ind uc ed vo l ta ge thro ugh the fl ux A 0 = B l1 per to o t h

pitc h .

Pro b 2 9 Show t h at in a sin gl e phase synchrono us mo to r the

. .
-

t o rque at th e synchro n o u s s p eed pulsa t es at d o ub l e the f req u en c y o f

th e s upply ; a lso t ha t the to rq u e is ze ro at any b u t the syn c hrono u s
sp eed .

Pr o b 30 Pro ve th a t in an in d uc ti on m a c h ine the to rq u e nea r syn

. .

c hro nis m i s app ro xim at e l y p ro p o rti o nal t o the sq ua re o f the v o l ta ge

a nd t o t he p er c ent slip Hint : i = Co n st X 0 X slip

. . .

Pro b 3 1 Des c ri be in d etail ho w t o calculate the ma ximum sta rting

. .

to rq ue o f a give n ind ucti on mo to r an d ho w t o calcula te t he am o unt

,

o f sec ond a ry resis ta n c e ne c essa ry fo r a p res c ribed torq u e .

 A PPE N DI X I

T HE A M P E R E -O HM SYSTE M O F UN I TS

T R E ampe re and the o hm can be no w c o nsidered as t w o

arbitrary fundamental units established by an internati o nal
agreement Their values can be repr o duced t o a fra c ti o n o f a
.

per cent acc o rding t o detailed specifi c ati o ns ad o pted by pra c tically
a ll civili zed nati o ns These t wo units t o gether with the centi
.
,

meter and the sec o nd permit the determinati o n o f the values o f

,

all o ther electric and magnetic quantities The units o f mass and .

o f temperature do no t enter e x plicitly int o the f o rmul a but are ,

c o ntained in the legal definiti o n o f the ampere and o f the o hm .

The dimensi o n o f resistance can be expressed thr o ugh th o se o f

p o wer and current acc o rding t o the equati o n F I R but it
,
= 2
,

is m o re c o nvenient t o c o nsider the dimensi o n o f R as fundamental

in o rder t o avo id the e x plicit use o f the dimensi o n o f mass [M ] .

F o r the engineer there is n o m o re a need o f using the electr o

static o r the electr o magnetic units ; fo r him there is but o ne
a mpere o hm s y stem
-
whi c h is neither electr o stati c n o r electr o
,

magnetic The ampere has not o nly a m agnitude but a physic a l

.
,

dimensi o n as well a dimensi o n which with o ur present kn o wledge

,

is f undamental that is it cann o t be reduced t o a c o mbinati o n

, ,

o f the dimensi o ns o f length time and mass (o r energy) L et .

, ,

the dimensi o ns o f c u rrent be den o ted by [I ] and that o f resistance

by [R ] ; let the dimensio ns o f length and time be den o ted by the
c o mm o nly rec o gni zed symb o ls [L ] and [T ] The magnitudes and .

the dimensi o ns o f the imp o rtant magnetic units are expressed

thro ugh these fo ur as is sh o wn in the fo ll o wing table F o r the
,
.

e x pressi o ns o f the electric and the electr o static quantities in the

”
ampere o hm system see the auth o r s E lec tric C irc uit
-
’
.

O ther units o f m o re c o nvenient magnitude are easily created

by m u ltiplying the ab o ve tabulated units by p o wers o f 10 o r
-
,

by adding prefi x es milli mi c ro kil o mega etc .

A study o f the physical dimensi o ns o f the magnetic quantities

2 62
 AM PE RE - O HM SY S TE M 2 63

is inte resting in itself and gives a bette r insight int o the nature
,

o f these quan tities M o re o ver fo rmul a can s o metimes be checked

.
,

by c o mpa ring the physical dimensi o ns o n b o th sides o f the equa

ti o n L et for instance a fo rm ula fo r energy be given
.
, ,

W=k ul,

whe re k is a nume rical c o efficient Substituting the physical .

dimensi o ns o f a ll the quantities o n the right hand side o f the -

equati o n fr o m the table belo w the result will be fo un d t o h ave ,

the dimensi o n o f energy This fact adds t o o ne s assu r ance .

’

that the given fo rm ula is the o retically c o r rect .

TA B L E O F M AGNE TI C UN ITS AND T HE I R D I M E N SI O N S I N

T HE A M PE RE O HM S Y S TE M -

Sy m b o l a nd F o rmu la Q ua nt ity . Dim ens io n . N a me of t he Unit .

mo tive force
M agneto A mpera t urn .

Field inten ity or s ,

Ampere turn per -

m m f gr adient
. . . centimeter .

M agnetic fl ux W ebe r (ma xwell ) .

M agnetic flux de nsity W ebe rs ( maxwells )

pe r quare centi
s

meter .

(P w/ M Permea nce H enry ( per m) .

0? =M / ¢ Reluctance a c h ( rel ) .

