M Tech Projects - Engineering Project MTP REPORT

A
Project Report
On
EFFECTS OF ROTATIONAL SPEED, FEED RATE & DRILL
PENETRATION ANGLE ON TEMPERATURE AND CUTTING FORCES
IN DRILLING CORTICAL BONE
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(WITH SPECIALIZATION IN MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING)
By
Mr. Tejas Nitin Patil
(10303320181260810010)
Under the Guidance of
Dr. H. N. Warhatkar
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, LONERE,
RAIGAD (M.S.)
2019-20
i
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University
“Vidyavihar”, Lonere - 402 103, Tal: Mangaon, Dist: Raigad
(Maharashtra) INDIA
Approval sheet
The Project report entitled “Effects of rotational speed, feed rate & drill penetration angle on
temperature & cutting forces in drilling cortical bone” by Mr. Tejas Nitin Patil is approved
for partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of “Master of Technology”
in “Mechanical Engineering (With Specialization in Manufacturing Engineering)” in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,
Lonere, Raigad.
Dr. H. N. Warhatkar Dr. Neeraj Agrawal
(Guide) (Head of Department)
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,
Lonere – 402 103
Examiners
1)
2)
3)
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Acknowledgement
Over this important accomplishment, first I thank the almighty for providing me with the
strength and courage to do the project. I also express my sincere thanks to my parents and my
family for supporting me in every sense.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. H. N. Warhatkar Associate Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. B.A.T.U. Lonere for guidance and help extended at
every stage of project research work. I am deeply indebted to him for giving me a definite
direction and moral support to complete the project successfully.
I sincerely thank Dr. Neeraj Agrawal, Head of Mechanical Engineering Department, for
providing all facilities and support at every stage of project work.
I am also indebted to all the staff of the Department of Mechanical Engineering for their co-
operation and suggestions, which is the spirit behind this report. I thank them for recognizing my
efforts.
I conclude with sincere thanks to all my friends for their goodwill and constructive ideas.
Mr. Tejas Nitin Patil
(10303320181260810010)
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Abstract
Drilling through bone is an old and effective method to get rapid cure from bone injury. During
orthopaedic surgery there is a need to fix the bones at their correct position so that it can
rehabilitate as its natural position. Bone needs to be fixed with implants and screws for this
overall curing process. Drilling through bone is thus a necessary action for fulfilling the
objective. Drilling mechanism for bone drilling is same as the mechanical drilling. So heat is
produced during bone drilling and affects the surroundings. In fact, in case of fracture of human
bones, the best way to better and faster binding is when the orthopaedic surgeon fixes the
fractured bone ends by drilling and setting the immobilization plates by screws. Because of the
drilling process, the surrounding bone tissues get heated and if the temperature around the drilled
bone hole exceeds the critical limit, this may cause thermal necrosis i.e. irreversible death of the
bone cells exposed to the high temperature.
This project is aimed at finding the possibilities of decreasing the thrust forces and the
temperature of bone drilling process with a proper selection of drilling parameters. The
experimentation has been done using the caprine femur bone as workpiece. Also, the results are
presented including the drill types, drill geometry, drill penetration angle and possibilities of high
speed drilling process in avoiding thermal bone necrosis. The results are supported with analysis
by Taguchi Method. The mathematical equations obtained can help in estimating the values of
temperature and thrust forces with respect to the input parameters.
Key words: Bone drilling, drill penetration angle, thermal bone necrosis, high speed drilling,
Taguchi Method
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Contents
Approval sheet ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract iv
Contents v
List of figures vii
List of tables viii
Nomenclature ix
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.1.1 Bone: a natural composite 1
1.1.2 Properties of bone 3
1.2 Bone drilling 5
1.3 Methods of Bone drilling 6
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Introduction 8
2.1.1 Cutting Parameters 8
2.1.2 Type of drilling tools 9
2.1.3 Drill penetration angles 10
2.1.4 Irrigation 10
2.1.5 Drilling techniques 11
2.2 Output parameters 14
2.2.1 Cutting Forces 14
2.2.2 Torque 14
2.2.3 Drilling Temperature 15
2.2.4 Surface Roughness 16
2.2.5 SEM Images 17
2.3 Gap Identification 19

Chapter 3 OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT 20
Chapter 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS 21
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4.1 Specimen preparation 22
4.2 Fixture for holding the bone specimen 23
4.2.1 Fixtures for varying the drill penetration angle 23
4.3 Machine used for drilling process 24
4.4 Tools for drilling process 24
4.5 Temperature measurement setup 25
4.5.1 Temperature sensor 25
4.5.2 Programme of temperature measurement for Arduino 27
4.6 Thrust force measurement setup 28
Chapter 5 RESULTS & DISCUSSION 30
5.1 Analysis of Temperature 31
5.2 Analysis of Thrust Forces 34
5.3 Taguchi analysis of the results 39
5.4 Limitations in the experimentation 48
Chapter 6 CONCLUSION 49
Chapter 7 FUTURE SCOPE 50
Appendix I 51
References 53
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List of figures
Figure 1.1.1 (a) Human cortical bone, (b) Cancellous bone (Inner spongy bone structure), (c)
Cortical bone (Compact bone): outer layer of bone structure 2
Figure 1.1.2 (a) Scheme of bone at different scale ranges 2
Figure 1.2 Drilling of femur bone for fracture fixation 6
Figure 4.1 Deep Freezer for storing specimen 22
Figure 4.2 Fixture for holding the bone 23
Figure 4.2 (a) Drilling at different angles, (b)The wooden fixtures at inclined angles (15°, 30°)
& (c) the bone holding fixture mounted atop 23
Figure 4.3 HAAS CNC milling machine 24
Figure 4.4 Drill bit with drill holder 25
Figure 4.5(a) Arduino circuit 25
Figure 4.5(b) Aurdino nano 26
Figure 4.5(c) Thermocouple temperature data acquisition output window 27
Figure 4.6.1(a) Cutting forces in conventional machining 28
Figure 4.6.1(b) Drill Tool Dynamometer 28
Figure 5.1-Temperature analysis at drilling angle: 0° 32
Figure 5.3 Interaction plots for Temperature 33
Figure 5.5-Thrust Force analysis at drilling angle: 0° 35
Figure 5.8 Interaction plots for Thrust Forces 38
Figure 5.9 Main effects plot for SN ratio and Mean for Temperature 41
Fig 5.10 Normality test for temperature 43
Fig 5.11 Main effects plot for SN ratio and Mean for Forces 45
Fig 5.12 Normality test for thrust forces 48
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List of tables
Table 1.1 Mechanical properties of bone 3
Table 1.2 Parameters affecting the Bone Drilling 6

Table 4.3 CNC MIlling Machine specification 24
Table 4.5 Features of Arduino 25
Table 5.1 Experimental results 30
Table 5.2 Taguchi Analysis of Temperature 39
Table 5.3 Response Table for Signal to Noise Ratios (Temperature) 40
Table 5.4: Model Summary (Temperature) 41
Table 5.5: Analysis of Variance (Temperature) 42
Table 5.6 Taguchi analysis of Thrust forces 44
Table 5.7 Response table for Signal to Noise Ratio (Forces) 45
Table 5.8: Model Summary (Thrust forces) 46
Table 5.9: Analysis of Variance(Thrust forces) 46
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Nomenclature
Symbol Definition
RUBD Rotary Ultrasonic Bone Drilling
CSBD Conventional Bone Drilling
DoF Degree of Freedom
ANOVA Analysis Of VAriance
p-Value probablity value
ODRO Orthopaedic Drilling Robot
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Bone fracture is a feature of everyday life due to accident or aging. When a bone is broken
the periosteum (outer surface) and endosteum (inner surface touching the marrow) provide
bone-forming cells, which endeavour to bridge the fracture. The fracture of the bone is
usually covered by drilling the bone at required sites for screw insertion and fixing plates.
The cutting of bone is one of the oldest surgical procedures in the history of medicine. The
mechanical properties of bone are dependent on its composition and structure, which includes
the arrangement of the components and the bond between fibers and matrix. For example, the
arrangement of fibers is different in several types of bones, gives rise to distinct properties.
1.1.1 Bone: A Natural Composite
Composite materials are solids with two or more distinct constituents at a larger scale than an
atomic one. In accordance to this definition, materials or biological tissues such as wood,
dentin and bone are regarded as composite natural materials. Bone is regarded as a natural
composite material, which appears as it is in nature, rather than the artificial or manmade
composites.
Bone is a special type of connective tissue consisting of inter-cellular calcified material.

