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Notes PDF
Light independent stage: Light dependent stage drives the light independent stage.
Hydrogen atoms produced in the light dependent stage is used to reduce carbon dioxide
molecules into carbohydrates such as glucose. Energy for this process comes from the
chemical energy produced in the light dependent stage. It is a series of enzyme controlled
reactions.
Overall Equation:
6CO2 + 12H20 C6H1206 + 6O2 + H20
Simplified Equation:
6H20 +6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2
2. What is Photosynthesis?
Carbon dioxide
Light Intensity:
Compensation point is a point in which rate of photosynthesis=rate of respiration. As the
light intensity increases in the morning and fades in the evening, there is a point in which
rate of photosynthesis=rate of respiration. During this point, there is no net uptake or
release of carbon dioxide or oxygen. The glucose produced during photosynthesis exactly
compensates the glucose broken down during respiration. As light intensity increases, rate
of photosynthesis increases proportionally. When the light intensity increases beyond a
certain point, it does not directly affect the rate of photosynthesis so temperature or carbon
dioxide concentration becomes the limiting factor.
-Used immediately
o For cellular respiration as to provide energy for cell activities.
o To form cellulose cell walls
-Converted to sucrose
o Transported to other parts of the plant and storage organs through the phloem.
o Converted to starch or other forms of storage compounds in the storage organs.
May be converted back to glucose.
-During the day, photosynthesis occurs at a much higher rate than respiration. Thus, excess
glucose is converted to starch. In darkness, photosynthesis does not occur, thus starch is
converted back to glucose(sucrose which is transported to other parts of the plant)
-Oxygen production
o Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide in the air, as well as release oxygen into the
atmosphere. The oxygen released is used by living organisms during respiration to
release energy for cell activities.
o This purifies the air and maintains a constant balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.
o The source of energy for all living organisms is the Sun, which is captured through
photosynthesis. The burning of fossil fuels provides energy for human activities.
o Light energy is being converted to chemical energy during the light dependent stage
of photosynthesis, which is stored within carbohydrate molecules. Fats, proteins and
other organic compounds can be formed from carbohydrate molecules. These
substances becomes food for other organisms. Animals may directly or indirectly
obtain chemical energy from plants, as plants are the producers in the food chain.
Structure Adaptation
Lamina Broad lamina which has a large surface area
compared to its volume which enables it to
obtain maximum sunlight for
photosynthesis.
Thin lamina which provides short diffusion
distance for gases and enables sunlight to
enter all mesophyll cells.
Petiole Holds the leaf far away from the stem to
ensure lamina can obtain sufficient sunlight
and air.
Network of veins Transports water and mineral salts to the
leaf and carry manufactured food from leaf
to all other parts of the plant.
Leaf Arrangement The leaves are always organised around the
stem in a regular pattern. They either grow
in pairs or singly in alternate arrangement.
This ensures that all leaves get sufficient
sunlight and is not blocked by other leaves.
o The guard cells photosynthesize, converting light energy to chemical energy. The
chemical energy is used to pump potassium ions into the cells from the
neighbouring epidermis cells.
o This lowers the water potential of the guard cells. Thus water diffuses into the guard
cell from the epidermis cells through osmosis. This increases the turgidity of the
guard cells and cause them to become swollen. The guard cells have a thicker cell
wall on one side of the cell(the one surrounding the stomatal pore). This causes the
swollen guard cells to become more curved and pull the stoma open.
-At night:
o The potassium ions accumulated in the guard cells diffuse out of the cells. This
increases the water potential of the guard cell, causing water to diffuse out of the
guard cell through osmosis.
o The guard cells become flaccid and the stoma closes.
Hormones
1. What is a hormone?
A hormone is a chemical substance produced in minute quantities by the endocrine gland. It
alters the activity of one or more target organs. After performing its function, it is destroyed
in the liver.
4. Does the body respond faster to hormones or nerve impulses faster? Why?
The body responds to nerve impulses faster. Hormones have to depend on the speed of the
circulatory system in order to perform their functions. Furthermore, cells that are subjected
to the influence of hormones will take time to change their chemical activities.
