Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018

SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 920116

Investigation of the Effects of Engine Design

Parameters on Diesel Combustion and
Emissions Using Taguchi Methods

Timothy P. Gardner
Ford Motor Co.

The Engineering Society

For Advancing Mobility International Congress & Exposition
Land Sea Air and Space® Detroit, Michigan
INTERNATIONAL February 24-28,1992

400 COMMONWEALTH DRIVE, WARRENDALE, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.

 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018

The appearance of the ISSN code at the bottom of this page indicates SAE's consent
that copies of the paper may be made for personal or internal use of specific clients.
This consent is given on the condition, however, that the copier pay a $5.00 per article
copy fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. Operations Center, 27 Congress
St., Salem, MA 01970 for copying beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the
U.S. Copyright Law. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying such as
copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for creating
new collective works, or for resale.

SAE routinely stocks printed papers for a period of three years following date of
publication. Direct your orders to SAE Customer Service Department.

To obtain Quantity reprint rates, permission to reprint a technical paper of permission to

use copyrighted SAE publications in other works, contact the SAE publications Group.

All SAE papers standards and selected

books are abstracted and indexed in the
SAE Global Mobility Database.ss

No part of this publication may by reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval

system or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISSN 0148-7191
Copyright 1992 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

Positions and opinions advanced in this paper are those of the author(s) and not
necessarily those of SAE. The author is solely responsible for the content of the paper.
A process is available by which discussions will be printed with the paper if it is
published in SAE transactions. For permission to publish this paper in full or in part,
contact the SAE Publications Group.

Persons wishing to submit papers to be considered for presentation or publication

through SAE should send the manuscript or a 300 word abstract of a proposed
manuscript to: Secretary, Engineering Acitvity Board, SAE.

Printed in USA
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018

920116
Investigation of the Effects of Engine Design
Parameters on Diesel Combustion and
Emissions Using Taguchi Methods
Timothy P. Gardner
Ford Motor Co.