There are two types of bone, the outer hard layer that is called cortical bone and an inner
spongy layer called cancellous bone (Fig 1.1). The outer surface of the bone is covered by a
tough layer of osteogenic (bone forming) connective tissue called periosteum. Most of the
inside of a bone is hollow and contains bone marrow. The inner surface of the bone is also
lined with a similar cell layer with osteogenic properties called endosteum. Both the
periosteum and the endosteum contain the bone vascular system which supplies it with
nutrients and oxygen for bone growth and repair.
Compact bone and trabecular bone have almost same chemical composition. Even arthritic
bone, in animal has a similar composition compared to control, with calcium=73%,
Phosphor=27%The density of the compact bone is in the range of 1800-2000 kg/m3, while
the density of each trabeculae is 1820 kg/m3. The porosity however is much higher in
trabecular bone, reaching 80%. As for other cellular materials, density of trabecular bone is
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usually calculated as the ratio between the density of bone and the density of single
trabeculae (Gibson & Ashby, 1999). Bone is a poor conductor of heat, with the thermal
conductivity of fresh cortical bone in the region of 0.38± 2.3 J/msK.
Figure 1.1.1: (a) Human cortical bone, (b) Cancellous bone (Inner spongy bone structure), (c)
Cortical bone (Compact bone): outer layer of bone structure. (Carter, 2011)
Figure 1.1.2: a) Scheme of bone at different scale ranges

(adapted from (Rho, et al., 1998)
b) Arrangement of the apatite crystals which are aligned with the longitudinal direction of
collagen fibers, c) inside one fiber, the fibrils may be aligned with respect to crystal axes and
fibril axes, or the fibrils may have only an alignment of the fibril axes.
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1.1.2 Properties of Bones
Knowledge about bone and its properties is necessary so that one can know how the bone is
going to behave under various loading conditions and how it will fail or fracture under
various conditions. Some of the properties of bones have been explained below:
Table 1.1 Mechanical properties of bone [16]
Mechanical Properties Value
Density (Kg/m³) 1800-2000
Young’s Modulus 20000
Longitudinal elastic modulus (GPa) 26.1
Transverse elastic modulus (GPa) 10.9
Longitudinal tensile strength (MPa) 140
Transverse tensile strength (MPa) 46
Poisson’s Ratio 0.36
Shear strengths — A shear strength is applied parallel to the surface of an object, creating
internal deformation in an angular direction. The bone fails more quickly when exposed to
shear strength rather than a compressive or tensile strength. The shear strengths are
responsible for problems in the vertebral discs. Shear strength may produce spondylolisthesis,
in which one vertebra slips over another previously.
Elastic Response - When the load is firstly applied, a bone is deformed by a change in the
extent or angular format. The bone is deformed up to 3%. This is considered the elastic
amplitude of the load-deformation curve because, when the load is removed, the bone is
recovered and goes back to the original format or extent.
Plastic Response - With the continuous placement of load on the bone tissue, its deformation
point is reached, after which the external fibers of the bone tissue will start to cede,
experiencing micro-breaks and disconnection of the material within the bone.
Anisotropic Characteristics Bone tissue - The bone is strong to support loads in the
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longitudinal direction because it is used to receive loads in this direction.
Viscoelastic Characteristics - The bone is also viscoelastic, which means that it responds
differently depending on the speed to which the load is applied and the length of the load.
Strength - The strength of the bone or any other material is defined by the point of failure or
by the load sustained before the failure. The strength may also be analyzed in terms of
storage of energy, the area under the load-deformation or stress-distension curve.
Hardness - The hardness, or elasticity module of a material, is determined by the decrease of
the load-deformation curve during the amplitude of the elastic response and is represented
by the resistance of the material to the load as the structure is deformed. This response
occurs in many materials including bones, tendons and ligaments.
Tensive Strengths — A tensive strength is usually applied on the bone surface and it pulls or
elongates the bone, tending it to extend and narrow the bone. The maximum stress, as in
compression is perpendicular to the applied load. The source of tensive strength is the
muscle.
Bending Strengths - A bending strength is the strength applied to an area that has no support
offered by the framework. When a bone is subjected to a bending strength and deformation
occurs, one side of the bone will form a convexity in which will have tensive strengths, and
the other side of the bone, will form a concavity in which compressive strengths are
present. Typically, the bone will fail and break on the convex side in response to high tensive
strengths since the bone may withstand greater compressive strengths than tensive.
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1.2 Bone Drilling
Bone fracture due to an accident, aging or diseases is a feature of everyday life. One of the
principal methods of repair and reconstruction of such a fracture is based on drilling the bone
and fixing its separate parts together using screws, wires and plates. Morphology of the
drilled hole surface and fixative components such as screws, pins and hooks influences
strength of the bonds between them.
Rehabilitation of the various orthopaedic surgeries involves restoring the affected bone parts
to their position and restraining them until the complete healing. For all that, some time we
need to drill the bone and fastening them for easy and quick healing of the bones. This
orthopaedic drilling is very much similar to mechanical drilling process which results the
reactive forces and increase temperature of surrounding bone material, which can cause the
osteonecrosis in some of cases and affects the reliability of surgery.
Fractured bone is a severe problem faced by human from the starting of human life on this
planet. Self-healing of the bone is a time taking process and sometimes it fixes on wrong
position. So allocation of fractured bone at the desired position is a tough task and in this task
there are two basic approaches are taken into account: a conventional approach and direct
approach. The direct approach is fixing of bones by drilling as shown in Fig. 1.2.
In conventional approach, fractured bone part is restricted to move relatively from outside
support. Traumatologists treat the facture by fixing it on desired position and placing the
support from outside. With this process minor cracks and injury can be treated easily and
successfully. But in case of major dislocation, this process cannot help much better.
In direct approach, screws are used to get fix the damaged bones on their desired position.
Before tightening the screws, it requires drilling and tapping of bone. Mechanical drill or a
similar device is used to make a hole through the bone. These processes are usually carried
out using manual, electric or pneumatic drilling tools. The surgeon can control the rotation
speed of the drill bit using a pedal or button placed on machine.
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Figure1.2 Drilling of femur bone for fracture fixation [14]
During this process, heat is generated due to friction between dill bit and bone surface, which
may lead to hyperthermia and carbonization, resulting in cell death and change in natural
properties of bone. When temperature increases above the threshold value, bone resorption
may occur due to thermal exposure and resulting thermo necrosis. This thermo necrosis is
just like the death of bone cells and may lead to the bone death due to insufficient blood
supply.
For getting reliability and stability in fixation of screw in damage bone it must be tighten up
completely and screw must engage up or grip the bone with in the drilled hole. But necrosis
causes failure of bone joint around the implantation site and leading to the loosing of fixation.
Table 1.2 Parameters affecting the Bone Drilling

