4.4.

4 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of a concrete masonry unit is important from two points of view: first,
the higher the strength, the better the durability under severe weathering conditions, and, second,
unit strength tests together with mortar strength tests can serve as the basis for satisfying the
required masonry compressive strength.

Tests of standard hard capped units loaded over the net area result in a conical shear-compression
failure, as illustrated in Fig. 4.27, and is similar to the failure of concrete cylinders. As discussed in
Sec. 4.2.2, this failure mode is largely due to the effects of end platen restraint. Although ASTM
C140 calls for capping and hence loading over the net area, other standards may require capping
and loading of face shells only. The logic is that face-shell mortar bedding is typical of hollow block
construction and thus the latter approach may give a more realistic indication of the effect of unit
strength on wall strength. At this time, direct conversion of results from face-shell capping tests to
those from net-area capping tests is not possible. It has been suggested that for hollow units,
coupon tests (small prisms cut from the face shell) provide more realistic data on compression
properties.

In reviewing the compressive strength requirements of column 4 in Table 4.3, the net area versus
gross area and unit shape must be kept in mind. Although ASTM C140 bases strength on gross
area, engineering calculations and design codes are based on net or effective area. Basically, the
concrete strengths for the first three types of units are the same. Strengths for concrete brick and
solid block differ because of the two units' widely differing shapes. For the squat brick, the platen
restraint will result in a significantly higher measured strength. By comparing requirements for
hollow and solid block, the strengths of hollow blocks based on gross area are different but are
very similar when based on net area. For example, for a 1500 psi (10.3 MPa) strength based on
gross area, a hollow block with 56% solid or net area would require an average strength of
1500/0.56 = 2679 psi (10.3/0.56 =18.4 MPa) based on net area. It should be noted again that
North American industry practice commonly quotes masonry unit strengths based on gross area,
whereas design codes use strengths based on net area. To avoid errors, the designer must always
check which strength basis is being used. Hollow blocks are used much more extensively than solid
blocks and can be manufactured in strengths, ranging from 1500 to about 4000 psi (10 to 30 MPa)
based on net area, to suit both low-rise and high-rise construction.

Typical stress-strain curves for hollow concrete blocks under axial compression are shown in Fig.
4.5. The shapes of the curves are similar to those of concrete. Nonlinearity starts at roughly 35-
50% of the strength. The shape of the curve, particularly at higher stress levels, is sensitive to the
type of platen restraint.

Except in the higher strength range, lightweight blocks can be economically produced to the same
strength as regular weight blocks. The modulus of elasticity of a concrete block can range from
approximately 500 to 1000 times the unit compressive strength. Poisson's ratio can be taken as
about 0.2.

4.4.5 Tensile Strength

For concrete brick, the modulus of rupture test discussed in Sec. 4.2.2 is used to give an indication
of tensile strength. Flexural tensile strengths typically range between 10 and 20% of the unit
compressive strengths.

There is no widely accepted test method for determining the tensile strength of concrete block.
Many direct and indirect tensile tests are employed, which range from epoxy gluing steel plates
with gripping rods to the block end faces and pulling the block apart in a tensile testing machine,
to epoxy gluing three blocks together lengthwise and then performing a modulus-of-rupture test.
Alternately, splitting tension tests across the face shells can be used. Such tests indicate that the
block tensile strength is of the order of 10% of the unit compressive strength. Figure 4.28 contains
a plot of the ratio of tensile strength to compressive strength versus compressive strength. As can
be seen, the ratio of splitting tensile strength to compressive strength ranges from about 0.10 to
0.16.

4.4.6 Absorption

Absorption of concrete masonry units is an important property because it is related to shrinkage

and, in some degree, to durability. ASTM C140 limits for absorption involving 24 hour immersion in
water at room temperature are summarized in Table 4.3. No rate of absorption test like the IRA
test for clay units has been standardized. Nevertheless, the absorption characteristics are
important to achieve good bond between unit and mortar. For instance, if the unit is too
absorptive for the mortar being used, the mortar will stiffen resulting in poor bond. More about
the appropriate matching of unit absorption and mortar properties is presented in Sec.4.7.

Because the absorption of units is an indication of the volume of pore space, permeability may
have some relationship to this quantity, but as yet no direct correlation has been established.
Lightweight units typically are more absorptive and in general more permeable than normal
weight units.