ABSTRACT Exhaust emissions from a Diesel engine are highly

dependent on the combustion process, which is
The effects of changes in fuel spray cone angle,
influenced by the design of the combustion chamber
number of spray holes, nozzle hole area, nozzle tip
as well as the fuel injection system. Often, changes in
protrusion, compression ratio, swirl level, and injection
design parameters which result in the improvement of
timing on Diesel combustion and emissions were
one emission characteristic may result in the
investigated at three engine operating conditions
deterioration of another. For example, high injection
using Taguchi design of experiment methods. The
pressures, small spray hole diameters, and high swirl
effects of changes in these design parameters on the
will achieve good fuel atomization and lower
ignition delay (ID), premixed combustion fraction
particulates, but will usually result in higher NOx
(PCF), premixed combustion index (PCI), and
emissions. To reduce such effects, it is important to
diffusion combustion index (DCI) were examined
gain a good understanding of the relationships
along with their effects on particulates, NOx,
between the various design parameters and how they
hydrocarbons, and smoke emissions. The key design
influence the combustion process and the resulting
parameters affecting both the combustion process
emissions. This understanding becomes extremely
and the exhaust emissions were identified, and
important when optimizing conflicting emission
qualitative as well as quantitative relationships
requirements such as NOx and particulates.
between the design parameters, combustion
parameters, and exhaust emissions were established. In an attempt to gain a better understanding of
these relationships, Taguchi design of experiment
STRINGENT FEDERAL EXHAUST EMISSION
methods were used to investigate the effects of
Regulations for 1994 heavy-duty Diesel engines [1]
changes in several engine design parameters on the
have prompted a renewed interest in Diesel
Diesel combustion parameters and resulting
combustion and emission research to find ways to
emissions. Taguchi [21] developed multivariate
reduce particulates and NOx to the required levels.
experimental techniques using orthogonal design
Extensive research into the mechanisms governing
arrays which allow one to isolate the effect of a single
Diesel combustion and emissions has already been
parameter on a particular response characteristic. For
reported and numerous investigations are currently
this study, the response characteristics were four
underway [2,3,4,11,14]. However, in spite of the vast
combustion parameters, which will be defined later,
amount of work conducted in the area of Diesel
and four exhaust emissions (particulates, Nox, HC,
combustion and emissions, these processes are still
and smoke).
not well understood due to the complex
interrelationships that exist between combustion Additionally, the Taguchi method was used to
system parameters and fuel injection system estimate the effects of some of the interactions
parameters. between the various design parameters. The details
of the Taguchi method can be found in references
[12,13].
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
2 920116
Although Taguchi methods have been most combustion process and the consequent production
extensively used in industrial and manufacturing of soot particles [5]. Soot forms from the available
applications, their application to investigate Diesel carbon in the partially burned fuel when fuel-rich
combustion and emissions has been very limited mixtures are subjected to a high temperature.
[9,13]. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to Therefore, soot emissions are generally associated
examine the effects of changes in several key with the main part of the fuel injected during the
combustion and fuel injection system parameters diffusion combustion period.
using Taguchi methods with the aim of acquiring a
DIESEL COMBUSTION PARAMETERS
better understanding of how these changes affect the
Diesel combustion and emission formation processes. Diesel combustion can be analyzed by comparing
the normalized cumulative apparent rate of heat
DIESEL COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS
release to the normalized cumulative available rate of
The combustion process in Diesel engines can be heat release as shown in Figure 1. The normalized
sub-divided into three consecutive periods; 1) the cumulative apparent rate of heat release can be
ignition delay period, 2) the pre-mixed combustion calculated from the cylinder pressure versus crank
period, and 3) the diffusion combustion period. angle data. The normalized cumulative available. heat
release can be calculated from the fuel injection rate
IGNITION DELAY PERIOD - This period
and the heating value of the fuel. The details for
commences with the injection of fuel and is usually
calculating these rates of heat release can be found in
defined to end either with the initial detection of
reference [27].
combustion luminosity or with the onset of a
combustion-induced rise in cylinder pressure. Ignition The Diesel combustion process can be
delay is widely considered to involve two components; characterized by four major parameters defined below
a physical delay and a chemical delay. The length of and shown schematically in Figure 1.
the delay period is of considerable importance since it
influences the processes following ignition including
the emission formation process. For example, it is well
known that reducing the amount of fuel injected during
ignition delay reduces NOX formation. However, other
factors, such as the length of the delay and the
mixture formation within the combustion chamber, can
promote an increase in NOx [2].
PREMIXED COMBUSTION PERIOD - This period
is referred to as the “uncontrolled” combustion phase
where the combustion is determined by conditions
previously established in the fuel spray at the end of
ignition delay.,It is during this period that high rates of
pressure rise and high temperatures occur, leading to
NOx formation. Any condition that results in
sufficiently high peak cylinder pressures and
temperatures will produce NOx emissions. increased
mixing of fuel and air during the ignition delay period
usually results in a higher rate of combustion and a
higher NOx level [3].
DIFFUSION COMBUSTION PERIOD - This period
follows the pre-mixed combustion phase. It is during
this period that the combustion process is controlled
by the rate of injection, and mixing. Because Diesel Figure.1
Definition of Diesel Combustion
combustion involves heterogenous mixtures of fuel
Analysis Parameters [27]
and air, mixing plays a key role in the Diesel
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
920116
1) IGNITION DELAY (ID) - The ignition delay is
defined as the crank angle degrees between the start
of injection (SOI) and the start of combustion (SOC).
SOI is defined as the crank angle where the needle lift
first reaches 20% of the maximum lift. The 20%
criterion was chosen to avoid the effects of noise and
secondary injections which sometimes occur at low
lifts. SOC was assumed to occur when the apparent
rate of heat release (AROHR) curve reached 50% of
its maximum value. Again, the 50% criterion was
chosen to avoid noise effects on the measurements.
2) PREMIXED COMBUSTION FRACTION
(PCF) - The premixed combustion fraction is defined
as the fraction of the total apparent heat release
which occurs by the end of the premixed combustion
mode. The end of the premixed mode is defined as
the point where the fast rate of the initial combustion
ends. Higher values of PCF indicate higher initial
rates of combustion, which produces higher gas
temperatures and pressures, resulting in higher NOx
emissions and noise levels [29].
3) PREMIXED COMBUSTION INDEX (PCI) - The
premixed combustion index is defined as the ratio of
the cumulative apparent heat release at the end of the
premixed mode to the cumulative available heat
release at the end of the premixed mode. Higher
values of PCI, like PCF, indicate higher initial rates of
combustion.
4) DIFFUSION COMBUSTION INDEX (DCI) - The
diffusion combustion index is defined as the ratio of
the average apparent rate of heat release in the
diffusion mode to the average available rate of heat
release, excluding the heat release in the premixed
mode. Higher values of DCI indicate faster
combustion rates which tend to result in more
complete oxidation of the particulates formed in the
early stages of combustion [29].
Figure 2 shows a typical oscilloscope trace of the
cylinder pressure, fuel line injection pressure, and
needle lift used to calculate the combustion
parameters. The average of 25 cylinder pressure
traces, recorded at 0.5 crank degree intervals, was
used to determine heat release rates and combustion
timing at the various engine operating conditions.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
ENGINE DESCRIPTION - A single cylinder,
four-valve, overhead-cam, direct-injection, research
Diesel engine was used for this study. The engine had
a 112 mm bore x 132 mm stroke. A swirl-assisted
quiescent combustion system with a centrally
3
Figure 2
Cylinder Pressure, Fuel Line Injection
Pressure, and Needle Lift Signals Used
for Calculation of Combustion Parameters
(2200 rpm/230 psi IMEP)
located fuel injector and piston bowl was used to
enhance fuel-air mixing. This arrangement offers
equal spray travel distances and thus better control of
the swirl to minimize the amount of fuel wetting on the
piston bowl walls; resulting in improved fuel-air mixing
and lower smoke and HC emissions.
The engine piston is of a two-piece articulated
design (cast iron crown and aluminum skirt) with a
reentrant bowl yielding a nominal compression ratio of
17.5:1. The two-piece piston offers some potential
benefits over the conventional aluminum piston in the
areas of improved oil control due to better
conformance of the piston rings to the bore, and
Improved starting due to the higher compression
pressures and temperatures permissible with the cast
iron crown. The reentrant piston bowl design provides
increased turbulence and swirl air motion which is
especially important during the later part of the
injection period where smoke and particulates are
formed in fuel-rich zones [3].
The intake port design consisted of a high swirl
port and a directed port with a built-in butterfly valve to
vary air velocities during the intake stroke. This design
provides increased air motion at low speeds and high
load for particulate and smoke control. The swirl ratios
were measured using a steady flow bench and paddle
wheel anemometer [15].
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM - Injection pressure,
duration, and timing as well as spray hole geometry
(cone angle, number of holes. hole sizes, etc.) are
considered
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
4 920116
to be the most important parameters affecting fuel-air
mixing. These parameters are determined solely by
the design of the fuel injection system. For this study,
an electro-mechanical, cam-driven unit injection
system capable of injection pressures up to 1500 bar
at full load was used. Fuel nozzle opening pressure
was set to 280 bar. Fuel injection timing and duration
were electronically controlled to within + 1 crank angle
degree. A variety of 16 fuel injector nozzles with
different combinations of cone angle, number of
holes, and hole diameters were evaluated in this
experimental program.
TEST FACILITY AND
INSTRUMENTATION - Engine speed and load
(torque) was set and maintained using a 300 HP solid
state electric dynamometer. Air flow to the engine was
supplied through a calibrated critical-flow measuring
orifice with the capacity to allow turbo-charging up to
3 bars. Heaters were installed in the inlet plenum to
control the inlet air temperature. Electro-mechanical
actuators were used to control the swirl level
generated in the intake ports. Fuel flow rate was
measured using an AVL, Type 703 Dynamic Fuel
Consumption Measurement System with a allows reduction of swirl needed for minimum smoke
micro-processor controlled Evaluating and Display
unit.
Hydrocarbons were measured using a heated
flame ionization detector (HFID) analyzer, while CO
and CO2 emissions were measured using
non-dispersive infrared analyzers, and NOx
emissions were measured using a the cylinder head face surface as shown in Figure 3.
chemiluminescehce analyzer.
Particulate samples were obtained using a Ford
developed mini-dilution tunnel which uses only a
fraction of the total engine exhaust and provided
accurate and repeatable particulate samples.
Measurements of CO2 were used to determine the
dilution ratio. The particulate samples were collected
on 142 mm diameter fluorocarbon type filters having a
nominal porosity of 1 micron. The filter weights were
measured using a Cahn micro-balance with 0.01 mg
resolution. Three consecutive 10 minute particulate
samples were taken for each test point. Exhaust
smoke measurements in Bosch numbers were
obtained using an AVL Type 409 smoke meter and
sampler unit.
The data acquisition system (DAS) consisted of an
IBM AT computer based system coupled with a Data
Precision (DP) 6000 digital oscilloscope, and a Keithly
500 measurement system. The DAS system provided
the capability to record both steady-state and
transient engine data and allowed up to 100 engine
input parameters to be monitored simultaneously.
DESCRIPTION OP EXPERIMENT
PARAMETERS INVESTIGATED - Table 1 shows
a list of the seven main parameters selected for this
experiment. Two levels, covering the upper and lower
limits of the expected operating range for this engine,
were selected for each parameter. These parameters
were believed to play an important role in the fuel-air
mixing process and were expected to have a
significant influence on the combustion process as
well as the exhaust emissions.
1) Cone Angle - The fuel spray cone angle is
measured as shown in Figure 3. The wider the spray
cone angle the better the entrainment of air around
the fuel plumes, thus promoting better mixing. Also,
changes in the cone angle affect the location where
fuel hits the piston bowl surface, which in turn affects
the mixing process - The cone angle was varied by
changing the fuel injector nozzle.
2) Number of Holes - The number of fuel spray
holes can have a significant effect on HC, NOx, and
smoke depending on the combustion chamber design
and the swirl level. Increasing the number of holes
[8]. Also, the number of holes can also affect the
injection pressure and rate, which in turn, affects the
fuel-air mixing. The number of holes was varied by
changing the injector nozzle.
3) Nozzle Protrusion - The nozzle protrusion is
defined as the distance between the nozzle tip and
varying the nozzle protrusion changes the location
where the fuel hits the piston bowl and the walls,
which can have a significant effect on the fuel-air
mixing process and the resulting emissions.
Protrusion was varied by changing the thickness of
the washer used for seating the unit injector as shown
in Figure 3.
4) Swirl Level - Air swirl undoubtedly has the most
directly observable influence on the combustion
process and the resulting emissions through its effect
on fuel-air mixing. Increased air swirl generally
reduces exhaust particulates, hydrocarbons, and
smoke, but often results in higher NOx. Swirl level
was varied by adjusting the angle of the butterfly valve
plate located in the air intake port.
5) Nozzle Area - The nozzle hole area (size)
affects the fuel injection pressure and rate, which, in
turn, affects the degree of atomization of the fuel
droplets. Smaller nozzle holes generate shorter
penetration and finer fuel droplets which generally
improves Diesel combustion. The effect of larger hole
size, which. increases smoke, also
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
920116
5
Table 1 INTERACTIONS - Although our primary goal was
Parameter Listing to investigate the main effects of the seven design
parameters on diesel combustion and emissions, we
Parameters Level 1 Level 2 also wanted to examine some of the interaction
effects between these parameters. The interaction
A: Cone Angle Narrow Wide
effects may, in some cases, be as significant as the
B: No. of Holes Few More main parameter effects. For example, by varying both
cone angle and nozzle protrusion, one can drastically
C: Nozzle Protrusion Long Short
change the location where the fuel hits the piston
D: Swirl Level Low High bowl, thus influencing the combustion process and
emissions.
E: Nozzle Area Small Large
Often, it is not known, before experimentation,
F: Compression Ratio Low High which interaction effects are important. The
assumptions concerning the relative importance of
G: SOC Timing Retard Advance
these interactions becomes vital in estimating their
causes a significant reduction in NOx emissions [9]. effects. For this study, only interaction effects between
Nozzle area was varied by changing the injector two parameters (two-way) were considered important.
nozzle. Three-way and higher interaction effects are quite
6) Compression Ratio - The compression ratio rare and can usually be neglected. Therefore, our
(CR) plays an important role during the ignition delay purpose was to “open-endedly” study the effects of
period. The ignition delay period is known to be the main design parameters along with some of their
shortened by using higher CR due to the higher gas two-way interactions.
temperatures near the end of the compression stroke. THE L 16 DESIGN ARRAY - To investigate the
CR was varied by changing the piston bowl volume. effects of the seven design parameters and their
7) SOC Timing - SOC timing is known to have a interactions, an L16 orthogonal design array, shown
considerable effect on Nox emissions. Nox emissions as a linear graph in Figure 4, was selected. The
can be drastically reduced by retarding SOC timing. numbers shown on this graph represent the 15
However, there is a fuel economy penalty at retarded columns used for this array. The column numbers for
timings. SOC timing was varied by monitoring the the seven main parameters are shown at the nodal
cylinder pressure and injector needle lift traces and points and the column numbers for the interactions
adjusting the start-of-injection (SOI) timing to give the are shown on the lines connecting the nodal points.
desired SOC setting. The chosen L16 array allows estimation of the effects
of 21 two-way interactions--some of which are
confounded with main parameters and other