Machining parameters Drill specifications
Rotational speed Drill diameter
Feed rate Drill Flutes
Applied drill force Drill wear
Cooling Cutting edge angles
1. Internal cooling 1. Rake angle
2. External cooling 2. Penetration Angle
Drill point
Drill depth 1. Point angle
2. Chisel edge
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1.3 Methods of Bone Drilling
Drilling through bone is very common and simple as simple to drill any mechanical
component, but it needs proper care and patience. Mostly conventional method of drilling is
in practice. Some other unconventional methods of drilling were also tried but not in use, due
to some problems associated with them.
Methods of bone drilling can be classified in two major categories:
1.Conventional drilling
2. Unconventional drilling
 Waterjet drilling
 Abrasive-waterjet drilling
 Laser drilling
 Microwave drilling
Out of these processes, most of the research work regarding bone drilling has been done
using the conventional bone drilling processes. This project is carried out using the same
conventional processes.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Bone cutting is one of the oldest surgical procedures in the history of medicine. Nowadays,
knee and hip implant surgeries are performed around the world and considered to be the
amongst the most commonly performed operations in clinical practice. In the past years a lot
of work has been done to investigate and analyse the effect of various machining methods on
bone during surgery.
The literature review has been divided into two parts. First part is the input parameters and
second part is the output parameters in bone drilling.
2.1 Input Parameters:
2.1.1 Cutting Parameters (drilling speed, feed rate, drill bit specifications):
Udiljak T et.al found out that cutting speed is not statistically significant in case of axial
drilling. Contrary, bone drilling temperature increases with the increase in the cutting speed
and according to that, the drill cutting speed should be reduced as much as possible. Also,
increase in feed rate results into increase in drilling force. But at the same time, it reduces the
machining time. This means shorter time of friction between the bone and tool, reducing the
bone drilling temperature. They used 2 types of drills, i.e. classical surgical drill which
recorded the highest temperature at 97.7°C, & a 2 phase drill bit which recorded the
temperature of 78.5°C [2].
Karaka F et.al recorded the temperature changes during the variation of different parameters
& analysed statistically using the Statistica 7.0 program. T-series thermocouples were used
due to their high sensitivity at low temperatures. They used 2 groups of drills i.e. uncoated
and coated drill bits. It was found that the coated drill bits show higher temperature than the
uncoated ones. Coating had no significant statistical effect on the temperature variation. They
showed that higher the drilling diameter, higher is the drilling temperature also affecting the
other parameters [6].
Silberschmidt. V et al. performed rotary Ultrasonic Bone Drilling (RUBD) and compared it
with conventional bone drilling method. For pull-out strength testing, it was found that the
pull-out strength of bone drilled with RUBD is more than that of CSBD. The values of output
parameters in the RUBD were found to be consistently higher (55-385%) than that in the
CSBD. Also, the axial pull-out during CSBD generated no delamination near hole like that in
RUBD, further proving that the strength is significantly high on the later technique [10]
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2.1.2 Type of drilling tools:
Colin Natali et al. studied the various drill bits available for engineering purposes and
compared them with standard orthopedic drill bits, using continuous temperature recording at
0.5mm, 1.0 mm and 1.5 mm from the edge of a 2.5 mm hole as it was drilled in fresh cadaver
human tibia. Some commercially available drill bits performed better than corresponding
orthopedic drills, producing significantly less thermal injury to surrounding bone and halving
the force required for cortical penetration. [18]
Soriano J et.al used two 5.3 mm drill bits i.e. surgical drill bit and industrial drill bits and
found that the temperature rise on workpiece is seen to decrease with both increasing drill
rotation speed and feed. It was seen that from the slowest to fastest cutting condition, the
temperature rise decreases from approx.10°C to 4°C. Also, the surgical drill bits gave higher
temperature than the industrial drill bit i.e. approx. 20% higher [5].
Mridha A et al. conducted bone drilling using the diamond coated hollow tool and classic
surgical drill bits.by varying the spindle speed from 500-2500 rpm, feed rates of 10-50
mm/min and drill bit diameters of 2.5-4.5 mm they found out that the tool work contact ratio
in hollow tool is less as compared with the surgical drill bit. Also, the maximum drilling
temperature could be reduced by 24.6º C using a hollow tool as compared to a drill bit at the
spindle speed of 2500 rpm. It was found that hole quality of the drilled hole made by twist
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drill bit is poor and delamination was observed at the entry and exit side of the hole. Cracks
were also found on the inner surface of the hole. Whereas using a hollow drill tool no
delamination was found at the entrance or exit of the drilled hole and no cracks were
observed on the inner surface of hole [12].
Singh J et.al. compared the surface topography for bone drilling using the conventional
drilling and loose abrasive machining. The Ultrasonic frequency used was (20-40 KHz)
conducted on Ultrasonic Machine with 21 KHz and 40 m amplitude. They observed that the
material removal in non-conventional drilling was in form of fine particles giving a finer
drilled hole with no burr formation. It was found that method of bone drilling clearly affected
the generation of cracks and the size of the same [9].
Harder et al. [7] performed a comparative study of change in the temperature with a steel drill
bit and steel drill bit coated with zirconium oxide. They concluded that both types of drill bits
generated the same amount of heat with different irrigation methods. They also reported that
internal cooling irrigation technique generated a minimum rise in the temperature as
compared to external cooling method [25].
2.1.3 Drill Penetration Angle:
Noorazizi M S et al. studied the effects of drill geometry & penetration angle on temperature
and holes surfaces of the bone. They varied factors like web thickness, cutting angle, helix
angle. The drill penetration angles taken were 0º, 15º, 30º. According to the experimental
array and the tests conducted, the minimum drilling temperature was obtained (28°C) at 0º
penetration angle, while highest temperature obtained (64°C) was at 15º penetration angle
condition. 0º & 15º gave smooth hole surfaces as compared to 30º angles. The results
indicated that drill penetration angle is a unique factor in the bone drilling method and
standard drill bit geometry could perforate at an angle less than 30° [11].
2.1.4 Irrigation:
Panda S.S et.al studied the different parameters in drilling the bone and found out that
irreversible death of bones takes place if temperature (drilling) increases above 47°C for 1
minute. Also, no clear indications are made about the optimum bone drilling speed and axial
force but majority of investigations recommend high speed with larger forces so that bones
don’t burst into pieces. Irrigation is also an important factor for minimum temperature
generation [4].
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Gehrke V et.al. used one drill with external irrigation & other with internal irrigation. K type
thermo pair was used to measure the temperature. They found that double irrigation produced
smaller increase in temperatures compared to external irrigation. Body fragments were seen
on the drill during external irrigation. But results were in contrast to the previous ones. So, it
was found that no significant benefits in the method of irrigation to reduce the bone drilling
temperature were obtained [7].
2.1.5 Drilling Techniques:
Mitrofanov A. V et.al compared surface roughness in Conventional & Ultrasonically assisted