5. Adrenaline
-Adrenaline is secreted in stressful situations to make us react more quickly or feel tense,
angry, afraid or anxious.
-The stimuli activates the hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are transmitted down the spinal
cord and then to the adrenal medulla by the motor neurone.
ReceptorSensory NeuroneRelay NeuroneMotor NeuroneAdrenal Medulla
-Effects of adrenaline
o Heart: Increases rate of heartbeat and causes a rise in blood pressure so that more
oxygen and glucose can be transported to muscle cells. This cause hypertension and
heart palpitation.
o Liver: Stimulates liver to convert glycogen to glucose so that more glucose is
available for muscle contraction. Increases blood glucose level.
o Lungs: Increases depth and rate of ventilation. Uptake of oxygen is faster and carbon
dioxide is removed from lungs quickly, thus blood becomes oxygenated more
quickly. This causes panting.
o Pupils dilate, causing more light to enter the eyes, enhancing vision
o Increases rate of blood clotting.
o Constricts arterioles to gut, slowing digestive activities.
o Increases metabolic rate so more energy is released during tissue respiration.
o Muscles are tensed, making them ready for immediate action. This causes an
anxious feeling.
o Contracts hair muscles, causing hair muscles to stand on it ends and produce goose
bumps
o Constricts arterioles in skin, causing paleness, thus channelling more blood to
muscles.
6. Insulin and Glucagon
-When insulin secretion is normal blood glucose concentration decreases.
o Insulin increases the permeability of cell membranes to glucose. This increases rate
of uptake of glucose by cells.
o Stimulates liver and muscle cells to convert glucose to glycogen.
o Increases oxidation of glucose during tissue respiration.
-When insulin secretion is too high, there is an abnormal decrease in blood glucose
concentration.
o Results in a health condition called shock. Coma and death may follow.
Glucagon stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose, and conversion of amino acids and fats
to glucose.
7. Diabetes Mellitus
-Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which body is unable to control its blood glucose
concentration so that it stays within normal limits.
-Some common signs
o Urinating often
o Presence of sugar in urine after meals
o Being very thirsty
o Difficulty in healing of wounds
-Production of heat: Heat is produced within the body as a result of metabolic activities such
as cellular respiration. High levels of cellular respiration occurs in the liver and muscles, thus
large amounts of heat is released in these organs, which is distributed throughout the body
by the bloodstream.
-Gaining heat: Vigorous muscle exercise, consumption of hot food, being in warm
environments
-Losing heat: Through skin through conduction, convection and radiation, exhaled air, urine
and faeces, evaporation of water in sweat in the surface of skin
2. What is ingestion?
Food is taken into the body
3. What is digestion?
Process by which large insoluble food molecules are broken down into smaller soluble
molecules to be absorbed into body cells.
6. Swallowing food
The pharynx is a part of the gut which connects the buccal cavity to the oesophagus. The
larynx has a slit like opening called the glottis. During swallowing, food cause pass into the
trachea instead of the oesophagus. Thus when swallowing, the larynx moves upwards, while
the epiglottis moves downwards, so that the larynx is covered by the epiglottis. In this way,
all food passes through the oesophagus.
Contains two types of antagonistic muscles: Circular muscles on the inner side and
longitudinal muscles on the outer side.
Peristalsis is the rhythmic, wave-like contractions in the walls of the alimentary
canelEnables food to mix well with digestive juices.
o When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relaxWalls of the
oesophagus constrictLumen of the oesophagus becomes narrower and
longerPushes the food forward(occurs behind the bolus)
o When circular muscles relax, longitudinal muscles contractWalls of the
oesophagus dilateLumen of oesophagus becomes shorter and widerAllows food
to enter(occurs in front of the bolus)
-In the presence of food, gastric glands are stimulated to secrete gastric juice into the
stomach.
-Peristalsis action in the stomach churns and breaks up the food, mixing it well with gastric
juices.
-Gastric juice is a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid, mucus,and the enzyme pepsin and
renin.
-Hydrochloric acid
o Stops the action of salivary amylase by denaturing it.
o Converts the inactive form of pepsinogen and prorenin to pepsin and renin.
o Provides a suitable acidic medium for the action of proteases.
o Kills potentially harmful microorganisms.
