1.

CELL BIOLOGY

1. CELL BIOLOGY

A. CELL
• All living forms are composed of microscopic units called as “Cells”. The word cell was
derived from a Greek word “Cellulae” which means small room.
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all life forms.
• Study of structure and composition of cell is called as “Cytology”.
• Cell was first observed by “Robert Hooke” in a dead cork slice in the year 1665. He described
about this in his book “Micrographia”.
• First living cell was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek.
• The term protoplasm was coined by Purkinje in 1839.
• Protoplasm was discovered by “Felix Dujardin” and named as sarcode.
• It’s consistency differs under different conditions.t exists in sol-gel states.
• Protoplasm includes cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
• Protoplasm is an aggregate of various chemicals such as water, ions, salts and other organic
molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins etc.
(a) Cell theory :
• In 1839, Schleiden and Schwann studied and concluded that all animals are also composed of
cells but are different from plant cells.
• Cells are the morphological and physiological units of all living organisms except viruses.
• New cells originate only from the pre-existing cells and continuity is maintained through the
genetic material.
• The smallest unit of life is the cell, i.e. every organism starts its life as a single cell. All living
organisms are composed of cells and their products.
   Modern cell theory :
• In 1855, Rudolf Virchow further expanded the cell theory as “omnis cellula e cellula” i.e. all
cells arise from pre-existing cells, just as an animal arises only from an animal and a plant only
from a plant.
• It is also known as cell doctrine or cell principle.
• All living organisms are made up of cells having cytosol, nucleus, organelles and a covering
membranes.
• Functions of living organisms are the sum total of the activities of their cells.
• Cell can survive independantly but organelles cannot do so.
• Any cell arises from pre-existing cell.
• It is unit of structure, function and heredity.
• Life exist in cells.
• Growth of an organism is due to increase in size and number of cells.
(b) Types of Organisms On the basis of Number of Cells :
(i) Unicellular organisms : These are the organisms which are made up of single cell only. This
single cell performs all the vital body functions of an organism. e.g. Amoeba
(ii) Multicellular organisms : These are the organisms which are made up of numerous cells.
These cells then combine to form an organ and group of organs performing different functions
forms an organ system which further forms an organism. e.g. Plants and animals
(c) Types of cells On the basis of type of organization :
(i) Prokaryotic cells : Prokaryotic cells (pro - primitive; karyon - nucleus) are without an
organised nucleus and membrane bound organelles. These are primitive and incomplete
cells.They have less developed nucleus without nuclear membrane and nucleolus. e.g.
Bacteria.

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 Structure of a prokaryotic cell :
• Like eukaryotic cells, they are different in shape and size but smaller than eukaryotes &
divide rapidly.
• Naked genetic material is called genophore / Nucleoid.
• Genomic DNA is circular & termed as single chromosome.
• Beside genomic DNA, small circular DNA is also present in many bacteria called plasmid
which make them antibiotic resistant & also responsible for bacterial transformation.
• Prokaryotic cell envelope consists of three layers–outer glycocalyx, middle cell wall and
innermost cell membrane.
• If these envelopes are stained by Gram stain then they are called Gram positive bacteria while
other those don’t have are called Gram negative bacteria.
• Glycocalyx, a polysaccharide envelope forms either loose sheath slime layer or thick and
tough structure capsule.
• Plasma membrane extensions like vesicles, tubules and lamellae not only help in cell wall
formation, DNA replication, secretion, increase in surface area but also form some specific
structure for specific function like mesosome for respiration (analogous to mitochondria)
and chromatophore for photosynthesis (analogous to chloroplast).
• Cell wall form some filamentous extensions called flagellum. It consists of filament, hook &
basal body and helps in locomotion.
• Besides flagella, Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the bacteria but do not play a
role in motility. The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein pilin.The
fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell that provides attachment to
substratum or host tissue.

Fig.1.1 : Ultrastructure of Prokaryotic cell

(ii) Eukaryotic cells : Eukaryotic cells (eu - true; karyon - nucleus) have an enveloped nucleus
and membrane bound organelles.
• These are well developed cells.They have advanced nucleus with nuclear membrane and
nucleolus. e.g. Plants & animals.
• Organisms are grouped into prokaryotes and eukaryotes based on their cellular organisation.

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TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Feature Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Cell size Generally small, 1-10 m. Generally large, 5 - 100 m.
Cell wall Non-cellulosic contain peptidoglycan.. Cellulosic (in plants only).
Nucleus Lacks true nucleus; circular DNA lies True nucleus bound by a nuclear
naked in the cytoplasm; nucleolus, membrane, contains linear DNA; nucleolus
nuclear membrane and nucleoplasm and nuclear membrane present;
are not present. nucleoplasm distinct.
Cell organelles Membrane-bound organelles like Membrane-bound organelles present.
Golgi bodies, plastids, mitochondria
and ER are absent.
Ribosomes Smaller and randomly scattered in the Bigger, can be free or attached to the ER
cytoplasm (70S). (80s).
Cell division Divides by simple fission, spindle is Divides by mitosis or meiosis.
not formed, no mitosis and meiosis.
Examples Bacteria and Cyanobacteria (blue- All other organisms.
green algae).
TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
S.N. Plant cells Animal cells
1. Usually larger, with distinct outlines. Usually smaller, with less distinct boundaries.
2. Plant cells usually have a regular shape. Animals cells are usually spherical in shape.
3. The plasma membrane of a plant cell is Cell wall is absent.
surrounded by a rigid cell wall made up of
cellulose.
4. Cytoplasm not so dense. Cytoplasm denser and more granular.
5. Plastids are present. Plastids are absent.
6. Vacuoles prominent, one or more. Vacuoles, if any, are small and temporary
concerned with excretion or secretion.
7. Plant cells have many simpler units of Golgi Animal cells have a single highly elaborate Golgi
complex, called dictyosomes. complex.
8. Centrosome is not present. Centrosome is present.

Knowledge Booster

(i) Undifferentiated cells : Also called stem cells. They are unspecialised and usually possess
power of division. e.g.- Root and shoot apices, vascular cambium, cork cambium, skin
cells, germinal epithelium, bone marrow, zygote etc.
(ii) Differentiated cells : Also called as Post mitotic cells. They are specialized to perform special
function and cell division is absent.
(iii) Dedifferentiated cells : Actually they are specialized cells but lose their specialization and
induce division. It helps in healing of wounds, regeneration in animals or vegetative
propagation in plants, cell culture experiments.

(d) Cell shape :

• The shape of a cell is related to its functions. Some of the cells (e.g, Amoeba and leucocytes)
exhibit change in their shapes, while others do not exhibit such change and in such cases cell
shape is more or less fixed.

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• Cells may be oval, round, plate-like, tubular, cylindrical, branched and so on. The cell shape is
said to be controlled by several factors like function, age, cell wall, external pressure, location,
tension, viscosity, etc.

(e) Cell size :

There is a great variation in the size of cells of the living world. The most common type of cells
measure from 10 to 100 .
• Mycoplasma, a bacterium known as PPLO (Pleuropneumonia-like organism) is the smallest
known cell.
 • An ostrich egg is the biggest animal cell.
 • The nerve cells are the longest in human body, measuring up to 90 cm in length.
  • In plant kingdom, Acetabularia (an alga) consists of a single cell which measures about 6 to 10
cm in length.