bone drilling. The bone samples were mounted on the cross slides of Tallysurf CLI 2000
instrument. The scanning speed was kept 0.5 mm/s. an area of 6mm×4mm was scanned
alongside the entire hole depth. It was observed that conventional bone drilling produced
spiral cone chips while Ultrasonically assisted drilling produced needle shaped chips and the
chips were seen rotating around the drill bit and rubbing against the hole wall blocking the
flutes. The hole surface by Ultrasonically assisted drilling was smoother and roughness of
about 5% more in conventional drilling [3]
K Alam et al. investigated the effects of two drilling techniques on surface roughness of
holes. The set up used for UAD has been shown in Fig. 2.2. Hole’s surface roughness
produced with conventional drilling (CD) and ultrasonically assisted drilling (UAD) was
measured with, and compared for, various contact and non-contact methods (Fig. 2.3). The
difference in surface roughness for both drilling techniques was explained based on high-
speed filming of the bone drilling processes [3].
K. Alam et al. carried out this study to investigate the forces and a torque required for
conventional and ultrasonically-assisted tool penetration into fresh bovine cortical bone.
Drilling tests were performed with two drilling techniques, and the influence of drilling
speed, feed rate and parameters of ultrasonic vibration on the forces and torque was studied
(Fig. 2.4). Ultrasonically-assisted drilling (UAD) was found to reduce a drilling thrust force
and torque compared to conventional drilling (CD). The mechanism behind lower levels of
forces and torque was explored, using high-speed filming of a drill–bone interaction zone,
and was linked to the chip shape and character of its formation. It is expected that UAD will
produce holes with minimal effort and avoid unnecessary damage and accompanying pain
during the incision [3].
Wang Yu et.al. compared the micro cracks in conventional bone drilling and Vibrational
bone drilling with different parameter sets (Frequency 5-20 Hz, amplitude 100-500 m). They
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found that vibrational drilling can significantly reduce the drilling temperature. Also, the
micro cracks in vibrational drilling are significantly less than that in conventional drilling.
The length of micro cracks in vibrational drilling is shorter than that in the conventional
drilling. It was concluded that vibrational drilling can reduce the generation of micro cracks
and contribute to post-operative recovery [8].
conducted on Ultrasonic Machine with 21 KHz and 40 m amplitude. They observed that the
Schwieger et al. investigated whether the abrasive jet cutting quality in cancellous bone with
a biocompatible abrasive is sufficient for the implantation of endoprosthesis for osteotomies.
Sixty porcine femoral condyles were cut with an abrasive water jet and with an oscillating
saw. Lactose-monohydrate was used as a biocompatible abrasive. Water pressure (pW = 35
and 70 MPa) and abrasive feed rate (m = 0.5, 1, and 2 g/s) were varied (Fig. 2.6). As a
measure of the quality of the cut surface the cutting gap angle (δ) and the surface roughness
(Ra) were determined. Abrasive water jets are suitable for cutting cancellous bone. The large
variation of the cutting gap angle is, unfavourable, as the jet direction cannot be adjusted by
predefined values. If it is possible to improve the cutting quality by a further optimizing the
parameters, the abrasive water jet may be the cutting technique for the future robotic usage
[24].
Biskup et al. investigated to find out the feasibility of water jets for medical applications as
water jets are mostly used for applications where no structural changes are allowed. For
medical applications the critical temperature is much lower than for industrial use, because
bones react very sensitively to heat. The damage to the tissue depends on the temperature and
the time of exposure. The tissue is irreversibly destroyed after a period of approximately 10
seconds at 57°C. To avoid this effect, which causes the so-called necrosis formation, and
which results in poor bone healing, heat management is required for water-jet osteotomies.
The heat generation during abrasive water-jet osteotomies was measured by thermocouples
that were inserted into the cortical hollow bone segments of cattle. The influences of
parameters like pressure, traverse rate, abrasive flow rate and abrasive material have been
shown together with the impact of the location of thermocouples [23].
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Ozdemir et al. tried to investigate the required time period of the Er:YAG laser that is used
for drilling through cortical bone when pilot hole drilling is needed before mini screw
insertion. Even though Er:YAG laser is used in various in vivo and in vitro studies, there is
no accepted procedure of laser for depth control during drilling through cortical bone. The
study sample consisted of 120 cortical bone segments having 1.5 and 2.0 mm of cortical bone
thickness. An Er:YAG laser, with a spot size of 1.3 mm and an air–water spray of 40–50-
ml/min, was used. The laser was held 2 mm away from and perpendicular to the bone surface
with different laser settings. As the cortical bone thickness increased, the time needed to drill
through the bone increased. Frequency increase directly caused a decrease in irradiation
duration. When three different frequencies (10 Hz, 12 Hz & 15 Hz), three different energies
(200 mJ, 300 mJ & 400 mJ) and four different power values (2.4W, 3W, 3.6W & 4W) were
tested for both the 1.5- and 2-mm cortical bone thicknesses, the shortest duration needed to
drill through cortical bone was seen in the 3.6W (300 mJ–12 Hz) setting. When pilot holes
are drilled prior to mini screw placement in 1.5 to 2 mm of cortical bone using Er:YAG laser,
the most appropriate value is found with the 3.6W (300 mJ–12 Hz) setting [21].
Dunnen et al. (2013) carried out study with the goal to deduce a descriptive mathematical
equation able to predict the hole depth and diameter based on the local structural properties of
the bone at given water jet diameters. 210 holes were drilled in porcine femora and tali with
water jet diameters (Dnozzle) of 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 mm at a pressure of 700bar and a 5s jet
time. Hole depths (Lhole), diameters (Dhole) and bone architectural properties were determined
using micro CT scans. The most important bone architectural property is the bone volume
fraction (BV/TV). Drilling to a specific depth in bone tissue with a known BV/TV is
possible, thereby contributing to the safe application of water jet technology in orthopaedic
surgery. Using water jets instead of rigid drill bits for bone drilling can be beneficial due to
the absence of thermal damage and a consequent sharp cut. Additionally, water jet
technology allows the development of flexible instruments that facilitates manoeuvring
through complex joint spaces [20].
with conventional bone drilling method. For pullout strength testing, it was found that the
CSBD. Also, the axial pullout during CSBD generated no delamination near hole like that in
RUBD, further proving that the strength is significantly high on the later technique [10].
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2.2 Output Parameters
2.2.1 Cutting Forces (Thrust forces)
Tuijthof et al. tried to measure the influence of drill bit geometry on maximum thrust forces
required for drilling, and compare this relative to the known influence of feed rate and bone
composition. Blind holes were drilled perpendicular to the iliac crest up to 10 mm depth in
cadaveric pelvic bones of 20 pigs (adolescent) and 11 goats (full grown) with eight
substantially different drill bits of Φ3-3.2 mm. Subsequently, boreholes were drilled
perpendicular to the ilium with the same drill bits at three different feed rates (0.58 mm/s,
0.83 mm/s, 1.08 mm/s). The mean maximum thrust force ranges from 10 to 110 N for
cortical bone, and from 3 to 65 N for trabecular bone. The results show that both drill bit
geometry and feed rate have a significant influence on the maximum thrust forces generated,
with a major influence of drill bit geometry in terms of shape of the flutes, sharpness of
cutting edges and value of point angle. [20]
2.2.2 Torque
found that the temperature rise on work piece is seen to decrease with both increasing drill
14
2.2.3 Drilling Temperature
Bones are the materials that can compete with the best steel reinforced concrete. Roughly
1/3rd of the bone matrix consists of collagen fibers, which are tough and flexible, tolerating
bending, twisting, stretching easily. But bone is susceptible to effects of heat that is
generating during orthopedic surgical procedures. G. Pearce et.al 3 different drilling speeds
i.e. 656 rpm, 1180 rpm and 2000 rpm. It was found that the lowest speeds caused highest
temperature for insertion times of 15 to 35 seconds. The temperature increase for 656 rpm
was found to be as much as double that for 2000 rpm. The drilling speed of 1180 rpm was
found to be optimum for keeping temperature low under both the used speeds. The results
showed that insertion time is one of the main parameters to influence the heat generation
during the bone drilling process [1].
and according to that, the drill cutting speed should be reduced as much as possible. But at
the same time, it reduces the machining time. This means shorter time of friction between the
bone and tool, reducing the bone drilling temperature. They used 2 types of drills, i.e.
classical surgical drill which recorded the highest temperature at 97.7°C, & a 2 phase drill bit
which recorded the temperature of 78.5°C [2].
Lee et al. (2012) presented an experimental investigation of the effects of spindle speed, feed
rate, and depth of drilling on the temperature distribution during drilling of the cortical
section of the bovine femur. In an effort to reduce measurement uncertainties, a new
approach for temperature measurements during bone drilling is presented in this study. The
new approach is based on a setup for precise positioning of multiple thermocouples,
automated data logging system, and a computer numerically controlled (CNC) machining
system. This study suggests that the exposure time during bone drilling far exceeds the
commonly accepted threshold for thermal injury, which may prevail at significant distances
from the drilled hole position [16].
Panda S.S et.al studied the different parameters in drilling the bone and found out that
irreversible death of bones takes place if temperature (drilling) increases above 47°C for 1
minute. Irrigation is also an important factor for minimum temperature generation [4].
15
temperature rise decreases from approximately 10°C to 4°C. Also, the surgical drill bits gave
higher temperature than the industrial drill bit i.e. approx. 20% higher [5].
Gehrke V et al. used one drill with external irrigation & other with internal irrigation. K type
thermo pair was used to measure the temperature. They found that double irrigation produced
smaller increase in temperatures compared to external irrigation. Body fragments were seen
on the drill during external irrigation. But results were in contrast to the previous ones. So, it
was found that no significant benefits in the method of irrigation to reduce the bone drilling
temperature were obtained [7].
S. Sezek et al. analysed the temperature changes during cortical bone drilling for different
parameters such as drill rotation speed, feed-rate, drill diameter, drill force, bone mineral
density and bone gender via the finite element method, FEM. The analysis has been validated
by in vitro experiments using fresh calf cortical bones. Analytical and experimental results
showed that the safe drilling parameters and drill temperatures can be estimated. To avoid
thermal necrosis, the safe drilling zones (below 45°C) have been determined for various drill
parameters during drilling of fresh cortical bones. Temperature increased 10% with 12%
increase in bone mineral density and the safe drill parameters obtained to be 370 rpm drill
speed, 70 mm/min feed rate and 140 N drill force [22].
Noorazizi M S et al. studied the effects of drill geometry & penetration angle on temperature
and holes surfaces of the bone. They varied factors like web thickness, cutting angle, helix
angle. The drill penetration angles taken were 0°,15°,30°. According to the experimental
array and the tests conducted, the minimum drilling temperature was obtained (28°C) at 0°
penetration angle, while highest temperature obtained (64°C) was at 15° penetration angle
condition [11].
16
2.2.4 Surface Roughness
Mitrofanov A. V et.al compared surface roughness in conventional & ultrasonically assisted

bone drilling. The bone samples were mounted on the cross slides of Tallysurf CLI 2000
instrument. The scanning speed was kept 0.5 mm/s. an area of 6mm× 4mm was scanned
alongside the entire hole depth. It was observed that conventional bone drilling produced
spiral cone chips wiggle Ultrasonically assisted drilling produced needle shaped chips and the
chips were seen rotating around the drill bit and rubbing against the hole wall blocking the
flutes. The hole surface by Ultrasonically assisted drilling was smoother and roughness of
about 5% more in conventional drilling [3].
Singh J et al. compared the surface topography for bone drilling using the conventional
conducted on Ultrasonic Machine with 21 KHz and 40 µm amplitude. They observed that the
2.2.5 SEM Images
Bones are the materials that can compete with the best steel reinforced concrete. Roughly
1/3rd of the bone matrix consists of collagen fibers, which are tough and flexible, tolerating
bending, twisting, stretching easily. But bone is susceptible to effects of heat that is
generating during orthopaedic surgical procedures. G. Pearce et.al used 3 different drilling
speeds i.e. 656 rpm, 1180 rpm and 2000 rpm. The bones were sectioned and scanned to
illustrate the degree of thermal necrosis with various physical parameters applied during
drilling. The analysis focused on the areas of bone where the K-wire passed through the bone,
on factors such as the K-wire tip, since the extent of sharpness or blunting of the used wire
can be related to its generation of heat [1].
& analysed statistically using the Statistica 7.0 program. They used 2 groups of drills i.e.
uncoated and coated drill bits. SEM analysis was performed in order to evaluate the physical
damage caused by various drilling parameters and temperatures. Such analysis showed some
surface damage of drilled holes with different drilling parameters. The hole surfaces with the
drill parameters of: D =4.5 mm, F = 140 N, n = 230 rpm (Fig. 6a) produced a maximum
temperature of 38 °C. The bone samples which were drilled with the drill parameters of D =
17
4.5 mm, F = 140 N, n = 1220 rpm, produced a maximum temperature of 87 °C. These results
are in agreement with those of reference [19], in which it was stated that high drill forces may
effectively reduce the thermal necrosis in the cortical bone. As can be seen in Fig. 6b, the
drilled hole surface appears to be more damaged when exposed to higher temperatures.
Temperatures have been found to be very close for both samples of uncoated (57 °C) and
coated drills (59 °C). Comparing the images, more damage appears to be at the drill site than
for the sample drilled by the coated drills [6].
Wang Yu et.al. compared the micro cracks in conventional bone drilling and Vibrational
bone drilling with different parameter sets (Frequency 5-20 Hz, amplitude 100-500 µm).
Also, the micro cracks in vibrational drilling are significantly less than that in conventional
drilling. The length of micro cracks in vibrational drilling is shorter than that in the
conventional drilling. It was concluded that vibrational drilling can reduce the generation of
micro cracks and contribute to post-operative recovery [8].
conducted on Ultrasonic Machine with 21 KHz and 40 µm amplitude. They observed that the
with conventional bone drilling method. For pull-out strength testing, it was found that the
CSBD. Also, the axial pull-out during CSBD generated no delamination near hole like that in
RUBD, further proving that the strength is significantly high on the later technique
(10).Noorazizi M S et al. studied the effects of drill geometry & penetration angle on
temperature and holes surfaces of the bone. They varied factors like web thickness, cutting
angle, helix angle. The drill penetration angles taken were 0º, 15º, 30º. 0º & 15º gave smooth
hole surfaces as compared to 30º angles. The results indicated that drill penetration angle is a
unique factor in the bone drilling method and standard drill bit geometry could perforate at an
angle less than 30° [11].
18
2.3 Conclusion from Literature Review:
From the previous literature review it has been seen that authors used different
geometries of the drill bit and different parameters were optimized. Some non-
conventional machining approaches were also used. Based on the previous studies
following analysis can be made and further gaps can be noted:
 Limited amount of work has been done with respect to the thrust forces affecting the
temperature in bone drilling.
 The interaction between the design geometry parameter and the drilling penetration
angle significantly affect the temperature magnitudes and hole surface.
Experimentation by varying the drill penetration angles can be done to check the
effects on drilling temperature and thrust forces generated.
 The research regarding the type of drilling tools previously used show difference with
respect to the maximum drilling temperature generated. No significant conclusion has
been reached regarding the type of drilling tool to be used.
19
CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT:
• To measure the temperature and forces during the drilling of the bone at different
levels of input parameters.
• To find and compare the values of temperature in bone drilling at different penetration
angles.
• To investigate the effect of various process parameters on thrust force generation