H e nr ies (perms ) per

fl
=E / H Pe rmeabi lity centimete r cube .

w=H/ B U) : R eluctivity a ehs ( rels ) pe r

centimeter cube .

W= we M agnetic ene rgy or Jo ule or wat t see -

w k or o nd .

Den ity s of i na gnet ic Jo ules pe r cubic

ene rgy ce nti mete r .

Force Jo ulecen .

This is al so the di mensi o n o f the m agnetic po le s tren gth The co ncept .

o f po le stren gth is o f n o use in elect rical en gi nee rin g and in the author s , ,
’

o pini o n its use fulness in physics is more than d oubtful The who le theory
,
.

o f elec tromag netic phen o mena can a nd o ught to be built up o n the two
laws o f c irc uit a t io n as has been do ne by O live r H eavi s i de in his E lect ro
,

ma gnetic T heory .

A sma ll irre gula rity is duc t o the use o f the m axwell and o f
its m ultiples ins t ead o f t he web r A s l o ng as th is usage pe rsis t s e
.
264 T HE M AGNE TI C C I RCUIT

it is c o nvenient t o use the c o rresp o nding units fo r reluctance

and permean ce t o which the auth o r has ventured t o give the
,

names o f rel and perm S in ce one maxwell is equal t o . of a

weber o ne perm is equal t o

,
o f o ne henry and o ne rel is ,

10 8 yrnehs A cc o rdingly permeabilities and reluctivities are

.
,

measured in perms per centimete r cube and in rels pe r centimeter

c ube respectively .

I n o rder no t t o break with the established usage the maxwe ll , ,

the perm and their multiples are empl o yed in numerical c o mpu
,

t a t io ns in this b o o k while the weber and t he henry are used in

,

the deducti o n o f the f o rmul a being the natural fundamental ,

units o f fl u x and permeance in the ampere o hm system I t is po s -

.

sible that the c onstant necessity fo r multiplying o r dividing results

by l 0 due t o the use o f the m axwell may pr o ve t o be m o re and
’

s
, ,

m o re o f an inc o nvenience in pr o p o rti o n as m agnetic c o mputati ons

c o me int o c o mm o n engineering practice Then the webe r the .
,

henry and their submultiples will be fo und ready fo r use and

, ,

the system o f magnetic units will be c o mpletely c o o rdinated .

A n o ther irre gularity in the system as o utlined ab o ve is caused

by the use o f the kil o gram as the unit o f fo rce because it leads t o ,

t w o units fo r energy and t o rque viz the kil o gram meter and ,
.
,
-

the j o ule ; 1 kg mete r = 9 80 6 j o ules F orc e ought to be mea sured

.
-
. .

in j oules per c entimeter length t o av o id the o dd multiplier Such , .

a un it is equal t o ab o ut kg and c o uld be pr o perly called .

,

the j oulec en 10 dynes)

7
There is no t m uch pr o spect in sight
.

o f intr o ducing this unit o f f o rce int o practice because the kil o ,

gram is t o o well established in c o mm o n use The next best .

thing t o do is t o de rive fo rmul a and perfo rm calculati o ns wheneve r ,

c o nvenient in j o ulec ens and t o c o nvert the result int o kil o

, ,

grams by multiplying it by g = 9 80 6 This is d o ne in so me . .

places in this b o o k .

Thus leaving aside all hist o rical precedents and j ustificati o ns

, ,

the wh o le system o f electric and magnetic units is reduced t o

this simple s c heme : I n additi o n t o the centimeter the gram the , ,

se c o nd and the degree Centigrade t wo o the r fundamental units ,

are rec o gni zed the O hm and the ampere A ll o ther electric and
,
.

magnetic units have dimensi o ns and values which are c o n

n e c t ed with th o se o f the fundamental six in a simple and alm o st

self evident manner (see the table ab o ve)

-
.

T o appreciate fully the advantages o f the practical ampe re

 A M PE RE O HM S Y S TE M
— 265

oh m syste m o ve r the C G S elect ro static and elect ro magnetic

. . .

system s o ne has o nly t o c o mpa re the di m ensi o ns fo r instan ce

, , ,

o f magnet o m o tive fo r ce and o f flux in these th ree systems ,

as sh o wn b el o w .

A
T he m pe re C G S . E lec tro C G S E ec ro
. l t
t ma g ne tic S y s t em tt t
. . . .

O hm S y s em . . s a ic S y s em .

D imen i o n o f m m f
s . . .

D imens i o n o f flux.
 A PP E N DI X II

A M PE R E - TUR N vs . G IL B E R T

T R E reader has pro bably been taught befo re that the pe r

mea b ilit y o f air is equal t o unity in the electr o magnetic C G S . . .

system ; silen t assumpti o n was then pr o bably made that ,u= 1

als o in the practical ampere o hm system The true situati o n
-
.

is h o wever as f o ll o ws : I n any system o f units whats o ever the

, , ,

f undamental equati o n M h o lds true being a mathe

.
,

ma t ic a l expressi o n o f an O bserved fact N o w let the quantities

.

be expressed in the ampere o hm system and assume the centi

-
,

meter t o be the unit o f length The flux is then expressed .

either in maxwel ls o r in webers b o th o f which are c o nnected

,

with the ampere O hm system thr o ugh the v o lt T he na tura l

-
.