B. STRUCTURE OF AN EUKARYOTIC CELL

• Though various kinds of cells show specific differences, yet they all show some basic
structural plan of a “generalized cell”. A generalized cell consists of three essential parts:
(a) Cell coat (b) Cytoplasm (c) Nucleus

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(a) Cell coat :
(i) Cell Wall :
 • It was first studied by Robert Hooke in cork cells.
 • It is outer most dead covering around plant cell. That is secreted by cytoplasm/(Protoplasm).
I. Chemical Compostion of cell wall in different organisms
• Bacteria – peptidoglycan or Murein.
• Fungi – Chitin
• Plants – Cellulose, Hemicellulose, Pectin and Protein.
• Animals– Absent


II. Structure of the cell wall :
 • The diameter of cell wall varies from 0.1–10m.
• The cell wall is formed of following layers.
1. Middle Lamella 2. Primary wall 3. Secondary Wall 4. Tertiary wall
1. Middle Lamella : It is thin amorphous cementing layer for joining of two adjacent plant cells. It
is composed of pectin as calcium and magnesium pectate. It is absent on the outer free
surface of cell and plasmodesmata. Retting of fibres and softening of fruits are due to
dissolution of calcium pectate in middle lamella by pectinase enzyme.
2. Primary wall : It is elastic, permeable, thin, single layered outer most wall layer of plant cell.
Its diameter is 0.1–3m Cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin contents are roughly in equal
amount in primary wall.

Fig.1.4 : Parts and layers of cell wall

Root hairs, parenchymatous cells and meristematic cells are formed of only primary wall. Its growth
takes place by interssusception (Addition of materials with in the existing wall).
3. Secondary wall : It lies inside the primary wall. Its diameter is 3–10m. Its growth takes place
by Accretion+ interssusecption (deposition of materials over the surface of existing
structure). It consists of at least three layers–S1, S2, S3, This wall is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose & pectin. Number of different materials may be deposited in the secondary cell
wall.
 Depositions :
• Lignin : It reduces the water content of the wall matrix and increases its hardness. The
deposition of lignin on the cell wall is called lignification that provides strengthening to the
cell wall.
• Suberin : It is fatty substance that makes the wall impermeable. It reduces the transpiration
rate in plants. It is found in the cork and casparian strips of endodermal cells. The deposition
of suberin is called suberisation.Both lignified and suberinised cells are dead cell.

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• Cutin : It lies as a distinct layer on the outside of the epidermal cell wall. It is fatty substance
that reduces the rate or epidermal or surface transpiration. Other substances may also be
deposited in the cell wall such as silica (Eg: grasses), minerals waxes, tannins, resins, gums.
 • Function of Cell wall : Cell wall not only gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from
mechanical damage and infection, it also helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to
undesirable macromolecules. Algae have cell wall, made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and
minerals like calcium carbonate.
(ii) Cell Membrane :
• Cell membrane is the outer living boundary of the cell. This is also called Plasma membrane
or plasmalemma.
• The term cell membrane was coined by C.Nageli.
I. Structure of Cell Membrane :
  • Explained on the basis on the basis of fluid mosaic model by Singer and Nicholson. 
 • Cell membranes are not visible under optical microscope due to its extreme thinness. It can be
observed in electron microscope. It appears trilaminar or tripartite layer under electron
microscope.
II. Fluid mosaic model : It was proposed by Singer and Nicolson (1972). It is most recognized
model for plasma membrane. they stated that plasmamembrane contains lipid bilayer in which
protein are found on both outer and inner side to form mosaic pattern. Thus they described it
as protein icebergs in sea of lipids.

 1. Lipid : Central viscous gel like, lipid bilayer is quasifluid and composed of phospholipids that
provide fluidity (quasifluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins within the
overall bilayer). Lipid provide elasticity and stability to the plasma membrane. The fluid nature
of the membrane is also important from the point of view of functions like cell growth, formation
of intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc.
• Lipid are usually phospholipids (55% of total Lipids) that are amphiatic / amphipathic
containing polar hydrophilic heads and nonpolar hydrophobic tails. Other lipids present in
cell membranes is cholesterol.Cholesterol provides rigidity and stability to the cell membrane.
2. Protein : Proteins are of two types.
• External or extrinsic proteins : It is peripheral protein (30% of total protein). It can be easily
removed Eg: Spectrin in RBC, ATPase.
• Integral or intrinsic proteins : It is about 70% of total protein. These can not be separated
easily. Eg : Cytochrome oxidase, Porin Proteins. They may function as carriers,
permeases, enzymes, receptors. Some large globular intrinsic proteins pass as a helix into
the lipid bilayer from outside to inside to form tunnel proteins or transmembrane proteins.
The latter act as channels for passage of water soluble materials and water.
• Chemically a cell membrane contains proteins (44–76%), Lipids (20–53%), carbohydrates (1–
5%), water (20%). DNA, RNA are absent. In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte
has approximately 52 per cent protein and 40 per cent lipids.
• Proteins are globular in nature including structural, enzymatic, carrier, permease and receptor
proteins.

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• NOTE : The plasma membrane is asymmetric due to oligosaccharides which form
glycolipids & glycoprotein alongwith lipids & proteins respectively. Both glycolipids &
glycoproteins form glycocalyx. Oligosaccharide part in glycocalyx acts as recognition centre,
site for attachment and provides antigen specificity to cell membranes, blood grouping,
immune response and matching of tissues in transplantation of organs.
• Lipid molecules show flip flop movement (transverse diffusion or can move from one side to
the other side across the membrane). This type of movement is absent in protein molecules.
3. Carbohydrates of cell membranes are small unbranched or branched chains of
oligosaccharides. They combine with both lipids and protein molecules on outer surface of
the membrane and form glycolipids and glycoproteins respectively.
III. Functions of plasma membrane :
 Membrane transport : Cell membrane is considered as selective permeable membrane.
Passage of substances across biomembranes occur by following methods.
(1) Passive transport : It involves following methods
– Diffusion : Movement of molecules or ions from higher concentration to lower concentration
is called as diffusion.e.g.,CO2 & O2 move across the membrane.
– Osmosis : The movement of solvent or water from lower concentration of solution to higher
concentration of solution through a semipermeable membrane is called as osmosis. Osmosis
can also be called as “diffusion of solvents”.
– Facilitated diffusion : The permease assists a molecule to diffuse through the membrane that
it cannot otherwise penetrate.
(2) Active transport : In this method, movement of substances occur against their concentration
gradient by consuming ATP. It can be done by Na+- K+ exchange pump.

(3) Bulk transport : It take place by two methods.

• Endocytosis : The inward transport of material by means of carrier vesicles is called

endocytosis. it includes two types.
• Pinocytosis or Potocytosis (Cell drinking) : Intake of fluid substances by plasmalemma in
the form of vesicles (Pinosome) is called pinocytosis.
• Phagocytosis (Cell eating) : Intake of solid food substances by plasmalemma in the form of
vesicles (Phagosome) is called phagocytosis.
• Exocytosis (Cell vomitting or emiocytosis) : It is reverse of endocytosis in which waste
materials are removed from the cell. It involves reverse pinocytosis.
(b) Cytoplasm :
 • It lies between the nucleus and cell membrane. The term Cytoplasm coined by Strasburger
(1882).
• Cytoplasm is a site of metabolic processes like biosynthesis of fatty acids, sugars, proteins
etc.
 • It is also a storehouse of raw materials needed for metabolism in both cytoplasm and the
nucleus.
 It consists of two parts :
(i) Cytosol / Hyaloplasm / Ground plasm : Liquid part of cytoplasm except cell organelles
• It can exist in sol and gel state called plasmasol and plasma gel. Plasmagel present towards
periphery called ectoplast and plasma sol is centre is called endoplast.
(ii) Trophoplasm : It involves cell organelles and cell inclusions
  Cell organelles :
I. Single Membranous Cell Oganelles:
1. Enodoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) :
 • Garnier firstly observed it as Ergestoplasm.