Figure 3
Diagram of Engine with Different
Spray Cone Angles and Protrusions Figure 4
Linear Graph of the L16 Array
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
6 920116
two-way interactions. confounding means that two or truck transient cycle [14] shown in Table 4. Only
more effects cannot be separated. Table 2 shows an modes 4, 5, and 8, were run for each of the 16 engine
“interaction” table for this design array to determine configurations, to reduce the number of tests. Mode 4
the parameters which are confounded with one represents a
another [21,21]. Table 3
Experimental Layout of
Table 2
the L16 Design Array
Confounding of Main Parameters
and Two-way Interactions (L16 Array) Cone No. Noz. Noz. SOC

Confounded Angle Roles Prot Swirl Area CR Timing

Column Effect Effects No. 1 2 4 8 10 12 15
1 A -- 1 Narrow Few Long Low small Low Rat
2 B DE 2 Narrow Few Long High Large High Adv
3 AB FG
3 Narrow Few Short Low Small High Adv
4 C DF
4 Narrow Few Short High Large Low Rat
5 AC EG
6 BC EF 5 Narrow More Long LOW Large Low Adv
7 DG -- 6 Narrow More Long High Small High Ret
8 D BE, CF 7 Narrow More Short Low Large High Ret
9 AD -- 8 Narrow More Short High Small Low Adv
10 E BD
9 Wide Few Long Low Small Low Adv
11 AE CG
10 Wide Few Long High Large High Rat
12 F CD
13 AF BG 11 Wide Few Short LOW Small High Rat
14 AG CE, BF 12 Wide Few Short High Large Low Adv
15 G -- 13 Wide More Long Low Large Low Rat