(th o ugh no t the o nly p o ssible) unit for the ma gneto mo tive forc e
is o ne a mpere turn
-
Therefo re all the quantities in the f o re
.
,

go ing equati o n are deter minate and the value o f ,u cann o t be

,

prescribed o r assumed but must be determined fr o m an actual

,

experiment the same as the electric c o nductivity o f a metal

, ,

o r the per m ittivity o f a dielectric have t o be determined .

E x periment sh o ws that g = when the maxwell is used as the

unit o f flux and hen c e ja =
,
if the flux is measured in
webers .

I t is p o ssible t o assume ,a = 1 pr o vided that the unit o f mag

,

net o mo t ive f o rce is no t prescribed in advance I n this case .

,

the unit o f magneto m o tive fo rce as determined fr o m experiment

, ,

c o mes o ut equal t o o f an ampere turn This unit is -

.

c a lled the gilbert and it must be understo o d that the permeability

,

o f no n magnetic m aterials is equal t o unity o nly if t he magnet o

-

m o tive fo r c e is measured in gilberts T o the auth o r the a dva n

.

tages o f such a system fo r practical use are m o re than d o ubtful .

I n the fi rst place the gilbe rt is a superflu o us unit because the

, ,

results o f calculati o ns must after all for pra c tic a l purpo ses be
c o nve rted into ampere turns in o rder t o specify the number o f
-

2 66
 AM PE RE T URN —
vs . G I L B E RT 26 7

tu rns and the exciting cu rrent of windings Thus o ne w o uld .

,

have t o deal with t wo unit s o f m agneto m o tive fo r ce the gil bert ,

an d the ampe re t um o ne being ab o ut

-
, o f the o the r I n the .

sec o nd place with the assumpti o n g = 1 fo r non magnetic materials

,
-

B bec o mes nume rically equal t o H which is a grave inc o nvenience

, ,

because B and H are di ff e rent physical quantities B and H .

have diff erent physical di m ensi o ns because a has a definite ,

physical dimensi o n even th o ugh the nume rical value o f it is

,

assumed t o be equal t o unity fo r air Therefo re t o be sure .

,

that p ro pe r physical dimensi o ns are p rese rved o ne has t o remem ,

ber where ,u is o mitted in fo rmul a and fo r a physical interpretati o n

,

o f results it is much m o re c o nvenient t o h ave it there explicitly ,

.

S till an o ther o bj ecti o n t o using the gilbe rt and t o putting

a equal t o unit y fo r air is that the r ati o o f the ampere tu rn -

t o the gilbe rt is equal t o a quasi sc ient ifi c c o nstant 4 fr/ 10

-
.

T o the auth o r s kn o wledge there is no simple elementary way

’
, ,

o f deducing the value o f this c o nstan t with o ut go ing o ver ,

the wh o le mathematical the o ry o f elect ricity and m agnetism .

Thus a c o nstant is retained in practical f o rmul a the significance

, ,

o f w hich r emains a pu z z le t o the engineer a ll his life I t is t rue .

that the value o f g = 1 25 7 is equal t o the same 47r/ 10 after all ;

“
.

”
but in this case there is n o thing abs o lute mysteri o us o r , ,

sac red abo ut the value o f 4 7r/ 10 The student is simply t o ld.

that happens t o be equal t o 47r/ 10 because the value o f

the am pe re was unfo rtunately so selected I t is no t necessa ry .

t o go int o fu rthe r details because the hist o rical reas o ns which

,

led t o the selecti o n o f the values o f unit p o le and unit cu r rent

ha rdly h o ld at p resent A ll calculati o ns w o uld be j ust as c o n
.

venient if g we r e equal t o o r any o ther value instead o f ,

Fo r these reas o ns the auth o r unhesitatingly discards the

gilb e rt in teaching as well as in p r acti c e and uses the ampe re
t um as the natural unit o f magneto m o tive fo rce The value .

o f pe rm eability b ec o mes then an e xpe rimental quantity whi c h

depends up o n t he units selec t ed fo r flux and length .

A gin g of laminations

factor for inducti o n machines

flux nature of its dist ributi o n
,

permeance a nd accurate method

simplified perm ean ce o f ,

Alterna ting curr ent electromagnets tr active eff ort of ,

m achines torques o f , 25 9 260

-

machines S ee als o S ynchro n o us . and Inductio n .

Alterna tor S ee Synchro n ous mac hine

. .

calculati o n o f regulati o n .

d efiniti o n o f l o ad char acteris tic

d efinitio n o f r egulatio n .

