Edward Thorndike: 

Theory of Connectionism
Edward L.Thorndike (1874 - 1949) 

Connectionism 
Biography 

Edward Lee Thorndike, an American pioneer in comparative psychology, was

born in Lowell, Massachusetts in 1874 to the family of a Methodist minister..
He became interested in the field of psychology after reading William James'
"Principles of Psychology" and after graduating from Weslyan University
enrolled at Harvard in order to study under James. Thorndike did not
complete his education at Harvard. Later he transferred to Columbia
University, where he completed his Ph.D. In 1898, he was awarded the
doctorate for his thesis, "Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the
Associative Processes in Animals", in which he concluded that an
experimental approach is the only way to understand learning and
established his famous "Law of Effect". 

Upon graduation, Thorndike spent one year at the College for Women of Case
Western Reserve in Cleveland, Ohio. Then he became an instructor in
psychology at Teachers College at Columbia University, studying human
learning, education, and mental testing. He remained at Columbia the rest of
his career. 

Edward L. Thorndike's pioneer investigations in the fields of human and

animal learning are among the most influential in the history of Psychology.
In 1912, he was recognized for his accomplishments and elected president of
the American Psychological Association. In 1934, the American Association
for the Advancement of Science elected Thorndike as the only social scientist
to head this professional organization. Thorndike retired in 1939, but worked
actively until his death in 1949. His work was a major influence
on B.F.Skinner. 

Thorndike was a contemporary of Pavlov and Watson. He introduced the

concept of reinforcement, which Watson and Guthrie ignored. Thorndike's
work frequently has not received the attention it deserves because so many
aspects of his thinking became associated with B.F.Skinner. Thorndike's work
is often called connectionism, because of the idea that bonds between
stimulus and response take the form of neural connections. Learning involves
the "stamping in" of connections, forgetting involves "stamping out"
connections. 

Thorndike was very prolific, and did work in areas of educational practices,
verbal behavior, comparative psychology, intelligence testing, nature-nurture
problem, transfer of learning, and quantitative measurement, in addition to
learning theories. 

Theory 

One of Thorndike's great contributions to psychology was the Law of Effect,

which states that responses which occur just prior to a satisfying state of
affairs are more likely to be repeated, and responses just prior to an annoying
state of affairs are more likely NOT to be repeated. The second contribution
was his rejection of the notion that man is simply another animal that can
reason. He believed intelligence should be defined solely in terms of greater
or lesser ability to form connections. 

Several additional laws form part of Thorndike's learning theory: 

1. Multiple Response: in any given situation, the organism will respond in a
variety of ways if the first response does not immediately lead to a more
satisfying state of affairs. Problem solving is through trial and error. 
2. Set or Attitude: there are predisposition's to behave or react in a particular
way. These are unique for species or groups of related species, and may be
culturally determined in humans. 
3. Prepotency of Elements- Thorndike observed that a learner could filter out
irrelevant aspects of a situation and respond only to significant (proponent)
elements in a problem situation. 
4. Response by Analogy -In a new context, responses from related or similar
contexts may be transferred to the new context. This is sometimes referred to
as the theory of identical elements. 
5. Associative shifting - It is possible to shift any response from one stimulus
to another. 
6. Law of Readiness- a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy
some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked. 
7. Law of Exercise - connections become strengthened with practice, and
weaken when practice is discontinued. 
8. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections made. 

Thorndike's greatest contribution is probably the emphasis he placed on

consequences of behavior as determiners of what is learned and what is not.
He also introduced animal studies for verifying predictions made from his
theory. He also was among the first to apply psychological principles in the
area of teaching. 

Hull accepted Thorndike's view that connections were formed between

stimuli and response rather than between reward and response.This became
a central feature of Hull's system. 

Edward Thorndike work on animal behaviour and the learning process led to

the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for
modern educational psychology.

Thorndike was one of the first pioneers ofactive learning, a theory that
proposes letting children learn themselves, rather than receiving instruction
from teachers.

Thorndike's early studies with animal behaviour led him to declare his Law of
Effect. The Law of

Effect states that:

 Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are

strengthened
 Responses that are followed by discomfort are weakened.

Thorndike's Law of Exercise continued this line of thought;

  Stimulus-response connections that are repeated are strengthened
 Stimulus-response connections that are not used are weakened.

Edward Thorndike later conducted research that provided evidence that the
Law of Exercise lacked validity. Thorndike characterized the two most basic
intelligences as Trial-and-Error and Stimulus-Response Association.

Thorndike's Theory of Learning

 The most basic form of learning is trial and error learning.
 Learning is incremental not insightful.
 Learning is not mediated by ideas.
 All mammals learn in the same manner.
 Law of readiness: Interference with goal directed behaviour causes
frustration and causing someone to do something they do not want to
do is also frustrating.

a. When someone is ready to perform some act, to do so is satisfying. 

b. When someone is ready to perform some act, not to do so is
annoying. 
c. When someone is not ready to perform some act and is forced to do
so, it is annoying.