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 • It was discovered by Porter and Thompson (1945) and the name Enodoplasmic Reticulum
coined by Porter.
 • It is 3-dimensional and interconnected system of membrane-lined channels that run through
the cytoplasm, forms network. It divides the intracellular space into luminal (inside ER) and
extra luminal(Cytoplasm) compartments.
• It is found in plasmodesmata in the form of desmotubules.
 • The membrane of endoplasmic reticulum is 50–60 Aº thick.

Fig.1.6 : Parts of Endoplasmic reticulum

• E.R. is found in three forms
• Cisternae : They are flat interconnected sac-like structures. The diameter of each cisternae is
40–50 nm.
• Vesicles : These are oval or rounded sacs and diameter of each vesicle is 25–500 nm.
• Tubules : They are tube like extensions that connect cisternae and vesicles. Diameter of each
tubule is 50–100 nm.
 Types of Endoplasmic reticulum : On the basis of nature of its membranes, endoplasmic
reticulum is of two types.
• RER – Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• SER – Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SER AND SER
S.NO. RER SER
1. It bears ribosomes attached Ribosomes absent on the outer surface
to its membranes of membrane.
2. In consists of cistenae and few tubules It consists of vesicles and tubules.
3. It takes part in the synthesis of proteins It performs synthesis of glycogen, lipids
and enzymes E.g :- Pancreas. Liver, Coblet cells. and steroids. E.g.Interstitial cells,
Adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, Muscles,
Glycogen storing liver cells.
4. RER bears ribophorins for the attachment of Ribophorins are absent.
ribosomes.
5. It may develop from nuclear envelope It may develop from RER.
   Functions :
  • ER increases the surface area of the cytoplasm for various metabolic activities of the cell.
  • It gives internal support to the colloidal matrix i.e. cytoplasm.
 • It functions as an intracellular transport system for various substances.
  • Materials synthesized can be stored in different parts of ER.
 • Protein synthesis occurs on the surface of rough ER by ribosomes. These proteins are either
used within the cell or exported outside the cell.
  • Synthesis of lipids in collaboration with Golgi complex occurs on the surface of the smooth ER.
Smooth ER helps in the synthesis of sex hormones like testosterone in the testis and
estrogens in ovary.
• Many membranous cell organelles are co-ordinated in their functions like ER, GB, Lysosome
and vacuole so they are considered together as endo membranous system.
2. Golgi Complex :


  • It was first observed by George but the credit of discovery was given to the Camillo Golgi.
 • Golgi complex is also Known as Dictyosome (plant golgi body), Lipochondria (Rich in
lipids), traffic police of cell, Idiosome, Baker’s body, Dalton complex, Golgisome, export
house/middle man of cell. A plant cell has 10–20 dictyosomes.

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 Structure of Golgi complex :
• The shape and size of Golgi complex depend upon the physiological state of the cells.
Structurally golgi complex is composed of three parts:
• Cisternae : Golgi complex is madeup of stack of generally 4–8 membrane bound saccules
or cisternae. Cisternae show asymmetry and polarity two faces. concave or Distal or
maturing trans face is near cell membrane and cis or convex or Proximal or forming (F) face
is towards RER and nuclear membrane.
• Tubules : They form a complex network towards the periphery and trans face of the Golgi
apparatus. they interconnect the different cisternae.
Cisternae

Fig : Golgi apparatus

Fig.1.7 : Structure of Golgi apparatus, Golgi apparatus
• Vesicles : They are small sacs that arise from tubules. They are of two types smooth and
coated. Out of them smooth vesicles contain secretory substances hence these are called
secretory vesicles.
 Functions :

• Secretion : Golgi complex is a centre of reception, finishing, packaging and secreting for a
variety of materials in the cells. After modifications materials are packed in vesicles, the latter
are budded off from maturing face of golgi body and released out side the cell that is called
Exocytosis or reverse pinocytosis.

• Formation of new cell wall : Pectic compounds of middle lamella and various
polysaccharides of the cell wall are secreted by Golgi complex.

• Glycosidation & Glycosylation : Golgi complex cause glycosidation (addition of

oligosaccharides to phospholipids of membranes) of lipids and glycosylation of protein
synthesized on RER to form glycolipids and glycoproteins.

• Formation of acrosome : Acrosome of sperms is synthesised by Golgi complex during

spermiogenesis.

• Formation of Lysosome : Vesicles of Golgi complex and ER take part in the synthesis of
primary lysosomes ( GERL system).

• Vitellogenesis : Golgi complex acts as the centre around which yolk is deposited.
3. Lysosomes :
• Discovery : Christian de Duve (Lyso = digestive, soma = body)
• These are tiny sac like granules containing enzymes of intracellular digestion.
• They are bounded by a single membrane.
• They occur in animal cells and a few plant cells.
• They do not have a definite shape or size.
• They contain hydrolysing enzymes called acid hydrolases.

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Fig.1.8 : Lysosomes


   Functions :
• Their main function is phagy = digestion
• They are kind of waste disposal system.
• They help in digesting foreign materials and worn out cells.
• During disturbances in cellular metabolism i.e. in case of cell damage lysosomes burst and
their enzymes are released into the cytoplasm and they digest their own cell so they are also
called as “Suicidal Bags”.
Knowledge Booster
• Endomembranous System : Eukaryotic cells contain many membranebound organelles each
with a specific structure and function. These are collectively referred to as endomembrane
systems.
• The endomembrane system consists of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, nuclear envelope, vacuoles and plasma membrane. Peroxisomes, mitochondria,
and chloroplasts do not communicate with the organelles of the endomembrane system and
therefore they are not part of it.Mitochondria and chloroplasts are integral parts of the cell yet
they contain their own DNA. They are enclosed by their own membranes whose function is
independent of that of other membranous organelles. They were infact parasitic bacteria that
later became symbiotic. Perixisomes are not budded off from the endomembrane system.

4. Peroxisomes :
• These structures were first described from liver and kidney cells by Rodhin (1954). In plant
cells, they were first observed in germinating seeds by Tolbert (1969)The term ‘peroxisome’
was first used by de Duve and also called as uricosomes.
• Peroxisomes are ovoid or granular structures, limited by a single unit membrane and have a
diameter of 0.5 to 1.0 m.
• In green leaves of C3 plants, peroxisomes carry out photorespiration.
• In animal cells they carry out lipid metabolism.
• They contain important enzymes as oxidases (peroxide producing enzyme), peroxidases and
catalases (which break down toxic peroxides to water and oxygen).
5. Glyoxysomes : Beavers (1961) was the first person to discover these organelles and were
described later by R.W. Briedenbach (1967). They are about 0.5 to 1 m in size and are
surrounded by a single unit membrane. They are found in plant cells, particularly, in
germinating fatty seeds e.g. Ricinus (castor) and groundnut where fat is being converted
into carbohydrates by a process called glyoxylate cycle.
II. Double Membranous cell organelles :
1. Mitochondria :
• It is a rod shaped structure found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells except mammalian
RBC’s. These are also absent in prokaryotes.
 • It is also called as “Power House of the Cell” or the “Storage Battery”.