Am pere turns the cause of magnetism

-
,
. S ee als o M mf
. .

Am per e turn
-
,

vs . G ilbert .

Anal ogue mechanica l

, , to hys ter esis
to inductance
A nnealing of lami nati ons
A pparent flux den ity in teeth s

Armature eccentric forc e u po n

, , .

reactance in synchro n o u machine nature and de finitio n o f s ,

S ee a ls o Inductance .

rea c t n, definitio n f
io o
a direct c urrent mac hine
in
in a n inducti o n machine
in a ro ta ry co nve r ter
in a sync hro n o us machine
Asynchro no us . S ee Inducti o n machines .

A uxilia ry po le s . S ee Co mmuta tin g poles .

2 70 I ND E X

P
A GE

B ac k ampere turn s S ee D emag neti z in g D irect .

,
.

B el t lea kage de sc ripti o n o f ,

B elts o f cu rrent in a D C m achine . .

B H cur ve for iro n

-
s .

relatio n for ai r
B l o ndel diagram
B read th factor definiti o n of ,

formula for
B r ush s hif t in D C machines . . .

B us bars repuls i o n between

-
,

C able co ncentric
,
ributio n in ,
fl ux di st
ind ucti o n of a single pha e s

C arter curve for fringe permeance

’
s

Ca tingss

C har teri tic active lay er definiti o n of

ac s , ,

l o ad definiti o n of in alternator ,

Open circuit S ee S aturati o n curves and E xcitin g cur .

,

rent .

phas e sy nchro n ous mo tor ,

.

C ircuit a simple magnetic (S ee a lso M agnetic cir cuit )

,
.

magnetic c o ntain in g iro n serie s parallel ,

-
.

defini tio n of
Coercive force
Co mmutatin g poles calculations for (S ee a lso Interpo les) ,
.

definiti o n of and l o catio n

Co mmutati o n criteri o n of ,

descripti o n of
frequency o f
of a fractio nal pitch windin g .

of a lap windin g
of a multiplex windin g .

of a two circ uit windin g

vs in ductance .

Co mpensatin g windin g for D C machine . .

Co mplete linkages definiti o n of ,

Co mpo undin g in a D C machine . .

C o mpressio n lateral in a magnetic field, ,

Co mputatio n s for interpo les

Co ndenser synchro n ous ,

Co nductor force o n in a magnetic field

, , .

Cores o f iro n wire .

of revolving mach inery m m f for ,

. . . .

of tra nsformers m m f for ,

. . .

Core loss c urrent in an inductio n mo tor S ee Core l oss in revo lvin g

, .

machinery .
 I NDE X 27 1

Co r e l oss c urr ent in a transfo rmer

,

in revo lving machinery

meas ure ment o f
or iro n l oss definitio n of ,

Crom ampere tur ns S ee Reacti o n

-
. .

C urrent S ee a lso E xcitin g cu rr ent

. .

bel t s in a D C machine . .

seco ndar y in inducti o n machine

,

De magneti z atio n and di to rtio n S ee Reacti o n s . .

Demagneti zing reacti o n in direct current machines ,

in ynchro n o u machines S ee D irect reactio n s s . .

Density o f fl ux definitio n o f
,

in teeth appar ent ,

.

D eri windin g
Dimens i ons o f units table of ,

D irect c urrent electro magnet aver age t ractive e ff ort of ,

Direct current machine b rush shift ,

.

co mpensating windin gs for

co mpo undin g in
current belts in .

dem agnetiz in g reactio n in

induced in e . mf . . .

interpo les in
in duc tance o f co ils in
l o ad ed fiel d m m f ,
. .

l o aded fl ux dis t ributi o n ,

l o aded m mf t o o verco me disto rti o n , . .

to rque
tr ans verse reacti o n in
D i rect cu rrent m achines S ee a lso S atur atio n curves . .

windin gs vs induced e m f , . . .

Direct current mot r peed u nder l oad

o , s

D i rect r eacti o n S ee l D e magneti zin g r acti o n

. a so e .

calculati o n o f co efficie nt o f
defini ti o n o f co efficie nt o f
nature o f I
Dis plac ments vi rt ual p rinciple o f
e , ,

Di t rtio n and de magneti zati o n S Reactio n

s o . ee .

o f field in a direct cu rrent m achine m m f nee ded ,

. . . to o ve r
co me
Dist ributed win din gs ad van tage a nd di ad van t age o f
, s s s

definiti o n o f .
2 72 I ND E X

Di tributed winding
s s, alternator field s
fo r
e m f of. S ee E m f . . . . . .

m m f of D C . . . . . .

m m f o f sin gle phase

. . .
-

m m f o f p o lyphas e
. . .