Pepsinogen (inactive)Pepsin
Prorenin (inactive)Renin
ProteinPolypeptides (pepsin)
CaesinogenCasein (renin)
-Soluble milk proteins, in the form of caesinogen, passes through the stomach too quickly for
pepsin digestion to take place. Thus, renin converts it into an insoluble form called casein to
give pepsin sufficient time to digest it.
o Pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice, which passes through pancreatic duct into
duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic lipase, pancreatic amylase and
trypsin (in the form of inactive trypsinogen).
o Lining of the intestinal wall to secrete intestinal juice. Intestinal juice contains
maltase, sucrase, galactase, erepsin, enterokinase, and intestinal lipase.
o Gall bladder to secrete bile.
-Pancreas:
ProteinsPeptones (Trypsin)
-Intestine:
MaltoseGlucose (Maltase)
SucroseFrutose+Glucose (Sucrase)
LactoseGlucose+Galactose (Lactase)
Trypsinogen(inactive)Trypsin(active) (enterokinase)
-Gall bladder
Gall bladder secretes bile which passes through the bile duct into the duodenum. Bile salts
emulsify fats. They lower the surface tension of fats and reduce the attractive forces
between them. This causes them to break into tiny fat droplets suspended in water, forming
an emulsion. Emulsification increases the surface area to volume ratio of fats, speeding up
their digestion by lipase.
-Intestinal, bile and pancreatic juice are alkaline. They neutralise the chyme and provide a
suitable alkaline medium for the action of enzymes.
10. Absorption
-Simple sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids are absorbed through the ileum.
-Water and mineral salts are absorbed through the small intestine and colon of large
intestine.
Adaptation Function
The inner walls of the small intestine is -Surface area of the small intestine is
highly folded. Each fold contains numerous increases for efficient diffusion across
finger like projections known as villi. The intestinal wall into blood stream.
epithelial cells of the villi contains
numerous microvilli.
Epithelium of the villi is one cell thick Short diffusion distance allows diffusion of
food substances to occur rapidly.
Each villus contains a lacteal(lymphatic The continual transport of substances will
capillary) surrounded by blood capillaries. maintain the concentration gradient for
The blood capillaries transport glucose and absorption of food substances.
amino acids while lacteals transport fats
away from the intestine.
Monosaccharides, amino acids, and mineral salts is transported through diffusion and active
transport. For active transport, energy in the form of ATP is provided by mitochondria in the
epithelial cell.
Fatty acids and glycerol is transported through diffusion.
Water is transported through osmosis.
11. Assimilation
-Process in which absorbed food substances are converted to new protoplasm or used to
provide energy.
-The blood capillaries unite to form larger blood vessels, which unite to form a large vein,
the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein transports nutrients to the liver.
Glucose
-Glucose is used by all cells as a source of energy. It is assimilated and oxidised during tissue
respiration to release energy for the vital activities of the cells.
-Insulin, a hormone secreted by the Islets of Langerhans stimulates liver cells to convert
excess glucose into glycogen. When the body needs energy, liver converts stored glycogen
into glucose.
Amino Acids
-Amino acids which enter the cell are converted into new protoplasm that is used for growth
and repair of worn out body parts of the body.
-Amino acids are used to form enzymes and hormones.
-Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver.
Fats
Fats are absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries. The lymphatic capillaries then join to form
larger lymphatic vessels, which discharge fats into the bloodstream. Fats are mainly
transported to the liver.
o Under normal conditions: When there is a sufficient supply of fats, fats are used to
build new protoplasm, such as cell membranes of cells.
o When glucose is in short supply: Fats are broken down to provide energy needed for
vital activities for the cells. This happens during fasting.
Excess fats are stored in adipose tissues which is located beneath the skin and underneath
the kidneys and heart. It protects these organs by acting as shock absorbers.
-Social Implications
o When a person drinks alcohol frequently, he becomes addicted. He is unable to stop
drinking alcohol until he is drunk and his body becomes dependant on alcohol. He
neglects his work and families, and may even exhibit violent behaviour, especially to
his family members. More crimes are also being committed under the influence of
alcohol.