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• It is double membranous structure where outer membrane has specific proteins while inner
membrane is folded inside to form projections called “ Cristae” . ATP synthesizing units are
called Oxysomes or F1 Particles are present on cristae. Space between inner and outer
mitochondrial membranes is called as perimitochondrial space.
• The fluid present in mitochondria is called as matrix. It is site of Kreb Cycle.

Head
(F1 particle) ATPase
Outer chamber
Inner
chamber Stalk
Base
Fo

outer Inner cristae matrix stalked matrix Inner

membrane membrane elementary mitochondrial
particle membrane

(A) Mitochondria (B) Cristae (C) Fo - F1 Complex

Fig.1.9 : Mitochondria
   Functions :
• ts main function is to produce and store the energy in the form of ATP.
• Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production.
• Matrix contains enzymes for Kreb cycle.
2. Plastids :
• It is a double membranous discoidal structure, found only in plant cells.
• Besides being discoidal or rhombic in plant cells they occur in variable shapes like in algae
they can be ‘U’ shaped , spiral , coiled, ribbon shaped etc.
• Depending upon the type of pigment present in them they are of following three types :

Leucoplast Chromoplast Chloroplast

– Non – Coloured – Green
Pigmented pigments pigment
– white other than chlorophyll
in colour green is found
– Generally Phaeoplast – Brown in them
found in Rhodoplast – Red – Found in
underground aerial parts
parts of plant
– Important which are
for food green in colour
storage.
e.g. Aleuroplast,(stores proteins)
Elaioplast (stores fats and oils)
Amyloplast (stores starch)

• Chloroplast have following two parts :

Fig.1.10 : Internal structure of chloroplast of higher plants.

 Grana : [Granum : Singular, grana : Plural] t constitutes the lamellar system. These are
found layered on top of each other, these stacks are called as Grana. Each granum of the
chloroplast is formed by super imposed closed compartments called Thylakoids.

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 Functions :
• They are the sites of light reaction of photosynthesis as they contain photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll.
• In each thylakoid Quantasomes are present which are called as Photosynthetic units.
• Each quantasome possesses 230 chlorophyll molecules.

 Stroma:  t is a granular transparent substance also called as matrix. Grana are embedded in
it. Besides grana they also contain lipid droplets, starch grains, ribosomes & double stranded
circular DNA etc.
 Function : This is the site of dark reaction of photosynthesis. Also helps in protein synthesis
due to presence of ribosomes.

I. Non-Membranous cell organelles :

1. Ribosomes :

• They were observed by George Palade in animal cells in 1953.

• Ribosomes are found both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes with the exception of mature sperm
and RBCs. Ribosomes are also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
 Structure : All structural and functional proteins (enzymes) coded by the nuclear DNA, are
synthesized upon cytoplasmic ribosomes. The DNA codes of chromosomes are transcripted
into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules in the nucleus. mRNA molecules diffuse out into the
cytoplasm and each becomes attached to several ribosomes which thus form a group called
polysome or polyribosomes. In this way each mRNA molecule brings about polymerization
of amino acids to form specific protein molecules with the help of ribosomes in the cytosol.
   Types Of Ribosomes :

• 70S ribosomes are comparatively smaller in size with two subunits (30S + 50S). These are
found in prokaryotic cells as well as in the mitochondria and plastids of eukaryotic cells
(Mitochondrial DNA is now found to be 55S).

• 80S ribosomes have two subunits (40S + 60S). They occur in eukaryotic cells of the plants
and animals.

Fig.1.11 : Ribosomes
 Functions
• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. They provide space and enzymes for the
synthesis of
proteins. Hence, they are known as protein factories.
2. Centrioles (Centrosome) :
  • It is submicroscopic membraneless, cylindrical structure.
• Centrioles are usually found in all the animal cells except Amoeba. Centrioles are absent in
higher plants.
  • Each centriole is composed of 9 peripheral triplet fibrils of microtubules but in the central part
these are absent. Thus centriole has 9 + 0 arrangement of tubules.

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Fig.1.12 : Ultrastructure of centrioles in T.S.

• Centriole is surrounded by amorphous structures called massules or perecentriolar satellite.
Massules act as nucleating centre for the growth of microtubules during Aster formation.
Formation of new centriole starts in S-phase.
 • Thus new centriole arises from pre-existing centriole in G2– phase without presence of DNA
due to massules. 
   Functions :
 • At the time of cell division, centrioles move to the opposite poles and form asters that organise
into spindle fibres during the process of cell division.
  • Centrioles give rise to cilia and flagella in animal cells.
3. Cilia and Flagella :
  • The basic structure of cilia and flagella is similar. Structure of cilia or flagella was given by
Engleman. The diameter of cilia or flagella is 0·15Structurally flagella is composed of three
parts.
• Basal body- It is attached to cytoplasmic membrane by ring-like structures.
• Hook – It is embedded in cell envelop.
• Filament – It lies external to the cell. It contains flagellin protein.
A - B Linker
Peripheral
Doublet fibril Flagellar sheath Plasma
Outer side arm
Inner side arm Membrane
Spoke Peripheral
Head Central microtubules
sheath (doublets)
Central Interdoublet
Singlet bridge
Fibril

Central Matrix Central

(a) Radial
Sheath microtuble
spoke
Transition junction (b)
Fig.1.13 : Ultrastructure of flagellum in T.S. & Cilia or flagella (a) Electron micrograph
(b) Diagrammatic representation
4. Microtubules : These are very fine microscopic tube-like structures which may be present
independently or as parts of some organelles such as centrioles, basal bodies, cilia, flagella
etc.


   Fuctions of Microtubules :
• The microtubular structures provide strength.
• They also help in bringing about various movements inside the cell.


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1. CELL BIOLOGY
  5. Cell Inclusions :
 Vacuoles :
• Vacuoles are single-membrane-bound, fluid-filled spaces found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.
• In animal cells vacuoles are smaller in size and lesser in number compared to plant cells.
• In some plant cells, only one large prominent vacuole is present.
• The major portion of a mature plant cell is occupied by vacuole.
• Structure : In plants, the vacuoles are bound by a thin semi-permeable membrane called
tonoplast. Vacuole contains cell sap which includes water, dissolved mineral salts,
carbohydrates, proteins, etc. The cell sap keeps the cell turgid. The vacuole of a mature plant
cell is formed by enlargement and fusion of small vacuoles present in the meristematic cells.
These small vacuoles arise from the ER and Golgi apparatus.
• Functions :
 • Plant cell vacuoles store organic compounds.
  • Vacuoles also store inorganic ions like K+ and Cl–
 • They contain hydrolytic enzymes that help in digestion of stored macromolecules.
  • Vacuoles are used to deposit metabolic wastes of plant cells.
 • Vacuoles store pigments like anthocyanins responsible for the colour of the flowers.
  • In animal cells, contractile vacuoles are often associated with the maintenance of water
balance.
 Granules :
• These are also non-living cytoplasmic inclusions. These are small particles, crystals or
droplets.
  • Function :
• Starch grains, fat droplets helps in the storage of food in the cells.

(c) Nucleus :
• The nucleus is the most conspicuous and largest organelle controlling all the vital activities of
eukaryotic cells.The nucleus was first discovered and named by Robert Brown.

• In a young cell, it occupies a central position. In mature plant cells with the formation of the
vacuole, it is shifted to one side. Usually, a single nucleus is present in each cell
(uninucleated), but some cells may have more than one nucleus (multinucleated). A coenocyte
is a multinucleate cell which can result from multiple nuclear divisions without their
accompanying cytokinesis, in contrast to a syncytium, which results from cellular aggregation
followed by dissolution of the cell membranes inside the mass.In bacteria and blue-green
algae, a true nucleus is absent, but nuclear material is present.
• The nucleus is absent in mature mammalian RBCs and in the sieve tube cells in phloem tissue
of plants.