E ccent ric armature force upo n ,

E ddy current natu e o f s, r

preventio n o f .

epar atio n o f fro m hy tere i

s ,
s s s

E lectr ic cir c uit equivalent t or que fro m

, ,

E lectric l o adin g pecific definiti o n o f

,
s ,

E lectro m ag net A O avera ge tr active eff or t o f

,
. .
,

average tractive effort o f D C .

l iftin g
ro tary torque of ,

tractive force of ,
.

E lectro magnetic iner tia .

average reactance a s criterio n for c o mmutati o n ,

formula for induced .

induced in A O machines . .

induced in D C machines . .

induced in an uns ymmetrically spaced tran smi ssi o n line

m etho ds of inducin g
r atio (S ee Ratio of tran sformatio n )
. .

ratio in a ro tary co nverter

regulatio n in an alternator .

regulatio n in a ro tary co nverter

vs inductance
.

E nergy dens ity o f in m agnetic field

, ,

l o st in hys teres i s cycle .

of magnetic field n o ne co n sumed in ,

s t or ed in magnetic field de sc r ipti o n o f ,

s tor ed in magnetic field f or mul ae f or ,

E quivalent electr ic cir cuit tor que f ro m , .

permeance definiti o n o f ,

s ec o ndar y win din g reduced to pri mary ,

E xcit in g cu rr ent in an inducti o n mo tor

in a trans former vs magneti z in g current . .

of a transformer excitin g v o lt amperes ,

-

of a tran sformer satu rated core ,

.

un s aturated c ore .

of machinery S ee S aturatio n curves . .

Factor air
,
-
definiti o n o f
ga p ,
in inducti o n mo tor .

amplitude
 I ND E X 2 73

Factor bread th fac tor

,

leakage calculatio n o f ,

win ding pitch facto r

Fictiti o us po les as ass umed in synchro n o us machin es

Field fr ames m m f for , . . .

fiel d magnetic (S ee a lso M agnetic field )

,
.

m m f at n o l oad S ec S at uratio n cur ves

. . . . .

m m f in lo aded D C mac hine

. . . . . .

l o ad ed syn chro n o u s machines

Field po le leakage calculati o n o f ,
.

eff ect o f
e ff ect o f l o ad upo n
eff ect o f saturatio n upo n

figure o f l oss
Fle ming s r ule ’
.

Flux S ee a ls o Le a kage fl ux
. .

air ga p nature o f it s dis tributi o n

-
,

density defi nitio n o f ,

in teeth apparent ,

des c ripti o n o f
dist ributi o n o f in a co ncentric cable ,

in a lo aded D C machine . .

in a l o ad ed synchro n o us mac hine

dis to rti o n S ee Reacti o n . .

frin ging definiti o n o f ,

.

pe rmeance o f .

glidin g or revo lvin g .

leakage definitio n o f ,

in inducti o n machine desc riptio n o f ,

in revo lvi ng ma chinery nature o f ,

refractio n .

uni ts o f
Force lin es o f magnetic
,
.

mechanical in mag netic field aver age tr active eff ort in D C

, ,

elect ro magnets
fo rmulm for the act ual for ce .

late ral compress io n

l o ngitu dinal tens i o n
o f A O mag ne ts . .

o f a lifting magnet
o f a t ractive magnet
o n an eccentric a nna t ure
274 I NDE X

P
A GE

Force mechanic al in m agnetic field o n c o nducto rs c a rryin g curr ent

, , , . 2 56
o n transformer co ils 24 5
pinch pheno men o n . 24 6
reaso n for 242
repuls io n between b us bars -
2 48
t or que in a ro tar y magnet . 2 53
Fo urie r metho d for analyz ing waves for their harmo ni cs used l2 4 16 1
'

, ,

Fr acti o nal pitch windin gs advantage s and di sadvantages o f , 67

effect o n inductance in inducti o n machines 2 25
eff ect o n inductance in synchro n o us m achines 23 1
vs c o mmutati o n in di rect cu rr ent machines . . 2 38
Fr equency o f co mmutati o n 2 36
Fringing de finitio n o f
, 88
Full l o ad m m f in a D C machine
. . . . . . 170
in an inductio n m achine . 13 1
in a synchro n o us machine 148 .
,
15 6

Gauss
G nerator actio n
e

G lidin g and pulsatin g m m f . .

H armo nics of ,
in alternatin g current machines
vs vo ltage r ati o in a ro tary c o vert er
.

o f rectangul ar m m f wave . . .

upper o f m m f in an inducti o n machine

,
. . .

H eart definiti o n of
,

H eating due to hysteresis .

H enry as u nit of inductance .

permeance definiti o n of ,

H errin g s experi ment

’

Hysteres is and satur ati o n explanati o n o f ,

cycle energy lo st in ,

irreversible
descriptio n o f .

empiri cal equati o n for

vs heatin g
.

separated fro m the eddy cu rrent l o ss

measur e ment of .

mechanical anal ogue to

Induced formulae for

in a D C machine . .

in an alternator and in a n inducti o n machine

in a tran sformer .