4.4.7 Durability

Where durability under freezing and thawing cycles is required, type N units are used because it is
believed that lower absorption units with higher strengths display better durability under severe
conditions. For retaining walls and external walls of buildings subject to de-icing salts, the types of
spalling and cracking deterioration problems encountered in concrete construction may result.
The use of high strength dense block possibly combined with special surface treatments can help
overcome such problems. Overall, properly used concrete masonry units have a very good
durability
record.

4.4.8 Thermal Movement

The coefficients of thermal expansion of concrete masonry units depend to some degree on
density and on the type of aggregate used. Normal weight units have an expansion coefficient of
about 5 x 10 -6 /ºF (0.009 mm/m/ºC) and the value for lightweight units is about 4 x 10-6/ºF
(0.0072 mm/m/ºC). The thermal expansion values for clay brick and normal weight concrete block
are significantly different, which means that thermally induced stresses will be developed if the
two materials are bonded together.

4.4.9 Shrinkage

In common with other cement products, concrete masonry units shrink with time. Control of
shrinkage is important because in long walls, it can cause cracking, and in high walls, the overall
shortening can affect the performance of other structural or nonstructural elements.

Two types of shrinkage referred to as drying shrinkage and carbonation shrink-age occur. The
former relates to an overall shortening of the unit as the cement hydration process takes place
and the initially moist unit comes into equilibrium with a lower humidity environment over the
long term. It should be noted that upon wetting, the unit will expand to nearly its original size, and
repeated drying and wetting of units, therefore, can cause reversible shortening and expansion.
However, under normal service conditions, the net effect of drying shrinkage is an overall
shortening of the unit. Carbonation shrinkage takes place due to a reaction of the hydration
product of portland cement with carbon dioxide present in the air. This type of shrinkage is not
reversible and takes place slowly over many years.

The ultimate shrinkage strain is dependent mainly on the curing conditions, cement content,
aggregate type, and relative humidity of the environment. Much of the total shrinkage will occur in
the factory during steam curing, autoclaving, or specialized precarbonation treatments. Typical
ultimate shrinkage values are listed in Table 4.6. The important points to recognize from the
tabular information and related publications are:

-autoclaving can significantly reduce the amount of subsequent shrinkage

-denser aggregates produce less shrinkage than lightweight aggregates
-the amount of shrinkage is highly variable. In critical design situations, involving, for
instance, long walls, designers may want to request up-to-date shrinkage information from
manufacturers in their region.

As a means of limiting shrinkage, limits on moisture content of units delivered to the job site have
been established (see Table 4.4). Note that moisture content is the quantity of free moisture
present in the unit and absorption measures the unit's total capacity to absorb moisture. The
important point to recognize from the tabular information and previous discussion is that a
concrete unit must be carefully specified to meet certain job requirements including humidity
conditions.

Shrinkage is related to absorption in more than one way. Because denser units typically absorb
less water, shrinkage is reduced. Units wetted prior to construction will expand and subsequently
shrink a greater amount in the wall. Concrete masonry products must never be wetted prior to
construction except possibly in an extremely hot and arid environment, but even then, wetting
should be limited to a light misting of the units.
4.4.10 Creep

In common with other portland cement products, concrete masonry units continue to shorten
with time under load, that is, they creep. Because concrete brick are typically not used in
loadbearing applications, they are subjected to such low compressive loads that creep is not
significant. The following discussion, therefore, deals with creep of concrete block.

In spite of the fact that concrete block is extensively used in loadbearing applications up to 20 and
even 30 stories in height, relatively little is known about creep of concrete block masonry.
Nevertheless, this much is known about creep of concrete block

-it is approximately of the same order of magnitude as creep in ordinary concrete made
from similar aggregates
-autoclaved blocks creep less than low-pressure steam-cured block
- -lightweight aggregate blocks creep more than dense aggregate block
-creep increases approximately proportional to the applied stress level
-after about 1 year at a particular stress level, most of the creep will have occurred
-about 20% of the creep occurs in mortar joints, implying that creep strains in the mortar
are four to five times those occurring in the block itself.

Although no quantitative information about creep magnitudes of block alone can be cited, creep
of concrete masonry is significant and will be discussed in Chap. 5.