 Law of Exercise: We learn by doing. We forget by not doing, although to

a small extent only.

a. Connections between a stimulus and a response are strengthened as

they are used (law of use) 
b. Connections between a stimulus and a response are weakened as
they are not used (law of disuse)

 Law of effect: If the response in a connection is followed by a satisfying

state of affairs, the strength of the connection is considerably increased
whereas if followed by an annoying state of affairs, then the strength of
the connection is marginally decreased.
 Multiple Responses: A learner would keep trying multiple responses to
solve a problem before it is actually solved.
 Set or Attitude: What the learner already possesses, like prior learning
experiences, present state of the learner, etc., while it begins learning a
new task.
  Prepotency of Elements: Different responses to the same environment
would be evoked by different perceptions of the environment which act
as the stimulus to the responses. Different perceptions would be subject
to the prepotency of different elements for different perceivers.
 Response from analogy: New problems are solved by using solution
techniques employed to solve analogous problems.
 Associative Shifting: Let stimulus S be paired with response R. Now, if
stimulus Q is presented simultaneously with stimulus S repeatedly, then
stimulus Q is likely to get paired with response R.
 Belongingness: If there is a natural relationship between the need state
of an organism and the effect caused by a response, learning is more
effective than if the relationship is unnatural.

Edward Thorndike specified three conditions that maximized learning: 

 The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is

generally governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of
reward or punishment. 
 The law of recency stated that the most recent response is likely to
govern the recurrence. 
 The law of exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are
strengthened through repetition.

Major Contributions
 Edward Thorndike published about 500 books and articles as learning in
fish, methods of statistical analysis and the elements of aesthetic quality
in urban life.
 He studied animal intelligence... known for his 'cats in a puzzle
box'experiments on Trial and Error.
 He applied animal to human educational experience; he was once the
leader in this field.

Thorndike's laws of learning and its

educational implications
Thorndike’s Laws ofLearning:
1)      Law of Readiness:-

First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or

the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place
when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set
or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not
prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for
example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to
start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared
manner.

2)      Law of Exercise:-

The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill
or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and
according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are
strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened
when trial or practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is
also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections
or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many
examples of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to
drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a
mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of
various movements and actions many times.

3)      Law of Effect:-
 The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps
leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states
lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection, whereas dis-
satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of
the connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response
satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those which are not
satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The
educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words,
greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus,
intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’.

     Besides these three basic laws, Throndike also refer to five subordinate
laws which further help to explain the learning process. These are-

4)      Law of Multiple – Response-

According to it the organism varies or changes its response till an

appropriate behaviour is hit upon. Without varying the responses, the
correspondence for the solution might never be elicited. If the individual
wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather than
mechanically persisting in the same way. Throndike’s cat in the puzzle box
moved about and tried many ways to come out till finally it hit the latch
with her paw which opened the door and it jumped out.
5)      The Law of Set or Attitude-

Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which

determines not only what the person will do but what will satisfy or annoy
him. For instance, unless the cricketer sets himself to make a century, he
will not be able to score more runs. A student, similarly, unless he sets to
get first position and has the attitude of being at the top, would while
away the time and would not learn much. Hence, learning is affected
more in the individual if he is set to learn more or to excel.

   

6)      Pre- potency of Elements:-

According to this law, the learner reacts selectively to the important or

essential in the situation and neglects the other features or elements
which may be irrelevant or non- essential. The ability to deal with the
essential or the relevant part of the situation, makes analytical and
insightful learning possible. In this law of pre-potency of elements,
Thorndike is really anticipating insight in learning which was more
emphasized by the Gestaltions.

7)      Law of  Response by Analogy-

According to this law, the individual makes use of old experiences or

acquisitions while learning a new situation. There is a tendency to utilise
common elements in the new situation as existed in a similar past
 situation. The learning of driving a car, for instance, is facilitated by the
earlier acquired skill of driving a motor cycle or even riding a bicycle
because the perspective or maintaining a balance and controlling the
handle helps in stearing the car.

8)      The Law of Associative Shifting-

According to this law we may get an response, of which a learner is

capable, associated with any other situation to which he is sensitive.
Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to stand up at a
command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said ‘ stand up’.
After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering the command
‘stand up’, he later ousted the fish and the over all command of ‘stand up’
was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing up or
her hind legs.

      In brief implications of the Theory are-

1)      According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect
towards its difficult side. This approach will benefit the weaker and
backward children.

2)      A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such
as sitting, standing, walking, running etc. In teaching also the child
rectifies the writing after commiting mistakes.
3)      In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation. Thus, before
starting teaching in the classroom the students should be properly
motivated.

4)      Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of

trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by
the child in learning any concept.

5)      Habits are formed as a result of repeitition. With the help of this theory
the wrong habits of the children can be modified and the good habits
strengthened.

6)      The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the
child. Thus, the theory lays emphasis on the use of reward and
punishment in the class by the teacher.

7)      The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the
deliquent children. The teacher should cure such children making use of
this theory.

8)      With the help of this theory the teacher can control the negative
emotions of the children such as anger, jealousy etc.

9)      The teacher can improve his teaching methods making use of this theory.
He must observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and
should not hesitate to make necessary changes in them, if required.

10)   The theory pays more emphasis on oral drill work. Thus, a teacher
should conduct oral drill of the taught contents. This help in strengthening
the learning more.