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   Nucleus consists of following parts :
(i) Nuclear membrane : Nucleus is bounded by two envelopes called as outer and inner
membrane. The broad perinuclear space lies between these two membranes.
 • Ribosomes are present on the outer surface of nuclear membrane.
 • 10% part of nuclear membrane bears pores that are called nuclear pores formed by the fusion
of its two membranes.
 • Pores help in exchange of various substances(RNA and proteins) between cytoplasm &
nucleoplasm in both directions.
(ii) Nucleoplasm (Karyolymph) : It is jelly like fluid, Its pH is 7·4 ± 0·2. It is reservoir of
nucleosides, enzyme of DNA and RNA synthesis.
 • Its peripheral part is dense jelly like fibrous part that lies below nuclear membrane it is called
fibrous lamina or nuclear lamina
 • Nuclear lamina provides strength to the nuclear membrane. It also performs reformation of
nuclear membrane during Cell division.
(iii) Chromatin network : It consists of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid).
• It is stained by Acetocarmine after that two types of regions are formed.
I. Euchromatin : It is light stained, fibrous , uncoiled transcriptionally active DNA.
II. Heterochromatin : It is dark stained tightly coiled, granular, transcriptionally less active.
(iv) Nucleolus : It was discovered by Fontana.
 • It is absent in RBC, sperm, Yeast, muscle fibres, young embryo cells and Prokaryotes.
 Functions :
 • The nucleus is the storehouse of genes. Genes control the production of enzymes without
which there cannot be any metabolic activity.
  • It regulates the cell cycle.
 • It is related to the transmission of hereditary characters from parent to offspring.
 • The nucleolus synthesizes molecules necessary for the production of ribosomes.
(v) Chromosomes :
  • They represent physical basis of inheritance.
• In a young cell, it occupies a central position.
I. Structure of Chromosomes :
• Chromosomes are the vehicles of heredity which possess DNA and are enclosed inside the
nucleus. They are capable of self reproduction and maintaining morphological and
physiological properties through successive generations.
• Each chromosome consists of two strands which are called as chromatids. The two
chromatids of a chromosome are joined together at a point called as centromere.

Fig.1.16 : A metaphase chromosomes

II. Size : Size of chromosomes is variable in different organisms, different tissues and at different
stages of the cell cycle.
III. Composition of Chromosomes :
  • Chemically the eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of DNA, Proteins (basic - Histones)
and small amounts of RNA.

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IV. Number of Chromosomes :
  • Each species has a fixed number of chromosomes in it’s cells. In an ordinary human cell 23
pairs of chromosomes are present. So, there are two chromosomes, of each kind. These two
chromosomes of same kind are called as homologous chromosomes.
• A cell which has the complete set of chromosomes with two of each kind is called as diploid
cell. In other words a diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes, thus having two
chromosomes of each type.
  • The gametes (or sex cells) of human beings are different from their other body cells because
they contain only half the number of chromosomes. A cell which has half the number of
chromosomes, is called as haploid cell. In other words a haploid cell has only one copy of
each type of chromosomes.
  • Human gametes called sperm and egg have only 23 chromosomes which is half the number
of chromosomes than other body cells. So, a gamete is a haploid cell.
  • On the basis of position of the centromere, chromosomes are of following types.
1. Metacentric : Centromere is found in middle and at Anaphase chromosome is V-shaped.
2. Sub-metacentric : The position of the centromere is subcentral. Anaphasic stage L-shaped.
3. Acrocentric : The position of the centromere is subterminal. Anaphasic stage J-shaped.
4. Telocentric : Centromere terminal. Anaphasic stage is I- shaped.

Fig.1.15 : Types of chromosomes on the basis of position of centromere

V. Properties of Chromosomes : The chromosomes must possess five important properties :
1. Replication : Synthesis of new DNA molecule which is identical to the parent DNA molecule.
2. Transcription : Synthesis of RNA molecule which is complementary to the DNA molecule.
3. Change in appearance.
4. Repair : It means correction of damaged parts of DNA.
5. Mutation : Sudden development of genetic changes.

C. CELL DIVISION
  • Cell division was first observed by Prevost and Dumas (1824) in zygote of frog and also by
Nageli in plant cell (1842).
Knowledge Booster
A typical human cell divide once approximantely
24 Hr. But duration of cell cycle is variable from
one organism to another like yeast divided in
approx 90 minutes.

• Cell Cycle : It is a series of programmed cyclic changes by which the cell duplicates its
contents and divides into two parts.
  • It was described by Howard and Pelc (1953).
 • It is divided into two phases :
(a) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase :
(b) Short dividing M – phase :
Knowledge Booster

Check point cell cycle check points are control

mechanisum that ensure the fidelity of cell
division.
(i) G 1-checkpoint or restriction checkpoint.
(ii) G 2 -checkpoint .
(iii) M-check point or mitotic spindle checkpoint

Fig.1.17 : Cell cycle

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1. CELL BIOLOGY
(a) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase :
t is a complex of changes that occurs in a newly formed cell before it is able to divide. It involves
replication of DNA and synthesis of nuclear proteins and duplication of centriole. Synthesis of
energy rich components also takes place. This occurs in three stages i.e.
(i) G1 (First Gap phase): In this phase the cell increases in size and synthesis of RNA,
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids occur.
p

Knowledge Booster
G0 stage or Quiscent stage or Resting stage
• Cell neither prepare to divide nor dividing
• Differentiated cell eg.Heart cell, muscle cell
& nerve cell are arrested at G o phase.

(ii) S (Synthesis phase): This is DNA replication, centriole replication phase.

Knowledge Booster
• In S-phase
2C = 4C
2N = 2N
• Where 2C – No. of DNA
2N – No. of chromosome

(iii) G2 (Second Gap phase) : This is the phase of DNA repair and synthesis of RNA and spindle
proteins (tubulin) duplication of cell organelle.
(b) Short dividing M – phase : t is the phase of cell division. It consists of karyokinesis (nuclear
division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).
• Cell division is of two types :
(i) Direct (Amitosis) :
 • It is also known as Incipient cell division.
  • First described by Remak (1841).
 • Karyokinesis and cytokinesis takes place simultaneously.
  • It is a very simple cell division. It occurs without spindle formation and appearance of
chromosomes, also the nuclear membrane remains intact. Both cell and its nucleus elongate,
constrict in middle and break off into nearly equal halves.
  • It occurs in abnormal case. It occurs in prokaryotes (E.g. Bacteria, cyanobacteria etc.) and
eukaryotes (E.g. Amoeba, Yeast, Foetal membrane cells, Endosperm cells of seed, Diseased
cell and Old tissues).

Fig.1.18 : Stages in Amitosis

(ii) Indirect :
• Karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis.
I. Mitosis :
• Term mitosis was given by Flemming (1882).
 • It is also called as somatic division as it occurs during formation of body cells.
• It is studied in plants, in meristems and in animals in bone marrow, skin and base of nails.
• It is an equational division in which a parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells, each
of them contains the same number and kind of chromosomes as are present in parent cell.
• It occurs in two steps :

1. Karyokinesis : Division of nucleus. It is divided in four steps :

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1. CELL BIOLOGY
• Prophase : Longest phase, In this Chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes. They
shorten and become distinct with each having two chromatids attached to centromere.
Centrosomes reach the poles and form spindle fibres.Nucleolus and nuclear membrane
disappears.
Knowledge Booster
At the end of prophase all cell organelles are
also disappear & all cell organelles are reform at
telophase stage

• Metaphase : Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres that arise from each pole and lie at the
equator, forming a metaphasic plate. Chromosomes are shortest and thickest in this stage.