The assumptions concerning the relative 14 Wide More Long High Small High Adv

importance of some of these interactions may be 15 Wide More Short Low Large High Adv

questionable, especially those that are confounded 16 Wide More Short High Small LOW Rot

with the main parameters. For example, in column 2,

the effect of the number of holes (B) is confounded Table 4
with the effects of the swirl level x nozzle area (DE) 8-Mode Steady-state Approximations
interaction. Similarly, in column 3, the effects of nozzle of the EPA Heavy-Duty Diesel
protrusion (C) is confounded with the interaction Transient Cycle
effects of swirl level x compression ratio (DF). Since % Full % Full Weighing
we did not know which interactions were important Mode Speed Load Factor
apriori, it was assumed (by default) that the 1 Low Idle 1.0 .001
interactions confounded with the main parameters 2 10.0 25.0 .021
were relatively unimportant. 3 22.0 63.0 .036
Table 3 shows the actual experimental layout of *4 32.0 86.0 .071
the L16 design array. This array represents a test *5 99.0 18.0 .067
matrix of 16 different engine configurations with 6 95.0 40.0 .186
various combinations of cone angles, number of 7 95.0 70.0 .313
holes, nozzle protrusions swirl levels, hole areas, *8 90.0 95.0 .305
compression ratios, and SOC timings. Note that the
* Modes selected for L16 Experiment
column numbers for the main parameters only are
indicated in Table 3. low speed-high load point where relatively high
TEST CONDITIONS - The test conditions used for carbon particulate emissions are expected. Mode 8
this experiment were selected from the 8-mode represents a high speed-high load point where, again,
steady-state approximation of the EPA heavy-duty particulate emissions are usually high.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
920116
7
Additionally, mode 8 was selected because its Table 5
Combustion Parameter Result
L16 Experiment - Modes 4, 5, 8
weighting factor represents nearly 1/3 (30.5%) of the
total 8-mode cycle. Mode 5 represents a high Ignition Delay Premixed Combust. Premixed Combust. Diff. Combust.
(I D msec) Fraction (PCF) Index (PCI) Index (DCI)
speed-low load point where the lube oil contribution to No 4 5 8 4 5 8 4 5 8 4 5 8
particulates is usually high. Using these three test 1 1.16 1.01 1.02 0.19 0.56 0.19 0.24 0.58 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.49
modes, a total of 48 sets of combustion and 2 0.58 0.72 0.47 0,19 0.46 0.08 0.24 0.46 0.24 0.29 0.39 0.52

emissions data (16 configurations at 3 operating 3 0.58 0.72 0.79 0.14 0.41 0.13 0.22 0.41 0.26 0.29 0.31 0.54

modes) were recorded for this experiment. 4 1 01 1.01 0.55 0.15 0.48 0.08 0.22 0.51 0.24 0,34 0.32 0,51

5 1.30 1.09 0.71 0.17 0.60 0.06 0.23 0.61 0.17 0.34 0.29 0.55
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 6 0.43 0.72 0,71 0.17 0.46 0.19 0.26 0.46 0.37 0.34 0.39 0.56

7 0.58 0.72 0.71 0.18 0.41 0.18 0.27 0.41 0,32 0.27 0.31 0,54
Prior to running the L16 experiment, a series of 8 0.87 1.01 0.55 0,12 0.57 0.08 0.21 0.59 0.24 0.32 0.37 0.51

initial experiments were conducted to determine the 9 1.01 1.01 0.63 0.17 0A1 0.06 0.24 0.63 0.18 0.39 0.33 0.66

appropriate levels of cone angle, nozzle area, nozzle 10 0.58 0.65 0.47 0.19 0.51 0.08 0.25 0.51 0.26 0,32 0.32 0.54

11 0,58 0.72 0.71 0.14 0.49 0.14 0.25 0,49 0.30 0.31 0.30 0.52
protrusion, and swirl to use for this particular engine.
12 1.01 1.01 0.47 0.15 0.48 0.05 0.21 0.52 0,19 0.34 0.29 0.50
Results from these initial experiments were used to
13 1.30 1.01 1.02 0.21 0.61 0.24 0.24 0.63 0,37 0.37 0,33 0.47
establish the upper and lower limits for the parameter
14 0.58 0.58 0.39 0.19 0.39 0.06 0.25 0.39 0.24 0.32 0.40 0.55
settings required by the L16 design array. Once these 15 0.58 0.72 0.71 0.14 0.49 0.14 0.25 0.49 0.30 0.31 0.30 0.52
limits were established, the emission and combustion 16 1.16 0.94 0.94 0.15 0.38 0.19 0.22 0.40 0.36 0.37 0.39 0.50