during bone drilling.
• To analyse the results obtained using Taguchi Method.
20
CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This chapter discusses in detail the experimental setup designed to carry out the drilling tests
on bone. The machine and materials required for experiments are:
1. Work-piece specimens (Femur bones)
2. CNC Milling Machine
3. Drill bits and tools
4. Fixtures for variation of drilling angle
5. Temperature measurement setup
6. Dynamometer setup for measurement of the forces generated
The detailed description of the machine, workpiece material and measurement

instruments used for this research work have been discussed in the sections below:
4.1 Specimen preparation
The specimen used for experiment work was caprine femur bone. It’s physical and
mechanical properties show similar characteristics with the human bone. Primary holes are
required in bone for thermocouple insertion. The specimen stored in Deep Freezer under low
temperature (-40ºC) for preservation. (Shown in fig 4.1) Major specifications of the freezer
are as follows:
Capacity: up to 170 Litre.
Temperature range: Ambient to -80° C
21
Figure 4.1 Deep Freezer for storing specimen
4.2 Fixture for holding the specimen

Fixture was prepared to hold the specimen firmly during drilling operation. The material of
fixture is ABS (Acrylonite-Butadien-Styrene) which made on RPT (rapid prototyping).
Bolts
Clamps
Figure 4.2 Fixture for holding the bone
22
In the fixture at middle groove is provided to accommodate variable size of bone. Fixture
made in such a way that it exactly fit on dynamometer. Clamps are provided for holding the
while drilling process.
4.2.1 Fixtures for varying penetration angle:
The fixtures for varying the drill penetration angles were prepared from wood. The fixtures
are shaped according to the desired angles i.e. (15°, 30°) in this case. The bone-holding
fixture is mounted on the angular wooden fixtures by means of bolts to give stability while
drilling. This fixture is altogether held in the dynamometer jaws while drilling. This setup, as
shown in the figure below.
Figure 4.2.1 (a) Drilling at different angles [11]
Figure 4.2.1 (b) the wooden fixtures at inclined angles (15°, 30°) & (c) the bone-holding
fixture mounted atop
23
4.3 Machine used for drilling process
HAAS CNC milling machine is used for the bone drilling process. This machine is used
instead of drilling machine, because it can provide free selection to multiple parameters.
(Shown in fig 4.3 ) The technical specification of HAAS is given below.
Table 4.3 CNC Milling Machine specifications
1016 X 406 X 406

Axes travel
(X,Y,Z)
Spindle speed 4000 rpm
Horse power 7.5
Direct speed Belt drive
Figure 4.3 HAAS CNC milling machine

4.4 Tools for drilling process
The surgical drills are made up of SS420 material are biocompatible. In this project diameter
of drill bit is kept constant i.e. 2.5 mm. Drill bits were purchased from supplier. The size of
drill bit is selected depending upon the size of the bone i.e. bone thickness. The drill bit used
is shown in the figure below.
24
Figure 4.4 Drill bits used
4.5 Temperature measurement setup
The temperature measurement setup is developed for this experimentation for easy and
accurate data acquisition. It is done by using Arduino based microcontroller to which
different sensors output can be given. It became very simple to measure temperature using
such setup accurately for every second. Temperature measurement unit is shown in Fig. 4.5.
4.5.1 Temperature sensor:
For temperature measurement of bone three K- type thermocouple and three Max6675
modules were used to record the ambient temperature at the time of experimentations. It also
helped to compare the readings of Max6675 with K – type thermocouples at the start to see if
any error in K – type thermocouple. For K – type thermocouple specific limit of error is
±1.1℃ for a range of 0° to 1024℃.
Figure 4.5(a) Arduino Circuit
25
Table 4.5 Features of Arduino
Microcontroller ATmega328P
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limit) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
PWM Digital I/O Pins 6
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 20 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (Atmega328P) of which 0.5
KB used by boot loader
SRAM 2 KB (Atmega328P)
EEPROM 1 KB (Atmega328P)
Clock Speed 16 MHz
LED_BUILTIN 13
Length 68.6 mm
Width 53.4 mm
Weight 25 g
Figure 4.5(b): Arduino Nano [8]
26
The output of Arduino was exported to MS Excel 2016 to store the data in the form of a sheet
with the help of PLX DAQ v2 system. Temperature data acquisition window is as shown in
figure 3.8. The temperature delay can be adjusted in program in milliseconds. Thus,
continuous readings can be obtained with very small changes in temperature.
Figure 4.5(c): Thermocouple temperature data acquisition output window
Program for data acquisition of temperature using Arduino Nano microcontroller is attached
to the Appendix I. Program was created in Arduino IDE software to take readings from three
K-type thermocouples each connected to three MAX6675 modules. The output from Arduino
was in digital form which used PLX DAQ for Excel ―version 2‖ to store the data in MS Excel
sheet.
4.6 Thrust Force Measurement Setup

Following forces act on the sample:
 Fx, cutting force along in the direction of the cutting velocity vector
 Fz, feed force along in the direction of the tool travel
 Fy, thrust force in the direction normal to the produced surface.
27
Fig. 4.6.1 (a) Cutting forces in conventional machining
During the machining of workpiece various forces are acting on the cutting tool.
Determination of these forces is an important factor affecting the tool life. Such force
measurement is achieved by strain gauge dynamometer. This dynamometer measures
the thrust forces and cutting forces in machining operation. The values of the output on the
dynamometer are displayed on the digital indicator in Kgf.
Figure 4.6.1 (b) Drill tool dynamometer
28
Drill tool dynamometer is cutting force measurement transducer specially designed to
measure the cutting forces on the tool tip on the drilling machine. The dynamometer has two
directional force measurements such as torque and thrust. The sensor is mounted on the
machine table of the drilling machine. The self-centering vise is fixed on the machine table of
the drilling machine.
The self-centering device is fixed on the sensor. The job held with the vice and the job was
drilled with a drilled bit. The sensor mounts the torque and thrust force generated between the
job and the tool bit. Specifications of the drill tool dynamometer are given as follows:
Drill Tool Dynamometer
Sensor : Strain gauge based sensor
Capacity Torque: 20 Kg-m
Thrust : 500 KgF
Strain gauge resistance: 350 ohms ± 1%
Connection through 8 core shielded cable with the connector attached.
Job Mounting: Self-centering device
Excitation: 10V DC
Linearity: 2%
Cross-sensitivity: 5%
Output: Analog output to contact recorder or X-Y Plotter.
Max Over Load: 150%
29
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter describes the results and analysis of experimental data collected during bone
drilling experiments. The analysis is supported by a graphical representation of the magnitude
of the output variables with respect to input parameters. Variation in temperature rise and
thrust force is plotted in this chapter.
Input parameters are spindle speed, feed rate and the drill penetration angle. The output
parameters are thrust force and temperature. Table 5.1 shows the thrust force and temperature
recorded at ambient temperature around 36°C. Total 27 experiments were designed in 3 levels
varying spindle speed, feed rate and drill penetration angle.
Table 5.1 Experimental results
Experiment Spindle Speed Feed rate Inclination Angle Temperature Thrust Force
No. (rpm) (mm/rev) (0) (0C) (N)
1. 200 0.02 0 38.00 39.24
2. 200 0.02 15 46.75 58.86
3. 200 0.02 30 54.25 107.91
4. 200 0.04 0 38.41 39.24
5. 200 0.04 15 39.50 78.48
6. 200 0.04 30 41.50 49.05
7. 200 0.06 0 43.50 49.05
8. 200 0.06 15 36.75 88.29
9. 200 0.06 30 40.75 39.24
10. 400 0.02 0 47.25 68.67
11. 400 0.02 15 37.50 68.67
12. 400 0.02 30 41.75 68.67
13. 400 0.04 0 46.25 98.10
14. 400 0.04 15 37.25 29.42
15. 400 0.04 30 37.75 58.88
16. 400 0.06 0 47.00 49.05
17. 400 0.06 15 44.75 117.72
30
18. 400 0.06 30 38.50 98.10
19. 600 0.02 0 44.47 78.48
20. 600 0.02 15 37.75 39.24
21. 600 0.02 30 40.00 68.67
22. 600 0.04 0 49.25 117.72
23. 600 0.04 15 37.50 39.24
24. 600 0.04 30 38.50 78.48
25. 600 0.06 0 45.25 107.91
26. 600 0.06 15 43.00 49.05
27. 600 0.06 30 43.25 88.29
5.1 Analysis of temperature:

1. At drill penetration angle 0°, change in temperature w.r.t speed and feed:
The lowest temperature is obtained at the condition where the speed is 200 rpm and the feed
rate is 0.02 mm/rev. The highest temperature obtained is at the spindle speed of 600 rpm and
feed rate of 0.04 mm/rev.
Experiment No. Spindle Speed Feed rate Temperature (0C)

(rpm) (mm/rev)
1. 200 0.02 38
2. 200 0.04 38.41
3. 200 0.06 43.50
4. 400 0.02 47.25
5. 400 0.04 46.25
6. 400 0.06 47
7. 600 0.02 44.47
8. 600 0.04 49.25
9. 600 0.06 45.25
31
At 0° change in temperature w.r.t speed and feed
60
50
Temperature (0C)
40
30
20
10
0
200 400 600
Spindle Speed (rpm)
0.02 0.04 0.06
Figure 5.1-Temperature analysis at drilling angle: 0°
The highest temperature is recorded at the spindle speed of 200 rpm and feed rate of 0.02
mm/rev. the lowest temperature is recorded at the speed of 200 rpm and feed rate 0.06
mm/rev whereas the highest temperature is observed at the speed of 200 rpm and feed of 0.02
mm/rev.
Experiment No. Spindle Speed Feed rate Temperature (0C)

(rpm) (mm/rev)
1. 200 0.02 46.75
2. 200 0.04 39.50
3. 200 0.06 36.75
4. 400 0.02 37.50
5. 400 0.04 37.25
6. 400 0.06 44.75
7. 600 0.02 37.75
8. 600 0.04 37.50
9. 600 0.06 43
32
50
45
40
35
Temperature (0C)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
200 400 600
Spindle Speed (rpm)
0.02 0.04 0.06
Figure 5.3 Interaction Plots for Temperature
Highest drilling temperature is observed at the spindle speed of 200 rpm and the feed rate of
0.02 mm/rev. the lowest temperature while drilling at the angle of 30º is obtained at the speed
and feed of 400 rpm & 0.04 mm/rev respectively.
33
Experiment No. Spindle Speed Feed rate Temperature
(rpm) (mm/rev) (0C)
1. 200 0.02 54.25
2. 200 0.04 41.50
3. 200 0.06 40.75
4. 400 0.02 41.75
5. 400 0.04 37.75
6. 400 0.06 38.50
7. 600 0.02 40
8. 600 0.04 38.50
9. 600 0.06 43.25

60
50
Temperature
40
(0C)
30
20
10
0
200 400 600
Spindle Speed (rpm)
0.02 0.04 0.06
5.2 Analysis of Thrust force:
1. At drill penetration angle 0°, change in Thrust Force w.r.t speed and feed:
Thrust force obtained is minimum at the spindle speed of 200 rpm and feed rate of 0.02
mm/rev; and maximum at the spindle speed of 600 rpm and feed rate of 0.06 mm/rev.
34
Experiment No. Spindle Speed Feed rate Thrust Force (N)
(rpm) (mm/rev)
1. 200 0.02 39.24
2. 200 0.04 39.26
3. 200 0.06 49.05
4. 400 0.02 68.67
5. 400 0.04 98.1
6. 400 0.06 49.05
7. 600 0.02 78.48
8. 600 0.04 117.72
9. 600 0.06 107.91
At 0° change in Thrust Force w.r.t speed and feed

120
100
Thrust Force (N)
80
60
40
20
0
200 400 600
Spindle Speed (rpm)
0.02 0.04 0.06
Figure 5.5-Thrust Force analysis at drilling angle: 0°
The maximum thrust force is observed at the spindle speed of 400 rpm and feed rate of 0.06
mm/rev. minimum thrust force is obtained at the speed of 400 rpm and feed rate of 0.04
mm/rev.
35
(rpm) (mm/rev)
10. 200 0.02 58.86
11. 200 0.04 78.48
12. 200 0.06 88.29
13. 400 0.02 68.67
14. 400 0.04 29.42
15. 400 0.06 117.72
16. 600 0.02 39.24
17. 600 0.04 39.24
18. 600 0.06 49.05

140
120
Thrust Force (N)
100
80
60
40
20
0
200 400 600
Spindle Speed (rpm)
0.02 0.04 0.06
At the drill angle of 30°, the highest thrust force is generated at spindle speed of 200 rpm and
feed rate of 0.02 mm/rev whereas the lowest thrust force is obtained at the speed and feed of
200 rpm and feed rate of 0.06 mm/rev.
36
(rpm) (mm/rev)
19. 200 0.02 107.91
20. 200 0.04 49.05
21. 200 0.06 39.24
22. 400 0.02 68.67
23. 400 0.04 58.88
24. 400 0.06 98.1
25. 600 0.02 68.67
26. 600 0.04 78.48
27. 600 0.06 88.29

120
100
Thrust Force (N)
80
60
40
20
0
200 400 600
Spindle Speed (rpm)
0.02 0.04 0.06
37
Figure 5.8: Interaction plots for Thrust Forces
From the above analysis, it can be seen that the least thrust force is generated at the drill
penetration angle of 15°. When the drilling angle was >15°, the thrust force was found to be
maximum (107.91 N). The feed rate of 0.04mm/rev is found to produce minimum force. As
the spindle speed increases, the thrust force is found to be increasing. Highest force is
observed at the spindle speed of 600 rpm and feed rate of 0.06 mm/rev.
38
5.3 Taguchi Analysis of the results:
The following results were obtained and analysis was carried out on the MiniTab 19
software. Then the results were exported to MS Excel 2016.
Taguchi Design:
Design Summary:
Taguchi Array : L27(3^3)

Factors: 3
Runs: 27
Columns of L27 (3^13) array: 1 2 3
Interactions: AB, AC, BC
 Analysis of Temperature:
Table 5.2: Taguchi Analysis of Temperature
Experiment Spindle Feed rate Inclination Temperature SNRA1 MEAN1

No. Speed (mm/rev) Angle (0) (0C)
(rpm)
1. 200 0.02 0 38.00 -31.5957 38.00
2. 200 0.02 15 46.75 -33.3956 46.75
3. 200 0.02 30 54.25 -34.6880 54.25
4. 200 0.04 0 38.41 -31.6889 38.41
5. 200 0.04 15 39.50 -31.9319 39.50
6. 200 0.04 30 41.50 -32.3610 41.50
7. 200 0.06 0 43.50 -32.7698 43.50
8. 200 0.06 15 36.75 -31.3051 36.75
9. 200 0.06 30 40.75 -32.2026 40.75
10. 400 0.02 0 47.25 -33.4880 47.25
11. 400 0.02 15 37.50 -31.4806 37.50
12. 400 0.02 30 41.75 -32.4131 41.75
13. 400 0.04 0 46.25 -33.3022 46.25
14. 400 0.04 15 37.25 -31.4225 37.25
15. 400 0.04 30 37.75 -31.5383 37.75
16. 400 0.06 0 47.00 -33.4420 47.00
39
17. 400 0.06 15 44.75 -33.0159 44.75
18. 400 0.06 30 38.50 -31.7092 38.50
19. 600 0.02 0 44.47 -32.9613 44.47
20. 600 0.02 15 37.75 -31.5383 37.75
21. 600 0.02 30 40.00 -32.0412 40.00
22. 600 0.04 0 49.25 -33.8481 49.25
23. 600 0.04 15 37.50 -31.4806 37.50
24. 600 0.04 30 38.50 -31.7092 38.50
25. 600 0.06 0 45.25 -33.1124 45.25
26. 600 0.06 15 43.00 -32.6694 43.00
27. 600 0.06 30 43.25 -32.7197 43.25
Factor Type Levels Values

Speed Fixed 3 200,400,600
Feed Fixed 3 0.02,0.04,0.06
Angle Fixed 3 0,15,30
Table5.3: Response Table for Signal to Noise Ratios:
Level Spindle Speed Feed Rate Angle Analysis

1 -32.44 -32.62 -32.91 Smaller is
2 -32.42 -32.14 -32.03 better
3 -32.45 -32.55 -32.38
Delta 0.03 0.48 0.89
Rank 3 2 1
40
Figure 5.9: Main effects plot for SN ratio and Mean for Temperature
We aim to reduce the temperature, hence smaller is better design is selected. Taguchi analysis
gives the order of factors affecting the temperature generation depending upon the delta value
as shown in Table.
Regression Analysis of Temperature vs. Speed Feed rate & Drilling angle:
Table 5.4: Model Summary (Temperature):
S R-sq. R-sq(adj) R-sq (pred)

13.0489 91.55% 90.49% 89.83%
41
Table 5.5: Analysis of Variance (Temperature):
Source DoF Seq SS Contribution Adj SS Adj MS F- value p- value