4.5 CALCIUM SILICATE UNITS

4.5.1 Manufacture

Calcium silicate units, sometimes referred to as sand lime units, are manufactured by mixing sand
and hydrated lime, pressing the product, and then autoclaving it to produce a tightly grained unit.
The binder being lime, sand lime units are in a special category by themselves and should not be
confused with concrete units. They are extensively used in many European countries, in Australia,
and at an increasing rate also in North America. Colors can be introduced using various pigments
and splitting or other mechanical treatment can be used to create different textures.

4.5.2 Grades and Durability

ASTM C73 specifies two grades of brick: SW and MW. As an aid to remembering the intended use,
SW can be thought of as appropriate for severe weathering, whereas MW would be satisfactory
for more moderate weathering conditions. These grades are identical to the first two grades
discussed for clay brick. As an example application, SW brick should be used for foundation
courses and parapets in the northeastern quarter of the United States or along the, eastern coast
of Canada when freezing temperatures in the presence of moisture can be anticipated.

4.5.3 Sizes and Shapes

Although calcium silicate units come in a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on country and
regional preferences, the most common width and height dimensions center around those of
typical clay or concrete bricks. Nominal lengths may vary between 8 and 12 in. (200 and 300 mm).
Units in North America are typically 100% solid.

4.5.4 Compressive and Tensile Strengths

Compressive strengths commonly range between 2500 and 5000 psi (17 and 35 MPa), but can
exceed even 10,000 psi (70 MPa). As for other brick, a measure of the tensile strength is obtained
by a modulus of rupture test (see Sec. 4.2.2). Typical results fall in the range between 300 and 700
psi (2 and 5 MPa). ASTM C73 requirements for compressive and modulus of rupture strengths are
listed in Table 4.7.

Both compressive and tensile strengths of calcium silicate bricks depend not only on the quantity
of binder (or lime), but also on the pressure of the press and the autoclaving conditions.

4.5.5 Absorption

IRA values for calcium silicate brick can be misleading. Although the initial rate, as measured by
the absorption within the 1 minute standard test, typically falls within reasonable limits of, say, 10
to 20 g/min./30in.2 (0.5 to 1.0 kg/min./m2), the nature of the material is such that considerable
absorption continues for longer periods than for clay or concrete bricks. To ensure good bond
between mortar and unit in such a case, specially formulated mortar mixes may be required. As is
discussed in Sec. 4.7, mortars with high water retentivity should be used to offset the unusually
high suction rate of calcium silicate units. Overall absorption generally is in the range of 7 to 12%.

4.5.6 Thermal Movement, Shrinkage, and Creep

The coefficients of thermal expansion are in the order of 6 x 10-6 to 12 x 10-6 in./in./°F (0.011 to
0.022 mm/m/ºC) for calcium silicate units. In common with concrete masonry products, calcium
silicate brick shrink with time with a shrinkage value in the order of 0.03% being representative.
Although calcium silicate brick deform with time under load, they are rarely subjected to high
enough stress levels that creep becomes significant.

4.6 BUILDING STONE

Stone has been used in masonry construction for thousands of years. Earlier massive loadbearing
applications have given way to extensive use of stone in nonloadbearing veneer applications.
Although stone today is also widely used as a flooring material, the presentation here will focus on
building stone for exterior wall applications.

4.6.1 Groups
Rock formations used for the production of building stone can be of sedimentary, igneous, or
metamorphic origin: Sedimentary means the rock has been formed by the action of water
depositing minerals that have come from the decay of igneous rocks; igneous rocks are produced
by solidification of volcanic matter; and metamorphic indicates the previously sedimentary or
igneous rock has been recrystallized under the action of heat, pressure, or other chemical/physical
agents, According to ASTM C119 based on various origins, groups of building stone can be
classified as follows:

• Sedimentary origin: limestone group, sandstone group

 Igneous origin: granite group
• Metamorphic origin: marble group, slate group, greenstone group

Each group may encompass a number of commercially recognized types of building stone. For
exterior wall applications, limestone, sandstone, granite, and marble are likely the most commonly
used building stone materials; hence, these will be dealt with in more detail in the following
sections.

4.6.2 Sizes and Shapes

Building stone is available in a virtually limitless range of sizes and shapes, varying from brick-size
units to story-height panels. In a quarry, large blocks of stone are typically split from the native
rock, as illustrated in Fig. 4.29 for limestone. Metamorphic and especially sedimentary rock often
contain cleavage planes or weaker bedding planes, which greatly aid in the economic splitting and
removal of large blocks of stone. The blocks typically are transported to production facilities where
saws, grinders, and other specialized machinery are used to arrive at the various sizes and shapes
of building stone employed in construction. Required textures and finishes can be achieved by a
variety of polishing or other machine tools.