parameter results as well as the conclusions based on

these results, were confined to these limits. The
Table 6
results from the combustion parameter analysis will Percent Contributions for Combustion
be presented first, followed by the emission analysis. Parameters Averaged over Three Speed
Load Conditions Using ANOVA
COMBUSTION PARAMETER ANALYSIS - Table
5 shows the combustion parameter results obtained % Contribution
for each of the 48 test points of the L16 experiment. Parameter or Inter-
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on action I.D. PCF PCI DCI
these data and the significant parameters and A: Cone Angle ---- ---- ---- ----
interactions were identified using the classical F B: No. Holes ---- ---- 3.8 ----
statistics test at a 95% confidence interval [26]. C: Protrusion ---- 22.0 11.6 20.0
ANOVA has traditionally been used to determine the
D: Swirl Level 10.6 24.4 15.7 5.5
extent to which independent parameters contribute to
E: Nozzle Area ---- ---- ---- 20.0
response variation. From this analysis, the
F: Comp. Ratio 76.6 12.6 9.7 ----
contribution of each design parameter and interaction
to the total variation observed in the combustion C: SOC Timing 2.7 14.5 24.5 ----
parameter responses was determined. Table 6 AE: Angle x Area ---- 8.4 12.5 6.5
summarizes the ANOVA results based on the three AF: Angle x CR ---- ---- ---- 4.5
speed/load conditions investigated. AD: Angle x Swirl ---- 6.3 14.6 2.8
The numbers in Table 6 indicate the relative DG: Swirl x SOC ---- ---- ---- 8.7
percent contribution of each design parameter to the Pooled 10.1 11.8 7.6 32.0
total variation observed in the combustion parameter
Ignition delay was mainly dominated by changes in
responses when changing from level 1 to level 2. A
compression ratio which contributed 76.6% to the
large percent contribution is indicative of an important
total variation. The interaction table (2) shows that CR
parameter. For discussion purposes. only
is confounded with the nozzle protrusion x swirl level
contributions greater than 10% will be considered.
(CD) interaction. However,
Parameters contributing less than 2% to the total
variation were “pooled” together in the error term. All
variances that could not be attributed to a specific
parameter or interaction were also pooled into the
error term.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
8 920116
the analysis showed that the effect of nozzle
protrusion on ignition delay was negligible and the
effect of swirl lever was minor when compared to
compression ratio. So it is reasonable to assume that
CR is the most significant parameter affecting ignition
delay. The injection system parameters such a come
angle, number of holes, and nozzle area had little or
no effect on ignition delay. These date support the
observations of other investigators which showed that
the ignition delay for DI Diesel engines is mainly due
to the chemical delay [10]. therefore, it is not
surprising that the design parameters related to the
injection system, which controls primarily the physical
delay had very little effect on the total ignition delay.
The premixed combustion fraction, which provides
some information about the initial rate of combustion,
was primarily influenced by changes in swirl level
(24.4%), nozzle protrusion (22.0%), SOC timing
(14.5%), and possibly compression ratio (12.6%).The
effect of CR is confounded with the nozzle protrusion
x swirl level (CD) interaction, which were the two most
important parameters. These parameters apparently
play major roles in controlling the rate at which fuel-air
mixture burns immediately after ignition. The ANOVA
results also show that the interaction between cone
angle and nozzle area (AE) may be important during
the initial phases of combustion. However, Table 2
shows that the effects of this interaction is confounded
with the nozzle protrusion x SOC timing (CG)
interaction effects. Since both nozzle protrusion and
SOC timing were important individually, it is not
surprising that their interaction might also be
important. On the other hand, neither cone angle nor
nozzle area was important individually, Hence, it
would seen unlikely that the interaction would be
important. The cone angle x swirl level (AD)
interaction with a 6.3% contribution was mainly due to
swirl level effects since the cone angle effects were
minimal.
The premixed combustion index was mainly
dominated by changes in SOC timing contributing
24.5%, and by changes in swirl level contributing
15.7%. The relative importance of swirl and SOC
timing on PCI appears to have reversed when
compared to PCF. One reason for the reversal in the
swirl level significance for PCF and PCI may be due to
the confounding of swirl level with the nozzle
protrusion x CR (CG) interaction. Both nozzle
protrusion and CR were more individually significant
for PCF than for PCI. Hence, one might expect their
interaction to also be more significant for PCF. Note
that swirl level is also confounded with the number of
holes x nozzle area (BE) interaction, which is
assumed to be negligible. SOC timing was not
confounded with any other two-way interaction so its
relative importance can be assumed valid. The cone
angle x nozzle area (AE) interaction shows a 12.5%
contribution to PCI. However, this is mainly due to
confounding of the nozzle protrusion x SOC timing
(CG) interaction. The cone angle x swirl level (AD)
interaction shows a 14.6% contribution which is
mainly due to the effects of swirl level.
The diffusion combustion index, which provides
information about the middle and latter phases of the
combustion process, was strongly influenced by
changes in both protrusion and nozzle area, each
contributing 20% to the total response variation. The
interaction effects of swirl level, which is confounded
with both nozzle protrusion (through De) and nozzle
area through (BD), also appear to have a significant
influence on DCI. Since the amount of diffusion
burning is controlled by the rate of injection and
mixing, it would seem reasonable that the injection
system parameters, along with the swirl, would be
most significant during the latter phase of the
combustion process.
COMBUSTION EFFECTSAT DIFFERENT
OPERATING CONDITIONS - Figure 5 shows another
method of summarizing the effects of the design
parameters on the combustion parameters. This
figure shows the average effect of changing a
parameter from one level to the next for each of the
three test modes. Referring to Table 3, each design
parameter was held at its level 1 value for 8 of the 16
configurations and at its level 2 value for the other 8
configurations. The average effect was determined by
summing the responses at one level of a design
parameter and comparing it to the responses at the
other level of the design parameter. The greater the
difference between level 1 and level 2, the greater the
parameter’s effect. The arrows shown in the boxes in
Figure 5 indicate whether the average effect
increased or decreased significantly when the
parameter value changed from level 1 to level 2. The
blank boxes indicate a relatively small or insignificant
effect. The combined column indicates the “net”
parameter effect when averaged all three modes.
Ignition Delay - Increasing CR resulted in shorter
ignition delays at all three modes. Increasing the swirl
level shortened ID at higher loads but had little or no
effect at light loads. Advancing SOC timing shortened
the ID at mode 8 (high speed/high load) only, with
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
920116
Figure 5
Effect of Design Parameters on Diesel
Combustion Parameters
only a minor effect at modes 4 and 5. Cone angle,
number of holes, nozzle protrusion, and nozzle area
produced little or no effect on ID.
Premixed-Combustion Fraction - Increasing swirl
produced a lower PCF at higher speeds (modes 5 and
8), but had very little effect at low speed (mode 4).
Increasing nozzle protrusion increased PCF at modes
4 and 5, but shows no effect at mode 8. Advancing
SOC timing generally lowered PCF at the high loads,
but had very little effect at light load.
Premixed-Combustion Index - Advancing SOC
timing lowered PCI at high loads, but had little or no
effect at light load. Increasing the swirl level generally
lowered PCI, while increasing the number holes
generally increased PCI, particularly at higher loads.
Diffusion Combustion Index - Increasing nozzle
protrusion resulted in a higher DCI at all modes, while
increasing the nozzle area produced a lower DCI at all
modes.
9
EMISSIONS ANALYSIS - Table 7 shows the
emission results for particulates, NOx, HC, and
smoke obtained from the L16 experiment for modes 4,
5 and 8. Note that “indicated” rather than “brake”
specific emission values are shown. Again, an
ANOVA was performed on the emissions data to
determine which design parameters were most
significant. The ANOVA results for the three combined
speed/load conditions are summarized in Table 8.
The results for particulates show that 26.3 percent
of the total variation was due to the interaction
between cone angle and nozzle area (AE). However,
neither of these main effects were identified as
important. Therefore, it seems unlikely that their
interaction would be important. Table 2 shows that the
cone angle x nozzle area (AE) interaction is
confounded with the nozzle protrusion x SOC timing
(CG) interaction. Since both nozzle protrusion and
SOC timing show a significant contributions, it would
seems
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
10 920116
highly possible that their interaction would also show
Table 7 a significant contribution. Hence, the 26.3 percent
Emission Results
L16 Experiment - Modes 4, 5, 8 contribution can be mainly attributed to the CG
ISPART I S N O X I S H C S M O K E interaction instead of the AE interaction as indicated.
(gm/ihp-hr) (gm/ihp-hr) (gm/ihp-hr) (bosch no.)
Swirl level (at 10.7%) is identified as another
No 4 5 8 4 5 8 4 5 8 4 5 8
important parameter influencing particulate
1 .033 .075 .083 4.35 2.85 3.19 .106 .221 .056 0.6 0.3 0.9
emissions. Again, referring to Table 2, swirl level is
2 .047 .102 .087 9.38 5.88 5.51 .081 .153 .052 0.4 0.4 0.6
confounded with two two-way interactions; number of
3 .052 .057 .070 6.73 4.44 4.08 .109 .214 .072 0.5 0.2
holes x nozzle area (BE) and nozzle protrusion x
4 .054 .123 .071 5.45 3.29 3.76 .100 .214 .084 0.5 0.2 0.7
compression ratio (CF). The extent to which these
5 .042 .079 .109 6.67 5.59 4.73 .077 .139 .049 0.2 0.05 1.2