Regression 3 44258.5 91.55% 44258.5 14752.8 86.64 0.000
Spindle 1 213.9 0.44% 213.9 213.9 1.26 0.273
Speed
Feed Rate 1 3064.9 6.34% 2389.8 2389.8 14.03 0.001
Angle 1 40979.7 84.77% 2528.1 2528.1 14.85 0.001
Error 24 4086.5 8.45% 4086.5 170.3
Total 27 48345.0 100.00%
Regression Equation:
Temperature = 0.0454 Spindle Speed+ 441 Feed Rate+ 0.218 Angle
From the ANOVA table, we conclude that in the case of temperature, drill penetration angle
is the most effective factor followed by feed rate and then spindle speed.
The percent contributions of the drill penetration angle (84.77%) in affecting the temperature
rise are significantly larger (95% confidence level) than the feed rate (6.34%) and the spindle
speed.
Error value is 8.45% hence the model is accepted.
It can be seen that the factor with major effect causing the temperature rise is the drill
penetration angle followed by feed rate and then the spindle speed.
42
Fig 5.10: Normality test for temperature
From the above graph, it can be stated that the data for drilling temperature is normally
distributed and also statistically significant (p-value=0.052).
The mean value for the temperature obtained during the drilling process is 42.09°C with
standard Deviation of 4.459.
43
 Analysis of Forces
Table 5.6: Taguchi Analysis of Thrust forces:
Experiment Spindle Feed rate Inclination Thrust SNRA2 MEAN2
Forces
No. Speed (mm/rev) Angle (0)
(N)
(rpm)
1. 200 0.02 0 39.24 -31.8746 39.24
2. 200 0.02 15 58.86 -35.3964 58.86
3. 200 0.02 30 107.91 -40.6612 107.91
4. 200 0.04 0 39.24 -31.8746 39.24
5. 200 0.04 15 78.48 -37.8952 78.48
6. 200 0.04 30 49.05 -33.8128 49.05
7. 200 0.06 0 49.05 -33.8128 49.05
8. 200 0.06 15 88.29 -38.9182 88.29
9. 200 0.06 30 39.24 -31.8746 39.24
10. 400 0.02 0 68.67 -36.7353 68.67
11. 400 0.02 15 68.67 -36.7353 68.67
12. 400 0.02 30 68.67 -36.7353 68.67
13. 400 0.04 0 98.10 -39.8334 98.10
14. 400 0.04 15 29.42 -29.3729 29.42
15. 400 0.04 30 58.88 -35.3994 58.88
16. 400 0.06 0 49.05 -33.8128 49.05
17. 400 0.06 15 117.72 -41.4170 117.72
18. 400 0.06 30 98.10 -39.8334 98.10
19. 600 0.02 0 78.48 -37.8952 78.48
20. 600 0.02 15 39.24 -31.8746 39.24
21. 600 0.02 30 68.67 -36.7353 68.67
22. 600 0.04 0 117.72 -41.4170 117.72
23. 600 0.04 15 39.24 -31.8746 39.24
24. 600 0.04 30 78.48 -37.8952 78.48
25. 600 0.06 0 107.91 -40.6612 107.91
26. 600 0.06 15 49.05 -33.8128 49.05
27. 600 0.06 30 88.29 -38.9182 88.29
44
Table 5.7: Response table for Signal to Noise Ratios (Forces):
Level Spindle Speed Feed Rate Angle Design
1 -35.12 -36.07 -36.44 Smaller is better
2 -36.65 -35.49 -35.26
3 -36.79 -37.01 -36.87
Delta 1.66 1.52 1.62
Rank 1 3 2
Figure 5.11: Main effects plot for SN ratio and Mean for Forces
45
Regression Analysis: Forces versus Speed, Feed & Drilling Angle:
Table 5.8: Model Summary (Thrust forces):
S R-sq. R-sq(adj) R-sq (pred)

29.5777 85.84% 84.07% 82.16%
Table 5.9: Analysis of Variance (Thrust forces):
Source DoF Seq SS Contribution Adj SS Adj MS F- value p- value

Regression 3 127305 85.84% 127305 42435.2 48.51 0.000
Spindle 1 118567 79.95% 7909 7909.1 9.04 0.006
Speed
Feed Rate 1 564 0.38% 564 564.1 0.64 0.432
Angle 1 8174 5.51% 6380 6379.7 7.29 0.012
Error 24 20996 14.16% 20996 874.8
Total 27 148302 100.00%
Regression Equation:
Forces= 0.0802 Spindle Speed+ 721 Feed Rate+ 0.353 Angle
From the ANOVA table, we conclude that in the case of thrust forces, spindle speed is the
most effective factor followed by drill penetration angle and then feed rate.
The percent contributions of the spindle speed (79.95%) in affecting the temperature rise are
significantly larger (95% confidence level) than the drill penetration angle (5.51%) and the
feed rate.
Error value is 14.16% hence the model is accepted.
It can be seen that the factor with major effect causing the thrust force generation is the
spindle speed followed by drill penetration angle and then the spindle feed rate.
From table it can be shown that the spindle speed forms the most significant factor affecting
the generation of thrust forces during the bone drilling. (p-value=0.006) followed by the drill
penetration angle (p-value=0.012).
46
The feed rate has least effect on the temperature generation during bone drilling (p-
value=0.432).
It can be seen that the factor with major effect causing the temperature rise is the spindle
speed followed by drill penetration angle and the feed rate.
Fig 5.14 Normality test for thrust forces

From the above graph, it can be stated that the data for thrust force generated is normally
distributed and statistically significant (p-value=0.128).
The mean value for the temperature obtained during the drilling process is 69.40N with
standard Deviation of 26.51.
The mathematical equations given below each ANOVA table can be used to predict the
values of temperature and forces within the limits of the input factors used during the project.
47
 Limitations in the Experimentation:
The bone shows viscoelastic as well as anisotropic properties. When drilling the bone, the
drilling location cannot be done at the same exact location for different input parameters.
The drilling is done at specific distances along the length of the bone. This changes the
strength of the bone as the drilling advances.
Even if the bone samples are same in physical properties, they differ in thickness and overall
size. If the input parameters are used for drilling the bone sample and continued on the
different sample, the variation in output parameters may occur.
The anisotropy in bone states that the bone behaviour will change depending on the direction
of load application. So, when the drilling angle changes, the variation in output parameters
can be uneven.
Similarly for temperature measurement, the distance from thermocouple insertion is an

important factor. The holes at far distance from the thermocouple insertion site may show
lesser temperature values.
48
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
The process of bone drilling has been studied by measuring thrust force and drilling
temperature under drilling parameters like spindle speed, feed rate and drill penetration
angles. Experimentation has been carried out by drilling cortical part of the caprine femur
bone. The full factorial design method was used to conduct the experiments. The results have
been analysed using the Taguchi Approach.
Following conclusions are drawn accordingly:
The drill penetration angle (p-value=0.001) and feed rate (p-value=0.001) form the more
significant factors that cause the temperature rise during the bone drilling process whereas,
the spindle speed (0.44) had least effect on temperature generation.
The spindle speed (p-value=0.006) forms the most significant factor affecting the rise in the
cutting forces followed by drill penetration angle (p-value0.012). The feed rate had least
effect on thrust force generation (p-value=0.432). The effect of feed rate is rather complex,
because the drill bit-bone sample contact time at higher feed rates is lesser than that with
lower feed rates. Higher feed rates along with higher speeds are shown and recommended to
reduce the temperature rise during bone drilling.
It is observed that the drilling angle ≤ 15° produced lowest temperature (36.75°C). The thrust
force values obtained are also minimum at drilling angle of 15° (29.42N) whereas the drilling
angle of 30° produced the highest value in temperature rise (54.25°C).
Also the thrust forces value are seen to be increasing with respect to spindle speed and feed
rate when the angle increases from 15° to 30° drilling angle.
Minor cracks were observed during bone drilling at angles 15° and 30°.
Hence drilling angle less than 15° is recommended for bone drilling. The 0° angle being
perpendicular to the bone surface gives better control as the increasing angles caused
skidding or drilling tool over the surface.
At a very high drilling speed and higher feed rate, decreasing the drill diameter and drilling
angle (≤15°), the drilling temperature can be lowered to reduce the chances of thermal
osteonecrosis.
49
CHAPTER 7
FUTURE SCOPE
1. Development of a non-conventional method of bone drilling against conventional methods