Knowledge Booster
Centromere is assembly of kinetocore & spindle
fibre attach to kinetochores of chromosome.
Metaphase of mitosis : Chromosome are allign
at equator.

• Anaphase : Shortest phase, In this phase centromere of each chromosome divides to form
two daughter chromosomes.They remain attached to poles through spindle fibres and start
moving towards pole and become shortened.
Knowledge Booster
Metaphase-I of Meiosis : Homologous
chromosome are allign at either side of equator
Metaphase II of meiosis : Chromosome allign
at equator.

• Telophase : Nucleus is reconstituted, chromosomes uncoil, elongate and form chromatin

fibre. Nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappears forming two daughter nuclei.

2. Cytokinesis : It is referred to the division of cytoplasm. It begins towards the middle of

anaphase and completes with the completion of telophase. By this the complete cytoplasm
including matrix as well as organelles divides equally. In animals it occurs by formation of
cleavage furrow in the middle by constriction in plasma membrane. In plants it occurs by cell
plate formation.
Knowledge Booster
In animal - Cytokinesis is done by the furrow
method & from out side to inside.
In plant - Cytokinesis in done by the cell plate
method & from inside to out side.
Many golgi vesicles, spindle microtubule &
fragments of E.R arrange at equator and form
phragmoplast. They make cell plate.
Cell plate represent the middle lamellae
between the wall of two adjacent cell.

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1. CELL BIOLOGY

Fig.1.19 : Various stages of mitosis.

II. Meiosis :
 • Term meiosis was given by Farmer and Moore (1905).
 • It occurs only once in the life cycle of organisms during gametes formation.
 • It is a double division in which a diploid cell divides twice to form four haploid cells.
 • It comprises of two divisions (with short or no interphase between them) :
1. Meiosis – I 2. Meiosis – II
 Interkinesis : A small time interval between two stages of meiotic division.
  1. Meiosis – I : Also called as reductional division. Diploid state changes to haploid state. It
occurs in four steps.
   Prophase – I : It is the longest phase of meiosis. It has following stages :

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1. CELL BIOLOGY
  • Leptotene : Chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes. In diploid organisms there are
two chromosomes of each type which are called as “homologous chromosomes”.

  • Zygotene : Homologous chromosomes join by synapsis and form bivalents which are actually
tetrads. Pairing proceeds in zipper like fashion forming synaptonemal complex.
  • Pachytene : There occurs exchange of segments between non sister chromatids of bivalents
and is called as crossing over.

Knowledge Booster
Crossing over is an also enzyme m ediate d
process & enzyme that is involve in crossing
over for breaking - Endonuclease, for join ing
ligase. (Both enzyme endonuclease and ligase
are collectively called Recombinase)

  • Diplotene : Synaptonemal complex is dissolved. At some places non sister chromatids of two
homologous chromosomes remain attached forming, chiasmata.
 • Diakinesis : Chiasmata shifts towards ends, and complete separation of homologous
chromosomes takes place (Terminalization) and nucleolus disappears.
Knowledge Booster
Prophase is longest phase Anphase is smallest
phase Pachytene is longest phase of Prophase
I.
 Metaphase – I : Spindles are formed in bivalents form a double whorl or double metaphase
plate.
   Anaphase – I : Chiasmata disappears, homologous chromosomes separate by disjunction
forming dyads. They move towards poles and form two groups of haploid chromosomes.
   Telophase – I : Chromosomes elongate, nucleoplasm & nuclear envelope reappears.
2. Meiosis – II : It is also called as equational division and maintains the haploid number of
chromosomes. During interphase (if occurs) no replication of DNA takes place.
 Prophase – II : Chromatin fibres shorten and form chromosomes. Nuclear envelope and
nucleolus start disappearing.
  Metaphase – II : Chromosomes form single metaphasic plate by arranging themselves on
equator.
 Anaphase – II : Centromere divides into two and separates two chromatids of chromosome
into two independent daughter chromosomes or chromatids.
 Telophase – II : The four groups of chromosomes organize themselves into 4 haploid nuclei.
Chromatin fibres are formed, nucleolus and nuclear envelope are reappeared.

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1. CELL BIOLOGY

Prophase – I

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1. CELL BIOLOGY

Fig.1.20 : Various Stages of Meiosis

• Significance of mitosis : It is essential for growth, repair, maintenance of chromosome
number etc.
• Significance of meiosis : It produces variations, differentiation, and essential for sexual
reproduction. It maintains the chromosome number in each generation of living organisms.

Fig.1.21 : The human life cycle showing the role of two types of cell divisions-mitosis and meiosis
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOTIC & MEIOTIC CELL DIVISION
S.n Mitosis Meiosis
o.
1. It occurs in all somatic cells / vegetative cell (n, 2n, It occurs in reproductive cells / germ cells ( 2n &
3n) never in n)
2. In the resultant daughter cells, the number of In resultant daughter cells, the number
chromosomes remains the same (i.e., diploid), of chromosomes reduces to half (i.e., haploid),
hence, called equational division. hence, called reductional division.

3. By mitosis two daughter cells are produced By meiosis four daughter cells are produced.

4. During mitosis no crossing over takes place During meiosis crossing over takes place.

5. Daughter cells have identical chromosomes Chromosomes of the daughter cells are
which are also identical to that of parent cell with combined components (genes) of
(i.e. remains constant) both parents (i.e., genetic variability occurs)

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1. CELL BIOLOGY

SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : CELL
A-1 Write a note on cell theory ? Which organism is an exception of cell theory ?
A-2 Differentiate between plant and animal cell with suitable figures.

SECTION (B) : STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

B-1 Who gave the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane ?
B-2 What is osmosis ?
B-3 Which cell organelle is called as the head quarter of cell ?
B-4 What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis ?
B-5 Why plasma membrane is called as selectively permeable membrane ?
B-6 Draw a neat and labelled diagram of nucleus. State it’s main functions.
B-7 Describe the types of endoplasmic reticulum and draw necessary figure. Give it’s main functions
also.
B-8 Which organelle controls osmotic pressure in a cell ?
B-9 State the main functions of lysosomes ?