4.6.3 Physical Requirements

As with other masonry units, building stone must meet certain physical requirements such as
absorption, density, compressive strength, modulus of rupture, and hardness. For limestone,
sandstone, granite, and marble, Table 4.8 lists ASTM requirements with the exception of hardness.
Hardness is of vital importance where stone is to be used on horizontal wearing surfaces and
hence should be carefully assessed for such applications as floors and stairs.

Regarding absorption, the tabular information shows very large variations, not only between
various groups of stone, but also within a group such as limestone. The absorptive property of a
limestone or sandstone seems to be dependent on the particular density of the stone. As will be
further discussed in Sec. 4.7, this has implications on the mortar properties required to achieve
compatibility between stone and mortar.

Compressive and tensile strengths generally are more than adequate to meet modern
construction requirements. Strength, however, can be very much influenced by the stone's natural
bedding plane or rift. For example, applying the load parallel to the rift, as indicated in Fig. 4.30(b),
generally results in a lower compressive strength due to ease of vertical splitting. Also because
rock formations may contain many weak cleavage planes, quality control must ensure that planes
of gross weakness are not present, otherwise strengths in compression, tension, and shear may be
only fractions of the expected values.
It is not possible to give a meaningful range of values for the modulus of elasticity for various types
of building stone. The designer should contact local quarries or industry representatives to obtain
specific information. As an industry example, for Indiana limestone having a minimum
compressive strength of 4000 psi (28 MPa), the modulus is reported to vary between 3.3 x 10^6
and 5.4 x 10^6 psi (23 x 10^3 to 37 x 10^3 MPa).

4.6.4 Durability

Stone is widely recognized as a durable building material that can withstand the effects of the
environment for many decades and even hundreds of years. What is, of course, vital is that the
right building stone is chosen for a particular application and that design, construction, and
periodic maintenance are carried out properly. Although strength, hardness, absorption
characteristics, and density all have an effect on durability, it is often poor design and construction
details as well as inadequate maintenance that are the major contributors to any building-stone
durability problem.

4.6.5 Thermal Movement

The coefficients of thermal expansion for building stones vary significantly not only between
groups, but also within a group. Typical values are as follows:

Limestone: 4.4 x 10^-6/ºF (0.0079 mm/m/ºC)

Sandstone: 6.0 x 10^6/ F (0.011 mm/m/ºC)
Granite: 4.6 x 10^-6/ºF (0.0083 mm/m/ºC)
Marble: 5.0 x 10^-6/ºF (0.009 mm/m/ºC)

Because of large variations in the coefficient that must be expected within each group, the
designer should obtain detailed information from building stone product catalogues. To illustrate
the variability, the coefficient of thermal expansion for Indiana Limestone is reported to vary
between 2.4 x 10^-6 and 3.0 x 10^-6/ºF (0.0043 and 0.0055 mm/m/ºC), values, which in
themselves vary considerably from the typical limestone value quoted before.

4.7 MORTAR

4.7.1 Functions of Mortar

The main function of mortar is to bond individual masonry units into a composite assemblage that
will withstand the imposed conditions of loads and weather. Mortar also serves to bond joint
reinforcement and metal ties so that they can act integrally with masonry. The achievement of
strength, durability, and weathertightness, therefore, is the key requisite of hardened mortar.
Mortar in its plastic state also facilitates case of construction and allows for tolerances of units and
dimensions.

4.7.2 Mortar Types

Following centuries of use of lime mortar, combinations of Portland cement, lime, sand, and water
mixed in specified proportions were developed to be suitable for particular applications. Basically,
the cement added strength, the lime contributed to workability, and the sand provided an
inexpensive filler.

Mortars can be identified by the relative volumes of the materials. For instance, a 1:1:6 Portland
cement-lime mortar has equal parts of cement and lime with sand volume six times the Portland
cement volume or three times the volume of the total cementitious material. Rather than
referring to proportions, it is convenient to have classifications; but classifications such as types 1,
2, and 3 or A, B, and C imply an order of merit or preference. To avoid this perception so that the
mortar most suited to the application would be specified, classifications M, S, N, 0, and K were
adopted in North America. As can be seen, these correspond with every second letter in the words
MaSoN wOrK.