I nductance and relatio n between

 I ND E X 2 75

Inductance as electro magnetic ine r tia

hen ry and pe rm as units o f . .

mechanical analo gue o f .

o f a co ncentric cable single phas e ,

of circuits in the presence o f i ro n .

of co il in a D C machine
s . .

o f synchro n o us mac hin es mea ur ement of in ,

s , A O
. . mach ines
2 19 , 2 3 1
2 15
formulae for 2 1 1 2 14
—

vs the end co ils . . 2 13

vs the number o f co ils . 2 13
vs the shape o f the co ils . 2 12
o f t ransmiss i o n lin es single phas e ,
199
thr ee wi re sym metrical spacin g -
20 1
2 19
fracti o nal pitc h
h o w meas u r ed
vs co mmutati o n
.

vs leakage pe rmeance
. .

In duct i o n , la w o f .

machines armature reacti o n

, .

e m f induced in . . . .

higher harmo nics in the m m f o f a . . .

inductance v8 windin g pitch . .

leakag e fl ux desc ripti o n o f the ,

leaka ge permean c e values o f the ,

mo to r ratio of tr ansf ormatio n in a

,

to rque in .

of metho ds o f
Inertia elect rom agnetic
,
.

Ins ula to r magnetic

,

Intensity magnetic definiti o n o f

, ,
.

Inte rference S ee Armat ure rea cti o n and R eacti o n

.
, .

Interpo l es defi niti o n o f (S ee a ls o C o mput a t ing po les )

,

Irreg ular paths pe rmeance o f ; h o w to ma p field in

,

I ro n grades o f and thei r use

,

lami nati o ns pre paratio n o f

,

l oss definitio n o f
,

magnetiz atio n curves .

2 76 I NDE X

I ro n s aturatio n cur ves

,

silico n s teel .

s pac e factor in la minati o n s

used in pe r m anent m ag nets

virgin s tate of
vs inductance
.

wire cores .

Jo in ts in t ran sfor mers .

Jo ulec en, definiti o n o f

K elvin law
’
s .

K nee o f saturati o n curve

prepar atio n o f
reaso n for .

L ater al c o mpress i o n in the magnetic field

L a w of inducti o n .

L a w O h m s f or ma gnetic C i r cuit
’
, ,

L aws o f cir culati o n .

L e akage c o il definiti o n o f
,
.

factor calculatio n o f ,
. .

definitio n o f
vs leakage fl ux and perm eance .

L eakage flux .

ab o ut armature windin gs
belt des criptio n o f ,

in field p o les a s aff ected by l o ad ,

a s a ff ected by s atur ati o n

effect o f .

in inductio n mo tors descriptio n of ,

in tra nsformers
natur e o f in machinery ,

z ig z a g des c ripti o n o f -
,

L eakage inductance S ee Inductance . .

S ee a lso L eakage pe rm eance .

L eakage per meance between field p o le s .

in inducti o n machines values o f ,

in synchro n o us machines values o f ,

of co il s in a D C machine . . .

o f slo ts calculatio n of ,

o f windin gs formula for ,

of z ig z a g or too th tip leakage calculati o n of -

,

L eh mann Dr T h meth o d o f findin g per meance o f i rr e gular field

,
. .
,

L iftin g m agnet
 I ND E X 2 77

L ines o f force .

a meas ure o f energy

as

partial and co mplete definiti o n o f ,

Lo ad characte ri stics o f alternato r defi niti o n o f ,

L oa ded D C machine flux di s tributi o n ia

. .
,
. .

field m m f in . . .

D C mo to r speed of a
. .
,
. .

inducti o n machine m m f relatio ns in ,

. . .

synch rono us machine fl ux dis tr ibuti o n in ,

L o adi ng s pecific el ectric definiti o n o f

, ,

L o n gitudinal tens i o n in m agnetic field

L o o p hys te resis
, .

M achine ry core lo ss in revo lvin g

, .

l eakage fl ux in nature o f ,

M achines r evo lvin g ho w tor que is produced in

, ,
.

torque in .
D

types o f synch ro n o us
M agnets A O aver age tr active eff ort in
,
. .
,

average t ractive eff ort in D C .

liftin g .

molecular .

permanent i ro n us ed in ,

to rque o f ro ta ry magnets

M agnetic cir cuit , defi niti o n of .

types o f in revo l ving machinery

,

s imple

with iro n in ser ies a nd parallel

,

M agnetic des cripti o n o f

density o f ene rgy in .

ene rgy s tored in de sc ri pti o n o f ,

formulae for
fo rmulze for the actual force in a
fo rmulze for ave rage force in a
late ral compress i o n in .

l o n gitudinal te nsio n in
of tra nsmissi o n line des criptio n of ,

s ha pe o f

M agnetic insulatio n
inte ns ity definiti o n o f ,

re latio n to m m f . .
2 78 I ND E X

z o n cur ves (S l o S atur atio n curve )

M ag neti ati . ee a s s .