Nervous System
1. What is the nervous system made up of?
The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and
peripheral nervous system. (cranial nerves and spinal nerves)
4. Functions(Neurones)
Myelin Sheath: Layer of fatty substances which act as an insulator to nerve impulses. It
supplies nutrients to axon and protects nerve fibres from injury.
Node of Ranvier: Regions in which myelin sheath is absent. Nerve impulses cannot be
transmitted through the myelin sheath, thus it increases speed of transmission because it
allows impulses to jump from one node to another.
Axon: Transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body.
Dendron: Transmits nerve impulses to the cell body.
Axon terminal: Axon terminal transmits nerve impulses to the effector.(only in sensory
neurone)
Motor end plate: Nerve impulses are transmitted across the motor end plate by chemicals
which stimulate the muscles.
5. What is a synapse?
Synapse is a junction between two neurones, or junction between a neurone and effector,
where nerve impulses are able to cross from one neurone to another.
At a synapse, nerve impulses are transmitted from the axon of one neurone to the dendron
of another neurone across a tiny space.
Nerve impulses are transmitted through certain chemicals, known as neurotransmitters,
released by the neurone.
7. Functions(spinal cord)
Grey Matter: Consists of cell bodies of neurones. It forms the outer layer of the brain and
the centre part of the spinal cord.
White Matter: Consists of nerve fibres. It forms the outer layer of the spinal cord and centre
part of the brain.
Dorsal Root: Contain nerve fibres of sensory neurones that transmit nerve impulses to the
spinal cord.
Dorsal Root Gangilion: Small swelling in the dorsal root that contains the cell bodies of the
sensory neurones.
Ventral Root: Contains nerve fibres of motor neurones which transmit impulses from the
spinal cord.
Central Canel: Contains cerebrospinal fluid which brings nutrients to spinal cord.
Spinal nerve: The dorsal and ventral root join together to form the spinal nerve(mixed nerve
fibrescontains both sensory and motor neurones)
2. Plamsa
o 90% water
o Soluble proteins: Fibrinogen, serum albumin, serum globulin, prothrombin and
antibodies. Fibrinogen and prothrombin play an important role in blood clotting and
is produced in the liver.
o Dissolved mineral salts: Hydrogencarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and phosphates
of calcium potassium and sodium. Calcium is essential for blood clotting.
o Food substances: Glucose, fats, amino acids and vitamins.
o Waste products: Urea, uric acid, creatinine, carbon dioxide which is present
hydrogencarbonate ions.
o Hormones such as insulin.
The amount of soluble protein, mineral salts and glucose is kept relatively constant.
The natural antibodies found in a person will not react with the antigen in his blood cells, but
may react with the antigens in someone else’s blood cells. This causes agglutination, which is
the clumping of blood cells.
In a blood transfusion, only the effect of the recipient’s plasma has on the donor’s red blood
cell will be considered.
7. Functions of blood
-Acts as a transport medium carrying various substances from one part of the body to
another.
-Conducts blood clotting to prevent excessive loss of blood. It also prevents the entry of
bacteria into the bloodstream.
-Protects the body from disease causing micro organisms.
Mechanism of clotting
o When blood tissues are damaged, damaged blood tissues and platelets release an
enzyme called thrombokinase.
o Thrombokinase converts inactive protein prothrombin to active thrombin in the
presence of calcium ions.
o Thrombin converts soluble protein fibrinogen to insoluble threads of fibrin.
o Fibrin threads entangle blood cells, and the whole mass forms a clot which seals the
wound.
Under normal conditions, blood clotting does not occur due to the presence of an anti-
clotting substance called heparin. When thrombokinase is released, it neutralises the
action of heparin, allowing clotting to occur.
When blood clots, a yellowish liquid called serum is left behind. Serum has the same
composition of plasma except that it lacks blood clotting factors such as fibrinogen,
prothrombin and calcium ions.
11. Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is the process of engulfing or ingesting foreign particles such as bacteria by
white blood cells.
A phagocyte kills a bacteria by flowing over them and enclosing it, digesting it.