The ASTM C270 listing of the volumetric proportions for the first four mortar types have been
reproduced in the upper part of Table 4.9. In the lower part of the table are corresponding
proportions where the Portland cement and/or the lime has been replaced by various types of
masonry cement. Although a standard (ASTM C91)4 docs exist for masonry cements, the
performance requirements allow for fairly large variations in composition by different
manufacturers.

The ASTM standard identifies mortar type by either proportion specification (Table 4.9) or
property specification (Table 4.10). Table 4.11 provides a guide for the use of masonry mortars for
various building elements. For engineered masonry, types M, S, and N are the key mortars.
Because type S falls between the high-strength poorer-workability type M mortar and the lower-
strength good-workability type N mortar, type S provides adequate flexibility and is commonly
specified for engineered masonry structures.

Besides the types of mortar discussed, there are a variety of specialty mortars on the market to
address specific applications. These include refractory mortars for masonry fireboxes, chimneys,
and flue liners, and chemically resistant mortars for a variety of industrial environments.

What is important in the choice of material proportions for a particular mortar is to obtain just the
right proportions for good workability and strength. To be precise, there are a number of mortar
properties both in the plastic state and in the hardened state that contribute to good workability
and strength. These properties are discussed in the following sections.

4.7.3 Plastic Mortar Properties

Relevant properties of the plastic mortar include workability, water retentivity, and rate of
hardening. There is no simple definition of workability because this property depends on the
suction rate of units, mortar retentivity, setting time and site environmental conditions. While no
on-site workability test is available, the experience of the mason in judging workability is
invaluable. Good workability means the mortar will adhere to the trowel yet slide off easily; will
spread readily; will adhere to vertical surfaces; and will squeeze out of joints so that it can be
struck off cleanly. This
permits ready laying of the units. The mortar must support the weight of additional courses
without shifting. Because all these operations must be performed under varying environmental
site conditions using units of differing suction rates, the experienced mason is the best judge of
good workability.

A measure of workability in the laboratory is obtained by the flow test. In this test, the flow of
mortar is measured by the increase in diameter of a cone of mortar after 25 drops on a standard
flow table, as illustrated in Fig. 4.31. For laboratory mortar, a flow of 100 to 115% may be required
for the development of good bond strength, depending on the absorption of the units. Values up
to 130 are usually required for site-produced mortars to satisfy the mason's requirements. Flow
measurements provide a reasonable indication of the physical characteristics of fresh mortar in
terms of spreading and consistency for supporting successive courses of masonry units.

Water retentivity is the property of the mortar that prevents rapid loss of mixing water to
absorptive masonry units and to the air. It is measured in the laboratory by repeating the flow test
on the mortar after water has been removed by subjecting the mortar to a standard vacuum
pressure of 2 in. (51 mm) of mercury (Hg) for one minute. Water retentivity is the flow after
suction expressed as a percentage of the flow measured before suction. Good water retention is
important for three reasons: first, water is prevented from bleeding out of the mortar; second, the
mortar is prevented from stiffening too much before the masonry units are laid, and; third,
sufficient water is retained to ensure proper hydration of the cement. A water retentivity of 90%
or more is preferable for most masonry units except that concrete masonry units, having lower
suction rates, tend to require mortar having a water retentivity of about 80%. No common on-site
test exists for water retentivity.

Mortar on the board stiffens with time as a result of evaporation of water and the initial set of
cementitious materials. Adding water to the mortar is known as retempering. Retempering is
widely practiced to replace water lost by evaporation. Although the resulting water-cement ratio
may increase slightly, the consequent loss of compressive strength of mortar is small and typically
acceptable for the sake of workability and improved bond strength. Some retempering of the
mortar to restore workability in the early stages of initial set is generally permissible provided that
the amounts of water are carefully controlled. Depending on environmental conditions, any
mortar that is not used within between 1 1/2 and 2 1/2 hours should be discarded. The maximum
time from mixing to placing of mortars should be reduced at higher temperatures because of the
increased rate of set.

An appropriate rate of hardening of plastic mortar is important so that masonry construction can
proceed economically. If the rate is too slow, mortar can extrude out of joints as laying proceeds. If
the rate of hardening is too fast, mortar cannot be strung out along the laying bed for any
reasonable length. The proper rate of hardening ensures good bond and easy tooling of joints. The
rate of hardening depends on site environmental conditions, a subject that is explained further in
Chap. 15.

4.7.4 Properties of Hardened Mortar