M agnetiz in g current vs excitin g current .

M agnetis m cau e o f , s

M m f or m agneto m o tive f or ce definiti o n o f

. . .

for a ir ga p -

for armature cores .

for a D C machine t o c o mpen ate for di tor ti o n

. . s s

for field p o les

for teeth satur ated ,
.

for teeth tapered ,

.

glidi n g .

in inducti o n machines hi gher harmo nic s ,

of field in a l o aded D C machine

,
. .

of win din gs co ncentrated ,

di stributed sin gle phase

di stributed p o lyphas e
r elatio ns in an inductio n machine
a synchro n o us machine
wave harmo nic s o f ,
.

M axwell definiti o n o f
,

M easur e ment o f c ore l o ss

of hys t eresis .

of inductance
M echanical an alo gue o f hys teresi s .

of inductance o . .

force S ee Force mechanical .

~
.

M eth od s of inducin g e m f . .

M o lecular magnets
M ultiplex win din gs c o mmutati o n o f , .

M utua l inducti o n in t ran s mi ssi o n lines ,

.

in the win din gs o f machines

S ee a lso Tr an sformer acti o n .

N eutral zo ne in D C ,
. . machine .

O hm s law for the magnetic cir cuit

’
.

O pen cir cuit char acteri tic S S atur atio n curves s . ee .

current S E xcitin g current . ee .

O verlo d capacity of a synchro n o u mo tor

a s

Parallel co mbinati o n of permeance s

erie ci rcuit c o ntai nin g iro n

-s s s

Partial lin kages definitio n of ,

Perm definiti o n of
,

Permeability curve s

definiti o n o f
 I N DE X 2 79

o f air discuss ed
,

of n o n magnetic mate rial

-
s

relative .

aturati o n
v8 . s

Permeanc e co mbinati o ns o f in par allel and

, , se ries
definitio n o f .

equivalent defi nitio n o f ,

.

in inductio n m achin es values o f ,

in synchro n o us machines values o f ,

meas urement o f . 2 19 , 23 1
of slo t form ula for ,
.

o f windin gs formula for ,

z i gz ag formula for ,
.

o f air ga p accurate metho d

-
,

of po le frin ge

Pha se characteristics o f a ynchro n o us mo tor s

relati o n o f m m fs in an inductio n machine

. . . .

in a synchro n o us m achine
Pinch phenomen o n
Po le face win dings Ryan ,

Po les fictitio us
, , in synch ro n o us machines
assurh ed

no n s alient in a synch ro no us ma chine

-

salient defi niti o n o f

,

Po tential definitio n o f
,

o f vo ltages in a ro tary co nverter

Ra yleigh Lo rd meth od for finding permeance o f a field
, ,

Reactance eq uival ent o f a n unsymmetrical tr a nsmi io n line

, , ss

in synch ro n o us machines nat ure o f ,

v o ltage ave rage as c riteri o n o f co mmuta tio n

, ,

Reaction S ee al Armatur e reactio n

. so .

dema gnetiz i ng in a D C m achine , . .

direct a nd trans verse nature o f , .

ca lculatio n o f t h c oefficient o f e

defi niti o n o f the c o efficient o f

28 0 I ND E X
P A G E

Rea c ti o n d i to rtin g S T ran v erse r eactio n

, s . ee s .

tr ans ver e calculati o n o f the co efficient o f

s ,

definiti o n o f the co fficient o f e

in a di rect cu rrent machine

in a ynch ro n ou m achine s s

Rectan gular m m f wave har mo ni cs o f

. . .
,

R e gulatio n o f alter nator calculati o n o f s,

definiti o n o f .

Rel definiti o n of
,
.

Relative pe meability r .

Reluctance definitio n o f
,
.

in serie and in parallel s

o f irregular path s .

of vari o us magnetic cir cuit S P ermeance s . ee .

unit of .

vs dim en i o n. s s

Reluctivity definitio n of
,
.

of ai r .

v permeabilitys .

Re manent magneti m S Re idual s . ee s .

Repul io n between b us bar

s -
s .

between tran sf ormer co ils

R e sidual m agneti s m .

Resis tance equivalent o f un ymmetrical tran mi io n line

, , s s ss

Revo l ving field

m achinery c ore l o in , ss .

type of magnetic ci r cuit in s .

S l particul r kind o f machinery ee a s o a .

Right hand crew rule

-
s

Ro tary co nve rter a mature reactio n in a ,

r

v o ltage rati o in a .

vo ltage regulati o n in a
Ryan po le face windin g for D C machine
, . . s .

S alient po le s defi nitio n o f

, .

in synchro n o us machines B l o ndel diagram for ,

.

S atu rati o n and hyster es i s an explanati o n o f , .

and permeability .

cur ve knee o f , .

c urves o f iro n .

of m achinery S ee a lso T ran sformers .