Some phagocytes might be killed in the process, forming pus.
-Elasticity of the walls enable the artery -Semi lunar valves to prevent
to stretch and recoil under high pressure. backflow of blood under low
This helps to push the artery along in blood pressure to ensure that
spurts, giving rise to the pulses. blood flows in one direction.
-Thick walls allow the arterial walls to -Blood pressure is lower than
withstand the high pressure from the arteriesBlood flows slowly
contraction of the ventricles. and smoothly.
-Muscular walls allow constriction and
dilation of arteries. Walls
constrictLumen becomes smallerLess
blood flows per unit time
Speed of Rapidly, in pulses, reflecting rhythmic Flows slowly and smoothly.
blood flow pumping action of heart. Blood is moved along the
contraction and relaxation of
skeletal muscles surrounding
them.
(note: left side of heart: our right side and vice versa)
Deoxygenated blood:
o Deoxygenated blood is returned from all parts of the body to the right atrium
through veins. Blood from head, neck and arms are returned to the atrium through
the superior vena cava. Blood from other parts of the body except the lungs are
returned to the right atrium through the inferior vena cava.
o When the right atrium contracts and its pressure becomes higher than the pressure
in the right ventricle, the tricuspid valve opens, forcing blood into the right ventricle.
o The three flaps of the tricuspid valve are attached to the walls of the right ventricle
through cord like tendons called cordae tendineae. The flaps point downwards for
easy flow of blood into the right ventricle.
o When the right ventricle contracts, the pressure of the right ventricle becomes
greater than the pressure of the right atrium. This causes the tricuspid valve to
close. This prevents the backflow of blood into the right atrium. The cordae
tendineae prevents the valves from reverting into the atrium when it contracts.
o Blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary arch, which divides into two
pulmonary arteries, one for each lung. Semi lunar valves in the pulmonary arch
prevents backflow of blood into the right ventricle.
Oxygenated blood:
o Oxygenated blood from the lung is returned to the heart through the pulmonary
veins.
o When the right atrium contracts, the pressure of the right atrium becomes greater
than the right ventricle. This causes the bicuspid valve to open, forcing blood into
the right ventricle.
o When the right ventricle contracts, pressure of ventricle becomes greater than
atrium, so the bicuspid valve closes, preventing backflow of blood. Blood leaves the
heart through the aorta. Semi lunar valves in the aorta prevents backflow of blood
into the left ventricle.
o From aorta, blood is transported to all parts of the body except the lungs.
20. Cardiac Cycle
-Diastole: Both atria and ventricle are relaxed. Atria is filled with blood from the vena cava
and pulmonary veins.
-Atrial Systole: Muscles of the atria contract, causing its pressure to increase. This causes the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves to open, and blood is forced into the ventricle.
-Ventricular Systole: Muscles of the ventricle contract, causing its pressure to increase. This
causes the bicuspid and tricuspid valve to close. This produces a ‘Lub’ sound. When the
pressure of the ventricle exceeds the pressure of the aorta and pulmonary arteries, semi
lunar valves open, forcing blood into the aorta and pulmonary arteries.
-Ventricular Diastole: As ventricles relax, pressure within them falls, The high pressure in the
aorta and the pulmonary arteries might force some blood back to the ventricles. This causes
semi lunar valves to close, producing a ‘Dub’ sound. The drop in pressure of the ventricle
cause the bicuspid and tricuspid valves to open, allowing blood to enter the ventricle,
causing the cycles to repeat itself.
-During a heart attack, blood flow to a particular part of the heart may be completely
blocked. Due to the blocked blood flow, that region of the heart does not receive sufficient
nutrients and oxygen, thus that region of the heart dies. Extensive heart damage is fatal as
heart is unable to pump blood to all parts of the body.
Coronary artery: Lies on the outside of the heart and carries blood to muscles in the walls of
the heart.
Atherosclerosis: Fatty substances such as cholesterol and saturated fats are deposited on
the inner surface of the coronary arteries. This narrows the lumen of the arteries and
increases blood pressure. A blood clot that forms in an artery is called a thrombosis. If this
occurs in the coronary artery, the supply of blood to heart muscles may be completely cut
off. Oxygen is needed for aerobic respiration to release energy for the activities of the
muscle cells. Without oxygen, heart muscle cells may be damaged and a heart attack may
occur.