6 .038 .095 .057 6.84 3.69 4.82 .101 .147 .054 0.4 0.1 0.1
interactions influenced the results for swirl level could
7 .048 .053 .019 4.66 3.79 4.51 .100 .164 .038 0.6 0.1 0.8
not be determined from this experiment.
8 .042 .050 .047 8.89 5.45 5.79 .091 .163 .070 0.0 0.5 0.3 For NOx, SOC timing was the clearly the dominant
9 .093 .111 .084 8.15 4.03 4.06 .096 .189 .074 0.7 0.2 0.6 parameter (65.4%) since no other parameter
10 .066 .100 .108 5.15 3.43 3.87 .074 .216 .066 0.6 0.3 0.7 interactions were confounded with SOC timing. Swirl
11 .116 .126 .118 4.46 3.00 3.44 .096 .221 .073 1.3 0.2 1.1
level and the number of fuel spray holes also showed
12 .049 .077 .041 9.09 3.32 5.11 .077 .113 .053 0.5 0.1 0.4
significant effects on NOx emissions contributing 11.6
13 .060 .114 .083 4.70 3.72 3.95 .084 .171 .092 0.4 0.1 0.7
and 11.3 percent, respectively.
14 .036 .171 .064 8.84 6.43 5.19 .085 .137 .053 0.3 0.5 0.4

15 .070 .050 .066 7.54 6.02 5.75 .096 .178 .072 0.7 0.1 0.5 Results for hydrocarbon (HC) emissions show that
16 .046 .150 .044 5.52 3.47 4.01 .092 .153 .046 0.3 0.05 0.3 the interactions between cone angle x swirl level (AE),
and between cone angle x nozzle protrusion (AC) are
important. Although the main effects of cone angle
Table 8 and nozzle protrusion on HC emissions are minimal, it
percent Contributions for Emissions is somewhat surprising that their interaction effects
Averaged over Three Speed/LOad
conditions Using ANOVA appear so significant. The number of spray holes and
SOC timing are also identified as significant
% C o n t r i b u t i o n parameters affecting HC emissions.
Parameter or
interaction PART. Nox HC SMOKE Smoke emissions results show that swirl level
A: Cone Angle 5.3 ---- ---- ----
contributed 41.7% to the total variation, followed by
the number of spray holes at 15.5%, and nozzle area
B: No. Holes 5.9 11.3 15.2 15.5
at 11.8%. However, the effects of swirl level is
C: Protrusion 19.6
confounded with the number of holes x nozzle area
D: Swirl Level 10.7 11.6 11.7 41.7* (BE) interaction. Hence, an exact determination of the
E: Nozzle Area ---- ---- ---- 11.8 effect of swirl level to smoke emissions can not be
F: Comp Ratio 4.1 1.9 ---- ---- made from these results. It does appear. however,
G: SOG Timing 8.1 65.4* 11.7 ---- that swirl level, number of holes, and nozzle area are
AE: Angle x Area 26.3* ---- 2.2 9.8 the most important parameters affecting smoke
BC: Holes x Prot ---- ---- ---- ----
emissions.
AC: Angle x Prot 15.1 EMISSION EFFECTS AT DIFFERENT
AF: Angle x CR 6.7 ---- 8.4 10.5 OPERATING CONDITIONS - Figure 6 shows the
AC: Angle x SOC 6.9 ---- ---- ---- average effect on emissions when changing a design
parameter from one level to the next for each of the
AB: Angle x Hole ---- ---- 5.8 ----
three test modes. Again, the arrows indicate a
DC: Swirl x SOC ---- ---- 3.9 ----
significant increase or decrease in the average effect,
AD: Angle x Swirl ---- ---- 16.4* ----
and the blanks indicate a very small or insignificant
Pooled Error 6.4 9.8 9.6 19.7 effect.
Particulates - Increasing the spray cone angle
resulted in an increase in particulates for modes 4 and
5. One might expect that the wider spray would
provide better fuel-air mixing. which would tend to
lower particulates. The results, however, did not show
this trend at these
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
920116
11