,

cu rrent .

eff ect o f upo n p ole leakage

pe r cent o f
Sec o ndary current calculati o n o f in an inducti o n mo tor
, ,

windin g equivalent r educed to the pri mary , , .

Se mi net len gth

-
.
 I ND E X 28 1

P A GE

m
S e i-s ymmet rical pacin g s .

S e ri
es-pa allel cir cuits with iro n
r .

S heet me t al See L aminatio ns

. .

S hor t ch ord or sh or t pi t ch windi ng . S ec Fr acti o nal pitch windings .

S ili co n s teel .

S im p le magnetic cir cuit .

leak age pe rmeance calculati o n o f ,

S l o tted ar mature ho w tor que is p roduced in

,

S o len o i dal term applied to magnetic fiel d

,

S pace facto r in i ro n
S parkin g S ee Commutati o n
. .

S peed o f a va ria b le s peed D C mo to r unde r l o ad . .

Sq uirel c a ge winding
- .

S teinmet z s la w for hys teres is

’

S teel
. S ee Iro n .

S t ray flux or leakage .

S upe rp ositi o n principle o f ,

.

S ynchro n o us co nde nse rs .

S ynchro n o us machines ar matur e reacti o n in ,

e m f induced in . . . .

fictiti o us po les assumed in

l o ad ed fl ux di st ributi o n in ,

meas ur e ment o f leakage inductance

o verl o ad ca pacity o f mo tor .

phas e r elati o n o f m m fs in a . . .

reactive dro p in a (limits o f)

torque in 2 59 , 260
63
values o f leaka ge permeanc e o f the windings o f . 230
vecto r dia gr ams o f wi t h n o n s alient po les 145 ,
-
.
,
14 7
with salient po les 154
S ynchrono us mo to r definiti o n o f phas e c ha rac t eris tices o f
, 142
o verl o ad ca pacity o f 148

Teeth apparent flux de nsity in

,
.

permeance o f too th fringe

Tensio n . S ee a lso F orc e, mec han ical .

lo ngitud inal , in ma gnetic field

Torque . S ee also Fo r ce , m echanical .

in revo lving machines , h o w p roduced .

28 2 I ND E X

Torque in sl o tted ar matur e s h o w p roduced ,

of ro tary magnets
of revo lving machinery .

Tractive e ff ort actual,

.

aver age in a D C m agnet ,

. .

in an A O magnet average . .
,

magnet force o f ,

Transformer actio n .

Tr ansformers core l oss current in a

,

exciting current in a .

induced e m f in a . . . .

inductance o f .

as aff ected by end c o il s

as aff ected by nu mber o f c o il s

as affected by the shape o f the c o ils

values o f the c o n stants

jo ints in the magnetic cir cuit o f a
leakage flux in a
magneti z in g cu rr ent in a
repuls io n between the co ils o f a .

types of
Transmissi o n line; descripti o n o f the field o f a
shape o f the field calculated

sin gle phas e inductance o f ,

.

thr ee wi re sym metrical spacin g inductance of

-
, ,

uns ymmetrical spacin g e m f in duced in ,

. . . .

unsymm etrical spacin g equivalent reactance o f ,

unsymmetrical spacin g equivalent resi stance o f ,

Trans verse and di rect reacti o n natu re o f ,

reactio n calculati o n of the co efficient of

,

definiti o n o f the c o efficient o f

in a D C machine . .

in a synchro n o u s machine .

T urning moment in machinery

U nit of flux
o f inductance .

o f permeance
of reluctance
U nit table o f the dimen sio n s of
s,

V cu rve or phase char acteri stic s 14 2

V ariable speed D C mo tor under l o ad
- . . 17 1
V ector r elatio ns in a ynchro n ou machine
s s 14 5 , 14 7, 15 4 , 15 5
with n o n alient po le -
s s . 145
with salient po le s 15 4
Vi rgin tate o f iro n
s 32
 I ND E X 283

V irtual di placements principle o f

s ,

Voltage S E m f
. ee . . .

W ave form o f fiec t o f ty pe o f windings upo n

'

ho w to get s ine wave

W ave wound ar matur es co mmutati o n o f
-
,

W indin g pitch fact , values

-
or
of
o
W indin gs , c m pe nsatin g, f or D C machines . .

co ncentrated m m f o f ,
. . .

for D C machines e ff ect o f type o n v o ltage

. .
,

dis tributed definiti o n o f ,

.

in A O . . m ac hines , ad vantages and dis advantages

of
formula for the inductance o f
fracti o nal pitch advantag es and dis advantages o f
,

co mmuta ti o n o f
eff ect o f o n induced e m f , . .

o n inductance .

inductance and r eactance h o w meas ur ed ,

leakage pe rmeance o f formula for ,

multiplex co mmutati o n o f
,

po lyph as e m m f o f ,
. . .

wave or two circuit co mm utati o n o f

-
,

a eh, definitio n o f .

Z ig-z ag leakage , de sc riptio n o f