SECTION (C) : CELL DIVISION

C-1 Name the various phases & sub phases of cell cycle.
C-2 What are the basic differences between mitosis and meiosis ?
C-3 Why is interphase known as prepratory phase ?
C-4 Why prophase I longer as compared to mitotic prophase ?
C-5 Compare the metaphase of mitosis, meiosis I and meiosis II.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : CELL
A-1 The first person to observe a cell under microscope was –
(A) M. Schleiden (B) T. Schwann (C) Robert Hooke (D) A.V. Leeuwenhoek
A-2 Cell theory was formulated by –
(A) Morgan (B) Haldane
(C) Schleiden and Schwann (D) Robert Hooke

A-3 The word cell was coined by –

(A) Robert hooke (B) Weismann (C) Cuvier (D) Darwin
A-4 What is protoplast :
(A) Whole protoplasm of the cell (B) Plant cell without cell wall
(C) Cytoplasm of the cell (D) Cytosol of the cell
A-5 Smallest cells so far known are –
(A) bacteria (B) blue green algae (C) PPLOs (D) human egg
A-6 Which of the following is the longest cell of animal kingdom ?
(A) Bacteria (B) Nerve cell (C) Virus (D) Muscle cell
A-7 Which one of the following is an example of prokaryotic cell ?
(A) Typical plant cell (B) Typical animal cell (C) Bacteria (D) None of these

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1. CELL BIOLOGY
A-8 What is cytology ?
(A) Study of cytoplasm (B) Study of structure and composition of cell
(C) Study of animal cell only (D) Study of plant cell only
A-9 Who coined the term protoplasm ?
(A) Leeuwenhoek (B) Purkinje (C) Robert hooke (D) Robert Brown
A-10 Cell is -
(A) functional unit of life (B) structural unit of life
(C) hereditary unit of life (D) all of the above

SECTION (B) : STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

B-1 Nucleus was discovered by
(A) Robert Brown (B) Robert Hooke (C) A.V. Leeuwenhoek (D) Schwann
B-2 Plastids that are white in colour (pigment free)
(A) chloroplast (B) lysosome (C) leucoplast (D) chromoplast

B-3 Mitochondria are concerned with

(A) kreb cycle (B) C4 cycle (C) glycolysis (D) none of the above
B-4 Which of the following organelle is the site of C3 cycle ?
(A) Ribosomes (B) Lysosomes (C) Plastids (D) Nucleus
B-5 Mitochondria are absent in
(A) prokaryotic cells (B) RBC of mammals (C) eukaryotic cells (D) (A) and (B) Both
B-6 Mitochondria stores energy in the form of
(A) heat energy (B) ATP (C) light energy (D) none of the above

B-7 Which of the following is called as ‘Suicidal bags’ ?

(A) Centrosome (B) Lysosome (C) Microsome (D) Mesosome

B-8 Tonoplast is the membrane surrounding the

(A) cytoplasm (B) vacuole (C) nucleus (D) mitochondria
B-9 Lysosomes are responsible for
(A) protein synthesis (B) digestion of organic molecules
(C) fat synthesis (D) fat emulsification
B-10 What is more abundant in smooth endoplasmic reticulum ?
(A) Cisternae and vesicles (B) Tubules
(C) Tubules and vesicles (D) Cisternae
B-11 Lipid synthesis is performed by
(A) rough ER (B) smooth ER (C) both of above (D) none of the above
B-12 Main function of lysosomes is
(A) Secretion (B) Respiration
(C) Intracellular digestion (D) Extracellular digestion
B-13 Detoxification of body is done by
(A) mitochondria (B) lysosomes
(C) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (D) rough endoplasmic reticulum
B-14 Golgi apparatus is made of
(A) cisternae (B) vesicles (C) golgian vacuoles (D) all of the above
B-15 The waste disposal system of cell is formed by
(A) lysosomes (B) peroxisome (C) mitochondria (D) glyoxysome
B-16 Cell organelle taking part in photorespiration is
(A) Glyoxysomes (B) Peroxisome (C) Dictyosome (D) E.R.

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1. CELL BIOLOGY

SECTION (C) : CELL DIVISION

C-1 Karyokinesis is -
(A) Division of cytoplasm (B) Division of nucleus
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these

C-2 Which is the shortest phase of mitosis ?

(A) Metaphase (B) Telophase (C) Anaphase (D) Prophase
C-3 Longest phase of prophase I -
(A) Leptotene (B) Zygotene (C) Pachytene (D) Diplotene
C-4 Amitosis occur in -
(A) Prokaryotes (B) Eukaryotes (C) Both (D) None of these

C-5 What comes in quiscent stage of Interphase ?

(A) G1 (B) S (C) G2 (D) G0

C-6 In which stage of mitosis chromosomes are shortest and thickest ?

(A) Prophase (B) Metaphase (C) Anaphase (D) Telophase
C-7 What is the number of chromosome in s-phase ?
(A) 2N (B) 4N (C) N (D) 3N
N = No. of chromosome

C-8 At which stage all cell organelles disappear and reform in mitosis ?
(A) Telophase and Prophase (B) Prophase and Metaphase
(C) Prophase and Telophase (D) Telophase and Metaphase
C-9 Which sub phase is known as Bouquet stage ?
(A) Leptotene (B) Zygotene (C) Pachytene (D) Diplotene
C-10 Shortest phase of prophase-I is -
(A) Leptotene (B) pachytene (C) Zygotene (D) Diplotene

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Eukaryotic ribosomes are
(A) 30s (B) 50s (C) 80s (D) 70s
2. Striking difference between a plant cell and an animal cell is due to the presence of
(A) mitochondria (B) plasma membrane (C) cell wall (D) ribosome
3. In prokaryotic cell
(A) nucleus is developed
(B) membrane bounded organelles are present
(C) double membrane bounded organelles are absent
(D) none of these
4. A typical plant cell contains
(A) cell wall (B) plastids (C) large vacuole (D) all of the above
5. In which cell centriole is absent ?
(A) Plant cell (B) Animal cell (C) Both of the above (D) None of above
6. The correct sequence of different phases of mitosis is
(A) Anaphase––––Metaphase ––––Prophase ––––Telophase ––––Interphase
(B) Interphase––––Telophase ––––Metaphase ––––Anaphase ––––Prophase
(C) Metaphase ––––Anaphase ––––Telophase ––––Interphase ––––Telophase
(D) Interphase ––––Prophase ––––Metaphase ––––Anaphase ––––Telophase

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1. CELL BIOLOGY
7. After mitosis, the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells shall be
1 1
(A) of parent cell (B) of parent cell (C)double of parent cell (D) same as parent cell
4 2
8. Mitosis is usually studied in smears or sections of
(A) root tips (B) shoot tips (C) floral buds (D) all of the above
9. Cytoplasmic structures involved in cell division is
(A) mitochondria (B) ribosome (C) lysosome (D) centriole


10. The cell size doubles in a stage of cell cycle called as

(A) M (B) G1 (C) S (D) G2
11. The stage at which DNA/chromosome replicates is
(A) prophase (B) interphase (C) metaphase (D) telophase
12. G1, S and G2 are stages of
(A) interphase (B) prophase (C) metaphase (D) anaphase

13. In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by

(A) cell plate (B) invagination (C) furrowing (D) all of these are correct

14. Nuclear envelope reappears at

(A) metaphase (B) anaphase (C) cytokinesis (D) telophase
15. As compared to mitosis, meiosis has
(A) exchange of chromatid segments
(B) no telophase
(C) daughter cells similar to parent cells
(D) duplication of chromosomes occur during anaphase

16. Pairing of homologous chromosomes is called as

(A) chiasmata formation (B) synapsis (C) disjunction (D) crossing over


17. In acrocentric chromosomes, position of centromere is-

(A) terminal (B) middle (C) subterminal (D) none of these


18. Chromosomes having equal or almost equal arms are called

(A) metacentric (B) acrocentric (C) polycentric (D) acentric


19. Chromosomes other than sex chromosomes are called as

(A) allosomes (B) autosomes (C) microsomes (D) none of the above
20. In humans the number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is
(A) 23 (B) 46 (C) 44 (D) 30

IJSO STAGE-I (PREVIOUS YEARS)

1. The signal for mitotic division is generated when the ratio of volume of nucleus to that of cell
becomes -
(IJSO/stage I/2010)
(A) less than a certain value. (B) greater than a certain value.
(C) reaches a certain value. (D) closer to one.
2. When a cell fails to communicate with other cells in multicellular organism, it
(IJSO/stage I/2010)
(A) becomes cancerous (B) enters mitotic phase
(C) chooses to die (D) is eaten up by other cells

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1. CELL BIOLOGY
3. The process involved in healing of the wound is (IJSO/stage I/2011)
(A) Meiosis I and II (B) mitosis (C) Meiosis I (D) meiosis II
4. Considering the action of colchicine, it may be considered for the treatment of :
(IJSO/stage I/2012)
(A) Hairfall (B) Anemia (C) Cancer (D) Bacterial infection

Read the following carefully and answer the questions from 5 to 6.