like ultrasonic assisted drilling, vibrational bone drilling, and microwave drilling.
2. Automated bone drilling systems can be developed to minimize human error during
surgery.
3. Drilling of bones using abrasive slurry can be done to find surface roughness as well as
material removal rate along with temperature
4. Development of loose abrasive machining for materials with low ductility to obtain low
chip formation.
5. Investigation of drill coatings and their effects on the generation of temperature and thrust
forces.
6. Automatic cortex detection by robot system i.e. Orthopedic Drilling Robot (ODRO) for
partial or full bone drilling.
7. Comparative study of temperature generation and forces by using coated and uncoated type
surgical drills.
8. Measurement of surface roughness and surface finish using different types of drill bits.
9. This study shows two output parameters, other parameters like drill wear and type of chip
formation can be included in further studies.
50
Appendix I:
Programme of temperature measurement for Arduino
#include "max6675.h"
int SO_1 = 2;
int CS_1 = 3;
int CLK_1 = 4;
int SO_2 = 5;
int CS_2 = 6;
int CLK_2 = 7;
int SO_3 = 8;
int CS_3 = 9;
27
int CLK_3 = 10;
MAX6675 kth_1 (CLK_1, CS_1, SO_1);
MAX6675 kth_2(CLK_2, CS_2, SO_2);
MAX6675 kth_3(CLK_3, CS_3, SO_3);
void setup () {
Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.println("CLEARDATA");
Serial.println("LABEL,DATE,TIME,kth_1,kth_2,kth_3,done");
// Serial.println("bone drilling temperature parameters");
delay(500);
}
void loop () {
Serial.print("DATA,DATE,TIME,");
//Serial.print("Deg C_1 = ");
Serial.print(kth_1.readCelsius());
Serial.print(",");
Serial.print(",");
Serial.print(",");
51
Serial.println("yes");
delay (1000);
}
52
REFERENCES
[1] G. Pearce, C.Bainbridge, J. Patrick, K., Kibble, M. Lenz1& G. Jones1a, "An investigation
into thermal necrosis of bone associated with surgical procedures’ Modelling in Medicine and
Biology VI (2005).
[2] Udiljak T, Siglar D,"Investigation Into Bone Drilling and Thermal bone Necrosis",
Advances in Production Engineering & Management 2, (2007) Vol.3, 103-112.
[3] Alam K, Mitrofanov, A.V. and Silberschmidth, V.V, ―Experimental investigations of

forces and torque in conventional and ultrasonically assisted drilling of cortical bone‖,
Medical Engineering and Physics, 33 (2), (2010) pp. 234-239.
[4] Pandey R.k and S. Panda, ―Drilling of bone: A comprehensive review,‖ Journal of clinical
orthopaedics and trauma, Vol. 4,(2013) pp. 15-30.
[5] Soriano J , Garay A , Patxi Aristimuño , Luis María Iriarte , José Alberto Eguren & Pedro
José Arrazola,‖Effects of Rotational speed, feed rate and tool type on temperatures and
cutting forces when drilling bovine cortical bone‖, Machining Science and
Technology,(2013) 17:4, 611-636.
[6] Karaca Faruk, Aksakal Bunyamin, "Effects of various drilling parameters on bone during
implantology: An in vitro experimental study", Acta of Bioengineering &
Biomechanics,(2013) Vol.15, 4.
[7] Gehrke S A , Neto Henrique Loffredo, Mardegan Fábio E.C., "Investigation of the effect
of movement and irrigation systems on temperature in the conventional drilling of cortical
bone", British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial surgery 51, (2013),953-957, Elsevier.
[8] Wang Y, Meng C, Yuanyuan Z, Gang Z and Deyu Li, ―Experimental Investigations on
Microcracks in Vibrational and Conventional Drilling of Cortical Bone‖, Journal of
Nanaomaterials (2013).
[9] Singh G, Jain V and Gupta D, "Comparative study of surface topographyof bone drilling
using Conventional drilling and loose abrasive machining", Proc IMechE Part H: J
Engineering in Medicine (2015), Vol. 229(3) 225–231.
[10] Silberschmidth V, Gupta V and Pandey P, " Rotary ultrasonic bone drilling: Improved
pullout strength and reduced damage", Medical Engineering and Physics 41, (2017) 1-8.
[11] Noorazizi M.S, Izamshah R, M.S Kasim," Effects of Drill Geometry and Penetration
Angle on Temperature and Holes Surfaces for Cortical Bovine Bone: An in Vitro Study",
Advances in Material & Processing Technologies Conference, (2017), 70-77, Elsevier.
53
[12] Pulak M. P, Mridhac A, Gupta V and Gupta R, ―Effect of Various Parameters on the
Temperature Distribution in Conventional and Diamond Coated Hollow Tool Bone Drilling:
A Comparative Study‖, Advances in Material & Processing Technologies Conference,
(2017), 90-98, Elsevier.
[13] https://www.hobbyist.co.nz/?q=arduino-nano.
[14] https://images.app.goo.gl/9eKb6H4ughsvgt299.
[15] M. Matsuoka, M. Motoyoshi, M. Sakaguchi, A. Shinohara, T. Shigeede, Y. Saito, M.
Matsuda, N. Shimizu, (2011),―Friction heat during self-drilling of an orthodontic miniscrew‖,
International journal of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery (2011), 40: 191– 194.
[16] Lee J, O. Burak Ozdoganlar, Yoed Rabin, ―An experimental investigation on thermal
exposure during bone drilling‖, Medical Engineering & Physics 34 (2012), 1510– 1520.
[17] Bertollo N & Walsh W R,‖ Drilling of Bone: Practicality, Limitations and
Complications Associated with Surgical Drill Bits‖, Biomechanics in applications, Vaclav
Klika, InTech Open (2011), 10.5772/20931.
[18] Colin Natali, Ingle P, Dowell John,"Orthopaedic Bone Drills – Can They Be Improved?‖
J-Bone joint Surg [Br] (1996); 17-B; 357-62.
[19] Toshiya Iyo,Yasuyuki Maki, Naoki Sasaki, Mitsuo Nakata,"Anisotropic viscoelastic
properties of cortical bone" Journal of Biomechanics (2004) 1433-1437 Elsevier.
[20] Dunnen S, Mulder L, Kerkhoffs. M.M, Dankelman J, Tujithof G,‖Water jetbdrilling in
porcine bone: the effect of the nozzle diameter and bone architecture on hole dimensions‖,
Journal of the Mechanical Behaviour of Biomedical Materials 27 (2013), 84-93.
[21] Ozdemir F & Demir H B & Mehmet O & Murat T, ―A report on the use of Er:YAG laser
for pilot hole drilling prior to miniscrew insertion”, Springer-Verlag London (2013),1-5.
[22] Sezek S, Aksakal B & Karaka F,‖ Influence of drill parameters on bone temperature and
necrosis: An FEM modelling and in vitro experiments‖, Computational Material Science 60
(2012) 13-18.
[23] Biskup C, Hover M, Versemann R, Bach F-W, Kromer S, Kirsch L, Andreae A,Pude F,
‖Heat generation during Abrasive waterjet osteomities measured by thermocouples‖, Journal
of Mechanical Engineering 52 (2006) 7-8.
[24] Schwieger W , Volker Carrero, Reemt Rentzsch, Axel Becker, Nick Bishop, Ekkehard
Hille, Hartmut Louis, Michael Morlock, Matthias Honl, ―Abrasive Water Jet Cutting as a
New Procedure for Cutting Cancellous Bone — In Vitro Testing in Comparison with the
Oscillating Saw‖, Wiley Periodicals (2004), 1-6.
54
[25] Harder S, Egert C, Wenz HJ .Jochens H & Kern M,‖Influence of The Drill Material and
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55

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A

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Dr. H. N. Warhatkar Dr. Neeraj Agrawal

(Guide) (Head of Department)

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,

Lonere – 402 103

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. H. N. Warhatkar Associate Professor

Mr. Tejas Nitin Patil

2.2.3 Drilling Temperature 15

2.2.4 Surface Roughness 16

2.2.5 SEM Images 17

2.3 Gap Identification 19

Table 1.1 Mechanical properties of bone 3

Table 1.2 Parameters affecting the Bone Drilling 6

Table 5.5: Analysis of Variance (Temperature) 42

Table 5.6 Taguchi analysis of Thrust forces 44

Table 5.7 Response table for Signal to Noise Ratio (Forces) 45

Table 5.8: Model Summary (Thrust forces) 46

Table 5.9: Analysis of Variance(Thrust forces) 46

ODRO Orthopaedic Drilling Robot

1.1.1 Bone: A Natural Composite

Bone is a special type of connective tissue consisting of inter-cellular calcified material.

Figure 1.1.2: a) Scheme of bone at different scale ranges

Mechanical Properties Value

Density (Kg/m³) 1800-2000

Young’s Modulus 20000

Longitudinal elastic modulus (GPa) 26.1

Transverse elastic modulus (GPa) 10.9

Longitudinal tensile strength (MPa) 140

Transverse tensile strength (MPa) 46

Poisson’s Ratio 0.36

Table 1.2 Parameters affecting the Bone Drilling

2.1.3 Drill Penetration Angle:

2.1.5 Drilling Techniques:

Mitrofanov A. V et.al compared surface roughness in Conventional & Ultrasonically assisted

Mitrofanov A. V et.al compared surface roughness in conventional & ultrasonically assisted

2.2.5 SEM Images

• To investigate the effect of various process parameters on thrust force generation

• To analyse the results obtained using Taguchi Method.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. Work-piece specimens (Femur bones)

2. CNC Milling Machine

3. Drill bits and tools

4. Fixtures for variation of drilling angle

5. Temperature measurement setup

6. Dynamometer setup for measurement of the forces generated

The detailed description of the machine, workpiece material and measurement

4.1 Specimen preparation

Capacity: up to 170 Litre.

Temperature range: Ambient to -80° C

4.2 Fixture for holding the specimen

Figure 4.2 Fixture for holding the bone

4.2.1 Fixtures for varying penetration angle:

Figure 4.2.1 (a) Drilling at different angles [11]

Table 4.3 CNC Milling Machine specifications

1016 X 406 X 406

Spindle speed 4000 rpm

Horse power 7.5

Direct speed Belt drive

Figure 4.3 HAAS CNC milling machine

4.5 Temperature measurement setup