Figure 6
Effect of Design Parameters on
Diesel Emissions
modes. Increasing nozzle protrusion lowered effect on particulates at light loads. Advancing SOC
particulates at mode 4 (low speed) but increased timing decreased particulates at high speeds.
particulates at modes 5 and 8 (high speeds) indicating Advancing the timing allows more time to oxidize
possible speed (time) effects associated with particulates resulting in lower tailpipe particulates.
protrusion. Increasing swirl decreased particulates at
NOx - Advancing SOC timing produced higher
modes 4 and 8 (higher loads) and increased slightly at NOx emissions at all speed/load conditions due to
mode 5 (low load). At higher loads, the increased swirl
higher combustion temperatures resulting from earlier
improved fuel/air mixing and lowered particulates.
burning around TDC. Increasing the swirl level and
However, at light loads, the increased swirl may the number of holes also produced higher NOx due to
induce over-swirl, which may in fact increase
the improved fuel/air mixing which resulted in higher
particulates due to lean pockets within the mixture.
combustion temperatures. Increasing the spray cone
Increasing nozzle area had little effect on particulates angle showed very little effect on Nox emissions. This
at low speed, while at high speed it decreased
may have been due to the narrow range of cone
particulates at mode 5 (low load), and it increased
angles selected for this experiment which may not
particulates at mode 8 (high load). Nozzle area affects have been sufficient to produce a noticeable effect.
droplet size. At the higher load, the larger droplets
Increasing the nozzle area showed very little effect on
would tend to result in poor mixing and an increase in
Nox at modes 4 and 5, but showed an increase in
particulates. Increasing compression ratio generally NOx at mode 8. This was somewhat surprising.
increased particulates at high loads but had very little
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
12 920116
One would expect that an increase in nozzle area
would produce larger fuel droplets which would tend
to result in poorer mixing and lower combustion
temperatures, and hence, lower NOx emissions.
However, the results did not show this. Increasing the
compression ratio increased NOx as expected due to
the higher compression and combustion
temperatures.
HC - Increasing the spray cone angle reduced HC
emissions at mode 4 (low speed) and increased HC
emissions at mode 8 (high speed). At low speeds, the
fuel has more time to burn using wider sprays than at
higher speeds where the time is considerably
shortened. Increasing the number of holes resulted in
lower HC emissions at modes 5 and 8 (high speeds)
but had very little effect at mode 4 (low speed).
Increasing the nozzle protrusion reduced HC
emissions at the higher loads (modes 4 and 8), but
had little effect at the light load (mode 5). Increasing
the swirl level resulted in lower HC emissions due to
the increased burnup. Increasing the swirl also
reduces the amount of non-combustible mass in the
quench layer, which results in lower HC. Advancing
SOC timing generally resulted in lower HC emissions
due to the increased time for oxidation. Increasing CR
generally resulted in lower HC emissions (particularly
at higher loads) due to higher temperatures and
increased burnup.
Smoke - Increasing the swirl. level resulted in
lower smoke at modes 4 and 8 (high loads) and
higher smoke at mode 5 (light load). Under high load
conditions, the increased swirl enhances the fuel-air
mixing process which tends to produce lower smoke.
However, for light load conditions, the increased swirl
produces air pockets that are too lean to burn
resulting in higher smoke. Increasing the number of
holes produced lower smoke due to the increased
fuel-air spray surface area resulting in better mixing.
Increasing the nozzle area resulted in an increase in
smoke emissions at mode 8 (high load) due to the
poor mixing of the larger fuel droplets with air.
Increasing SOC timing generally decreased smoke
due to the earlier burning and higher temperatures.
Increasing nozzle protrusion tended to decrease
smoke. The reason for the decrease was not clear.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMBUSTION
PARAMETERS AND EMISSIONS - Figures 7 through
10 show graphs of the quantitative relationships
determined between the combustion parameters and
the most significant design parameters which affect
Figure 7
them, and the various exhaust emissions. It should be
Effect of Significant Design Parameters
noted that these graphs indicate relationships
on Ignition Delay and Emissions for
resulting from main parameter effects only, and do Combined Loading (msec.)
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
920116
13
not incorporate any interaction effects.
ID vs Emissions - Figure 7 shows the relationship
between ID and exhaust emissions as a function the
most significant design parameters affecting ID, which
were; compression ratio, swirl, and SOC timing. This
figure shows that increasing CR from low to high
shortened the ignition delay by 0.32 msec, and
resulted in higher particulate, NOx, and smoke
emissions. The effect of CR on HC emissions was
relatively small as indicated by the flat (constant) line
on Figure 7.
Increasing swirl level from low to high shortened
the ignition delay by 0.14 msec, and resulted in lower
particulates, HC, and smoke emissions, but higher
Nox emissions.
Advancing SOC timing shortened the ignition
delay by .08 msec and resulted in lower particulate,
HC, and smoke emissions, and higher Nox emissions.
PCF vs Emissions - Figure 8 shows the
relationship between PCF and exhaust emissions as
a function of swirl, nozzle protrusion, SOC timing, and
CR. Increasing swirl from low to high reduced PCF by
about 12% and resulted in a 5% decrease in both
particulate and HC emissions, a 37% decrease in
smoke emissions, and a 13% increase in NOx
emissions.
Increasing nozzle protrusion from short to long
increased PCF by nearly 11% and resulted in a 12%
increase in particulates, a 5% increase in NOx, a 5%
decrease in HC, and a 6% increase in smoke.
Advancing the SOC timing reduced PCF by 10%
and resulted in a 12% decrease in particulates, a 31%
increase in NOx, a 10% decrease in HC, and a 15%
decrease in smoke.
Increasing CR from low to high reduced PCF by
9% and produced a 6% increase in both particulates
and Nox, a 1% increase in HC, and a 17% increase in
smoke.
PCI vs Emissions - Figure 9 shows the relationship
between PCI and the exhaust emissions for the most
important design parameters, which were the same
ones for PCF. The effects of these parameters on PCI
and exhaust emissions were similar to those for PCF.
DCI vs Emissions - Figure 10 shows the
relationship between DCI and exhaust emissions as a
function of nozzle protrusion, nozzle area, swirl, and
cone angle. Increasing nozzle protrusion from short to
long increased DCI by 5%, decreased particulates by
12%, increased NOx by 3%, decreased HC by 5%,
and increased smoke by 4%.
Increasing nozzle area from small to large Figure 8
decreased DCI by 5%, decreased particulates by 3%,
increased NOx by 2%, and decreased HC and smoke Effect of Significant Design Parameters
by 5%. on Premixed Combustion Fraction (PCF)
and Emissions for Combined Loading
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
14 920116