Students treat some onion root tips with colchicine that is responsible arresting cell division at the
metaphase stage (by dissolving spindle fibres) and further prepared a slide of the root tip staining
with acetoorcein (stains chromatin) and observed under high power of compound microscope. He is
well aware of the cell cycle given alongside.
5. Which of the following is not true about his observation ? (IJSO/stage I/2012)
(A) Most cells are in Interphase
(B) Most cells are in the metaphase
(C) No cells are in anaphase or telophase
(D) Chromosomes could be observed better than a slide prepared without colchicine treatment.
6. Why did the student choose root tips of onion (IJSO/stage I/2012)
(A) Roots grow fast and considerable length of tips can be used.
(B) Root tips are easy to smear and stain.
(C) Root tips have meristematic tissue.
(D) Cell division occurs only at the root tips in plants
7. If Brain is controlling unit of an organism, then at cellular level which cell organelle can be
comparable to Brain ? (IJSO/stage I/2013)
(A) Chloroplast (B) Ribosome (C) Nucleus (D) Lysosome
8. Most of the cellular RNA is synthesised and stored respectively in : (IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) cytoplasm and ribosomes. (B) ribosomes and cytoplasm.
(C) ribosomes and nucleus (D) nucleus and ribosomes
9. The erythrocytes separated from human blood were mixed with certain fluids on a slide and
observed under the microscope. Which of the following will be the expected result ?
(IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) With serum the cells clump and coagulate.
(B) With distilled water the cells swell and eventually burst.
(C) With sea water the cells undergo no apparent change.
(D) With tap water cells shrink and appear cremated.
10. In the cells of oil seeds which of the cell organelles have to be more active :(IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) Mitochondria (B) Rough endoplasmic Reticulum
(C) Smooth endoplasmic Reticulum (D) Nucleoli
11. Mitochondrial equivalent in prokaryotic bacterial cell is (IJSO/stage I/2015)
(A) ribosomes (B) thylakoid
(C) cytoplasmic plasma membrane (D) cyanosomes
12. Which of the following option is not true about the viruses ? (IJSO/stage I/2015)
(A) Viruses have either DNA or RNA as their genetic material.
(B) Viruses will not infect bacteria, fungi and algae.
(C) Viruses use host machinery to produce their own proteins.
(D) Viruses are useful in the preparation of vaccines.

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1. CELL BIOLOGY
13. Gram positive bacteria will have one of the specific characters. Identify it. (IJSO/stage I/2015)
(A) They have more peptidoglycan in their cell walls
(B) They show red colour on gram staining.
(C) Flagella found all over the body.
(D) They will have mesosomes as the extension of cell membrane.
14. When a red blood cell was placed in an animal cell (RBC) in 3 different solutions, the following
morphological observations were made under a microscope. The above three solutions can be
classified in the order of (IJSO/stage I/2015-16)
Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3
Normal morphology Swollen and hemolysed Shrunken or cremated
(A) isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic (B) hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic
(C) hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic (D) isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic
15. Thin cuboidal strips are made by slicing a potato. They are all made to be exactly 8 cm long and
2mm wide. Each strip is placed in sugar solutions of different concentration. After soaking it for 5
hours, their lengths are measured again. The following graph show the results of the experiment.
What concentration of sugar solution is isotonic with the contents of the cells of the potato.
(IJSO/stage I/2015-16)

(A) 0.2 (B) 0.4 (C) 0.6 (D) 0.1

16. Which amongst the following are not plastids : (IJSO/stage I/2017)
(A) Leucoplasts (B) Chromoplasts (C) Amyloplasts (D) Tonoplasts
17. Health is all about `eating-fasting' balance. When you fast for extended periods, your cells clean out
and recycle the intracellular garbage. The organelles responsible for this are:
(IJSO/stage I/2017)
(A) Microfilaments (B) Lysosomes (C) Golgi Apparatus (D) Microtubules
18 . The intracellular organelle that is responsible for formation of acrosomal vesicle is:
(A) endoplasmic reticulum (B) Golgi apparatus (IJSO/stage I/2018)
(C) mitochondrion (D) none of the above
19. A student recorded the data for five types of cells as given below : (IJSO/stage I/2018)
Character P Q R S T
Cell wall + + – – +
Centrioles – – – + –
Chloroplast – + – – –
Mitochondrion – + – + +
Nucleus – + – + +
Plasma membrane + + – + +
RNA/DNA + + + + +
Vacuoles + + – + +
The five cell types P, Q, R, S and T are:
(A) P- Bacterium, Q- Plant, R- Virus, S- Animal; T- Fungus
(B) P- Bacterium, Q-Plant, R- Virus, S- Fungus, T- Animal
(C) P- Fungus, Q- Plant, R- Bacterium, S- Animal, T- Virus
(D) P- Plant, Q- Bacterium, R- Virus, S- Animal, T- Fungus
20. A bacterium has a generation time of 50 minutes. A culture containing 108 cells per mL is incubated
for 300 minutes. What will be the number of cells after 300 minutes? (IJSO/stage I/2018)
3 8 9
(A) 64 × 10 cells (B) 6.4 × 10 cells (C) 64 × 10 cells (D) 6.4 × 109 cells

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1. CELL BIOLOGY
21. A stain was developed by a group of scientists to stain particular cell organelle. The stain was tested
on various tissues derived from an autopsy sample from a mammal. The organelles were counted.
The results showed maximum number of the organelles in cells of brain, lesser in cells of heart,
least in mature sperms and absent in erythrocytes. Identify the organelles from following options.
(IJSO/stage I/2019)
(A) Nissl bodies (B) Mitochondria (C) Golgi bodies (D) Endoplasmic reticulum
22. Given below are four statements. (IJSO/stage I/2019)
I. Prokaryotic cells are unicellular while eukaryotes are multicellular.
II. Histones are present in eukaryotes and absent in prokaryotes.
III. The nucleoid contains the genetic material in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
IV. Prokaryotic flagellum is composed of flagellin while eukaryotic flagellum is composed of
tubulin.
Identify which amongst these are false.
(A) I & II (B) III & IV (C) II & III (D) I & III
23. A 4 mm long bacterial cell was magnified and drawn to a dimension of 6 cm. How many times
has it been magnified ? (IJSO/stage I/2019)
(A) 1.5 x 103 (B) 15 x 104 (C) 1.5 x 104 (D) 1.5

EXERCISE - 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : CELL
A-1 C A-2 C A-3 A A-4B A-5 C A-6 B A-7 C A-8 B A-9 B A-10 D
SECTION (B) : STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL
B-1 A B-2 C B-3 A B-4 C B-5 D B-6 B B-7 B B-8 B B-9 B B-10 C B-11 B B-12 C B-13 C
B-14 D B-15 A B-16 B
SECTION (C) : CELL DIVISION
C-1 B C-2 C C-3 C C-4 C C-5 D C-6 B C-7 A C-8 C C-9 A C-10 A

EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. C C C D A D D D D B B A A D A B C A B B

EXERCISE - 3
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
A A C B C D C C D B C C B A A B D B B A D B D C

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