Preventive measures:
o A proper dietReplace polyunsaturated plant fats with animal fats as they do not
stick on to the inner surface of arteries. It also lowers cholesterol level in blood.
o Proper stress management
o Avoid smoking Cigarette smoke contains nicotine and carbon monoxide which
increases the risk of coronary heart disease.
o Regular physical exercise has long term beneficial effects on circulatory system. It
strengthens heart and maintains elasticity of arterial walls. The risk of blood
pressure or hypertension is also greatly reduced.
Human Eye
1. External Structure of Eye
Iris: Circular sheet of muscles. It contains a pigment which gives the eye its colour. Made up
of 2 sheets of antagonistic muscles, circular muscles and radial muscles.
Sclera: A tough white outer covering of the eyelid. It is continuous with the cornea and
protects the eyeball from mechanical damage.
Eyelids: Protects the cornea from mechanical damage. Squinting is when the eyelids partially
close, preventing excessive light from entering the eye and protects the light-sensitive
tissues from damage. Blinking spreads tears over the cornea and conjunctiva and wipes dust
particles off the cornea.
Tear gland: Located at the corner of the upper eyelid. It secrete tears which wash away dust
particles It also keeps the cornea moist for atmospheric oxygen to dissolve in it, allowing
dissolved oxygen to diffuse into the cornea. It lubricates the conjunctiva, helping to reduce
friction when the eyelids move.
Pupil: Hole in the centre of the iris. Allows light to enter the eye.
Choroid:
o It is pigmented black to prevent internal reflection of light.
o Contains blood vessels which supply nutrients and oxygen to the eye, while
removing metabolic waste products.
Ciliary Body:
o Thickened region at the front end of the choroid.
o It contains ciliary muscles which control the thickness and curvature of the lens.
Suspensory Ligament:
o Connective tissue which is connected to the ends of the lens and the ciliary body.
Cornea:
o Dome shaped, transparent layer that is continuous with the sclera.
o It refracts light rays into the eye. Most of the refraction of light in the eye occurs at
the cornea.
Aqueous chamber:
Vitreous chamber:
Fovea/Yellow spot:
Optic nerve:
o A nerve that transmits nerve impulses to the brain when the photoreceptors are
stimulated.
Blind spot:
Retina:
3. Function of cones
o Cones enable us to see colours in bright light.
o Three types of cones: Red, Green and Blue. Each cone contains a different pigment
which absorbs light of different wavelengths. All these cones work together to
enable us to see a wide variety of colours.
o Cones do not work well in dim light.
4. Function of rods
o Rods are more sensitive to light than cones.
o They enable us to see in dim light, but only in black and white.
o Rods are sensitive to light of low intensity (dim light) because they contain a
pigment called visual purple. When the visual purples is exposed to bright light, it is
bleached. Visual purple must be reformed for a person to see in the dark.
5. How does iris control the amount of light entering the eye?
7. How do we see?
o The light rays are refracted through the cornea and aqueous humour onto the lens.
o The lens cause further refraction, and along with the refraction caused by the
vitreous humour, rays are brought to a focus on the retina.
o The image formed is laterally inverted, diminished (smaller than actual object) and
upside down.
o The image on the retina stimulates either the cones or rods, depending on light
intensity.
o Nerve impulses are produced when light falls on the rods or cones. These nerve
impulses are transmitted via the optic nerve to the brain. The brain interprets these
impulses so we see the object to be the right way up, front to back and right size.
8. What is focusing?
Focusing or accommodation is the adjustment of the lens in the eye so that clear images of
objects at different distances are formed on the retina.
9. Focusing on distant and near objects
-Distant object
-Near object
3. Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen,
releasing less energy than aerobic respiration.
-Used by micro-organisms that live in areas with little or no oxygen.
-Also used by organism that respire aerobically when there is insufficient oxygen.
6. Nose
-Air enters your body through the 2 external nostrils. The nostrils lead to the nasal passage
which is lined with a moist mucous membrane.