Figure 9 Figure 10
Effect of Significant Design Parameters Effect of Significant Design Parameters
on Premixed Combustion Index (PCI) and on Diffusion Combustion Index (DCI) and
Emissions for Combined Loading Emissions for Combined Loading
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
920116
15
Increasing swirl level from low to high increased One final important point to consider when
DCI by 3%, decreased particulates by 5%, increased applying Taguchi Methods to investigate Diesel
NOx by 13% decreased HC by 13%, and decreased combustion and emissions.
smoke by 34%.
Increasing the spray cone angle from narrow to
wide increased DCI by 2%, increased particulates by
22%, decreased Nox by 2%, decreased HC by 3%,
and increased smoke by 10%.
SUMMARY OF EFFECTS ON COMBUSTION
PARAMETERS AND EMISSIONS - Figure 11 shows
the average effect of changes in the design
parameters on the combustion parameters and
emissions for combined speed/load conditions. Again,
one should note that this figure does not include any
interaction effects between the design parameters. In
general, the results can be summarized as follows;
• Increasing the spray cone angle increases DCI
and usually results in higher particulates and smoke,
and lower NOx and HC.
• Increasing the number of nozzle holes increases Figure 11
PCF, PCI, and DCI and generally results in lower Summary of Effects of Design
particulates, HC, and smoke, but higher Nox. Parameters on Diesel Combustion
• Increasing nozzle protrusion increases PCF, PCI, Parameters and Emissions
and DCI and results in higher particulates, NOx, and When selecting an orthogonal array design, one
smoke, but lower HC. needs to be aware of what effects are confounded to
• Increasing swirl level tends to shorten the I.D., avoid drawing erroneous conclusions. For example, if
decrease PCF and PCI, and increase DCI, and we conclude that a certain main effect is statistically
produce lower particulates, HC, and smoke, but significant, it might be a two-way interaction with
higher NOx. which it is confounded that is actually significant. In
• Increasing nozzle area decreases DCI, and this experiment, one of the most significant effects on
produces lower particulates and HC, but higher NOx particulates was attributed to the interaction AE (cone
and smoke. angle x nozzle area) whereas it really should have
been attributed to CG (nozzle protrusion x SOC
• Increasing CR shortens ID and decreases PCP
timing). To obtain reliable results based on a relatively
and PCI, and produces higher particulates, NOx, HC,
small number of observations using orthogonal
and smoke.
arrays, the experiments must be carefully designed.
• Advancing SOC timing shortens ID, decreases
PCF and PCI, and produces lower particulates, HC, The Taguchi method using orthogonal arrays is a
and smoke, but higher NOX. powerful tool and can provide valuable information,
but one must use it with caution and with proper
CONCLUSIONS understanding--especially when interaction effects
may be important. Reliable prior information on the
The qualitative and quantitative effects of changes
possible effects of the main parameters, as well as
in several key design parameters on Diesel
their interactions, would be of great benefit in
combustion and emissions were examined using
designing experiments and would avoid erroneous
Taguchi methods. The results, although often
conclusions into which one might be trapped.
confirming many of the known relationships, apply
only to the limited range of the parameters ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
investigated and only for this particular engine design.
It is, nevertheless, felt that the interrelationships found The author wishes to express his sincere
from the data and analysis might be useful in better appreciation to Dr. Charles Hunter and Mr. Mark
understanding the complex nature of Diesel seaman for their contribution to this work.
combustion and emissions.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Bath , Sunday, September 23, 2018
16
REFERENCES
1. “Federal Heavy Duty 5.0 gm/bhp-hr NOx and
0.25 gm/bhp-hr Particulate Standard,” 50 Federal
Register 10653, 40CFR, 86.091-11, March 15, 1985.
2. P. Zelenka, W. Kriegler, P.L. Herzop, and W.P.
Cartellieri, “Ways Toward the Clean Heavy-Duty
Diesel”, SAE Paper No. 900602, 1990.
3. A.P. Gill, “Design Choices For 1990’s Low
Emission Diesel Engines”, SAE Paper NO. 880350,
1988.
4. W.P. Cartellieri and P.L. Herzog, “Swirl
Supported or Quiescent Combustion for 1990’s
Heavy-Duty DI Diesel Engines - An Analysis”, SAE
Paper No. 880342. 1988.
5. C.A. Amann and D.C. Siegla. “Diesel
Particulate--What They Are and Why”, GM Research
Publication No. GMR-3672, 1981.
6. N. Watson and A.D. Piley, “A Combustion
Correlation for Diesel Engine Simulation,” SAE Paper
No. 800029, 1980.
7. G. Greeves, “Response of Diesel Combustion
Systems to Increase of Fuel Injection Rate”, SAE
Paper NO. 790037, 1979.
8. W.T. Lyn, “The Spectrum of Diesel Combustion
Research,” Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs., 184, Pt. (3J) 1,
1969-1970.
9. R.J. Hames, D.F. Merrion, and H.S. Ford,
“Some Effects of Fuel Injection System Parameters
on Diesel Exhaust Emissions,” SAE Paper No.
710671, 1971.
10. J.H. Van Gerpen, C. Huang, and G.L. Borman,
“The Effects of Swirl and Injection Parameters on
Diesel Combustion and Heat Transfer,” SAE Paper
No. 850265, 1985.
11. C.E. Hunter, H.A. Cikanek, and T.P. Gardner,
“Evaluation of Some Factors Controlling DI Diesel
Combustion and Exhaust Emissions”, Journal of
Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, Vol. 111,
July 1989.
12. C.E. Hunter, F.H. Trinker, and P.H. Havstad,
“Diesel Combustion Analysis”, Ford Research
Technical Report No. SR-84-133, 1984.
13. T.J. Williams and M. J. Tindal, “Gas Flow
Studies in Direct Injection Diesel Engines with
Re-Entrant Combustion Chambers”, SAE Paper No.
800027, 1980.
14. C.E. Hunter, T.P. Gardner, and C.E. Zakrajsek,
“Simultaneous Optimization of Diesel Engine
Parameters for Low Emissions using Taguchi
Methods”, SAE Paper No. 902075, 1990.
15. T.T. Chan, “The Effect of Swirl and Exhaust
Gas Recirculation on Cylinder Averaged Oxides of
Nitrogen Histories in a Diesel Engine,” M.S. Thesis.
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, 1981.
920116
16. Y. Aoyagi, T. Kamimoto, Y. Matsui, and S.
Matsuka, “A Gas Sampling Study on the Formation
Precesses of Soot and NO in a DI Diesel Engine”,
SAE Paper No. 800254, 1980.
17. K.J. Springer, “Low Emission Diesel Fuel for
1991-1994”, Advances in Engine Emission Controls
Technology ICE-Vol.5, 1989.
18. G. Greeves and C. H. T. Wang, “Origins of
Diesel Particulate Mass Emission”, SAE Paper NO.
810260, 1981.
19. G. Stumpp, W. Polach, N. Muller, and J.
Warga, “Fuel Injection Equipment for Heavy Duty
Diesel Engines for U.S. 1991/1994 Emission Limits”,
SAE Paper No. 890851, 1989.
20. W.J. Mayer and D.C. Lechman, “The
Contribution of Engine Oil to Diesel Exhaust
Particulate Emissions”, SAE Paper NO. 800256,
1988.
21. Genichi Taguchi, “Introduction to Quality
Engineering,”, Kraus International Publications,
Whiter Plains, New York, 1986.
22. American Supplier Institute, Inc., “Introduction
to Quality Engineering,” Copyright 1987.
23. D.A. Bittker. V.J. Scullin, “General Kinetics
Computer Program for Static and Flow Reactions with
Application to Combustion and Schock-Tube
Kinetics,” NASA TN D-6586, 1972
24. USA Code of Federal Regulations. “Protection
of Environment Title 40, Part 86, Revised as of July 1,
1985 and December 16. 1987.
25. Design of Experiments (DOE) Computer
Program, developed by Quality Software Products,
Inc., Copyright 1987.
26. T. B. Barker, “Quality by Experimental Design”,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., ASQC Quality Press, New York,
Copyright 1985.
27. W. R. Wade and C. E. Hunter, “Analysis of
Combustion Performance of Diesel Fuels,” CRC
Workshop on Diesel Combustion, Atlanta, Georgia,
September 1983.
28. W. R. Wade and C. M. Jones, “Current and
Future Light-Duty Diesel Engines and Their Fuels,”
SAE Paper No. 840105, 1984.
29. W. R. Wade, P. H. Havstad, E. J. Ounsted, F.
H. Trinker, and I. J. Garwin, “Fuel Economy
opportunities With An Uncooled DI Diesel Engine”
IMechE/SAE Joint International Conference on Fuel
Efficient Powertrains and Vehicles. October 1984.
30. Ryan, T. P., “Taguchi’s Approach to
Experimental Design: Some Concerns”, Quality
Progress, May 1988, pgs 34-36.
31. Kacker, R. N., Lagergren, E. S. and Filliben,
J.J., “Taguchi’s Fixed-Element Arrays are Fractional
Factorials”, Journal of Quality Technology, April 1991,
pgs. 107-116.