-Dust, foreign particles and bacteria in air are trapped by the hair in the nostrils as well as
the mucus in the mucous membrane.
-As air passes through the nasal passage, it is warmed and moistened. Harmful chemicals are
detected by small sensory cells in the mucus membrane.
7. Trachea
-Trachea is supported by cartilage which keeps the lumen of the trachea open
-Epithelium of the lumen contains
o Gland cells: Secrete mucus. Mucus helps trap dust particles in air.
o Ciliated cells: Have air like structures called cilia which sweep the dust trapped
mucus up the trachea.
10. How is oxygen absorbed into lungs and how is carbon dioxide removed from lungs?
-Oxygen absorbed into the lungs:
o Inhaled air in the alveolus contains higher concentration of red blood cells than the
blood, thus oxygen dissolves into the moisture lining in the surface of the alveolus
and diffuses into the blood capillaries.
o In the lungs where concentration of oxygen is high, oxygen binds with haemoglobin
reversibly to form oxyhaemoglobin.
o When the blood passes through oxygen poor tissues, oxyhaemoglobin releases its
oxygen which diffuses through the blood capillaries in solution into the tissue cells.
Chronic bronchitis: Prolonged exposure to irritant particles found in tobacco smoke can
cause chronic bronchitis.
o Epithelium lining in air passages becomes inflamed.
o Gland cells secrete excessive mucus.
o Cilia on the epithelium becomes paralysed. Mucus and dust particles cannot be
removed.
o The air passages becomes blocked, making it difficult to breathe.
o Persistent coughing occurs to clear air passages occurs in order to breather. This
increases the risk of lung infections.
Emphysema: Persistant and violent coughing due to bronchitis may lead to emphysema.
o Partition walls between alveoli break down due to persistent and violent coughing.
This results in a decreased surface area for gaseous exchange.
o Lungs lose their elasticity and become inflated with air.
o Breathing becomes difficult. Wheezing and severe breathlessness occur.
If a person is said to have emphysema and chronic bronchitis, he is said to have chronic
obstructive lung disease.
Lung cancer: Uncontrolled division of cells producing outgrowths and lumps of tissue.
Smoking increases the risk of cancers in mouths, throat, pancreas, kidneys, lungs and urinary
bladders.
1. What is metabolism?
Catabolic reactions: Reactions in which complex substances are being broken down into
simpler substances
o Glucose broken down into carbon dioxide and water with the release of energy
during cellular respiration
o Proteins and amino acids being deaminated in the liver to form urea
Anabolic reactions: Reactions in which simple substances are built up into more complex
substances.
o Photosynthesis
o Conversion of excess glucose into glycogen in liver and muscles
o Formation of proteins from amino acids
The sum of all chemical reactions in the body is known as metabolism.
Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism
2. What is excretion?
Process in which metabolic waste products and toxic substances are removed from the body
of an organism.
3. Parts of the human urinary system
4. Structure of the kidney
5. Structure of a nephron
6. How is urine formed in the kidneys
7. Osmoregulation
8. Importance of the kidney
9. Dialysis Machine
1. What is asexual reproduction?
Advantages
-Faster compared to sexual reproduction
-Only requires one parent
-All favourable traits from parent is passed onto the offspring
-Since it is already in a suitable habitat, it can colonise the area rapidly
-Fusion of gametes is not required
Disadvantages
-Less genetic variation in the offspring, thus species are not well adapted to environment
Sexual reproduction is the process in which the fusion of 2 gametes produces a zygote. It
produces a genetically dissimilar offspring.
4. Advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction
Advantages
-There is genetic variation in the offspring, thus it is well adapted to the environment.
-Offspring may inherit beneficial qualities from both parents.
Disadvantages
-Slower compared to asexual reproduction.
-Requires 2 parents(except bisexual flowers)
-Fusion of gametes is required.
5. Parts of a Flower
Petal: Modified leaves which make up the most obvious part of the flower. All the petals
together make up the corolla.
Sepal: Modified leaves which enclose and protect other parts of the flower in the bud stage.
All the sepals together make up the calyx. The sepals usually form the outermost layer of
floral leaves.